阿尔金断裂系西段——康西瓦断裂的晚第四纪构造地貌特征研究
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摘要
阿尔金断裂带是青藏高原北部的一条大型左旋走滑断裂带,近EW向延伸2000多公里,它构成了青藏高原与塔里木盆地之间的重要地质边界。康西瓦断裂位于阿尔金断裂带西段,呈WNW-ESE向延伸约700km。文章在高分辨率卫星遥感图像(印度遥感卫星5.8m分辨率)和数字高程地形模型(DEM)数据分析的基础上,并结合野外构造地貌考察观测,对康西瓦断裂的第四纪构造活动及其地貌特征进行了初步研究。沿断裂带发育的系统错断水系、错断冲积扇、挤压脊、走滑拉分盆地等典型构造地貌特征表明,该断裂晚第四纪经历了强烈的左旋走滑活动。同时,研究还揭示沿康西瓦断裂发育了一条长约80km的地表地震破裂带,最大同震左旋水平错位为4m,估算产生该地表破裂带的地震是一矩震级为Mw7.3的大地震。另外,文章根据不同年代地表地貌特征的左旋错位距离,估算出康西瓦断裂晚第四纪以来的长期走滑速率为8~12mm/a,远低于早期估算的20~30mm/a,但是与阿尔金断裂带中、东段的地质估算结果9±2mm/a及GPS测量结果9±4mm/a接近。
The Tibetan Plateau is one of the most remarkable topographic features on Earth, and has widely taken to be the classic example of continent-continent collision.In the northern Tibet,the Altyn Tagh fault(ATF) system over 2000-km-long is the longest left-lateral strike-slip fault in the Asia,which accommodates sinistral motion between the Tibetan Plateau and the Tarim block within the India-Eurasia collision zone.The Kangxiwar Fault,extending over a length of 700km,is located on in northwestern Tibet as the western segment of the ATF.Our goal of this study is to document the Late Quaternary geomorphic features along the Kangxiwar Fault,Western Kunlun Mountains based on the analyses of high-resolution satellite images(Landsat ETM,IRS and SRTM DEM data) as well as field observations.We also discussed the lateral slip-rate and the relationship between growth of tectono-geomorphic features and repeated large seismic events.We identified an 80-km-long surface rupture zone produced by the most recent large seismic event with a maximum 4m of coseismic displacement.Consequently,this earthquake might be of moment magnitude(M_w) 7.3.Geomorphic features such as systematic offset streams,dis￣placed fluvial fans and terrace risers,pullapart grabens,and pressure ridges or push-ups are well developed along the surface rupture zone.These well-preserved geomorphic features are related to long-term geomorphic growth as well as the dry and cold alpine climate.In addition,we inferred that a long-term slip rate is 8～12mm/a since(55±)5kaB.P.according to these displaced geomorphic features and their apparent dating age,which is far lower than the high slip rate(20～30mm/a) as the extrusion model expected,but it is close to the result estimated from geologic(9±2mm/a) and geodetic measurements(9±4mm/a) in the central and eastern segments of the ATF.
The Tibetan Plateau is one of the most remarkable topographic features on Earth, and has widely taken to be the classic example of continent-continent collision.In the northern Tibet,the Altyn Tagh fault(ATF) system over 2000-km-long is the longest left-lateral strike-slip fault in the Asia,which accommodates sinistral motion between the Tibetan Plateau and the Tarim block within the India-Eurasia collision zone.The Kangxiwar Fault,extending over a length of 700km,is located on in northwestern Tibet as the western segment of the ATF.Our goal of this study is to document the Late Quaternary geomorphic features along the Kangxiwar Fault,Western Kunlun Mountains based on the analyses of high-resolution satellite images(Landsat ETM,IRS and SRTM DEM data) as well as field observations.We also discussed the lateral slip-rate and the relationship between growth of tectono-geomorphic features and repeated large seismic events.We identified an 80-km-long surface rupture zone produced by the most recent large seismic event with a maximum 4m of coseismic displacement.Consequently,this earthquake might be of moment magnitude(M_w) 7.3.Geomorphic features such as systematic offset streams,dis￣placed fluvial fans and terrace risers,pullapart grabens,and pressure ridges or push-ups are well developed along the surface rupture zone.These well-preserved geomorphic features are related to long-term geomorphic growth as well as the dry and cold alpine climate.In addition,we inferred that a long-term slip rate is 8～12mm/a since(55±)5kaB.P.according to these displaced geomorphic features and their apparent dating age,which is far lower than the high slip rate(20～30mm/a) as the extrusion model expected,but it is close to the result estimated from geologic(9±2mm/a) and geodetic measurements(9±4mm/a) in the central and eastern segments of the ATF.
引文
1 Molnar P,Tapponn ier P.Cenozoic tecton ics of Asia:E ffects of acontinental collision.Science,1975,189:419~426
2 M eyer B,Tapponn ier P,Bourjot Let a.l C rustal th icken ing inGansu-Q inghai,lithospheric mantle subduction,and ob lique,strike-slip controlled growth of the Tibetan P lateau.GeophysicalJournal Internationa,l 1998,135:1~47
3 Tapponn ier P,Xu Z Q,Roger Fet a.l Ob lique stepw ise rise andgrowth of the Tibet P lateau.Science,2001,294:1671~1677
4 Molnar P,Burchfiel B C,L iang Ket al.Geomorph ic evidence foractive fau lting in the A ltyn Tagh and Northern Tibet and qualitativeestimates of its contribution to the convergence of Ind ia and Eurasia.Geology,1987,15:249~253
5 Avouac J P,Tapponn ier P.K inematic model of active deformationin CentralAsia.Geophysical Research Letters,1993,20:895~898
6 Y in A,Rum elhart P E,ButlerRet a.l Tecton ic h istory of the A ltynTagh fau lt system in Northern Tibet inferred from Cenozoicsed im entation.Geological Society ofAm erica Bulletin,2002,114:1257~1295
7张志德,李嵩龄,杨德朴.康西瓦断裂的地质特征及形成和发展.新疆地质,1987,5(3):52~59Zhang Zh ide,L i Songling,Yang D epu.The geologic characteristicsof Kangxiwar fau lt and its formation and developm ent.XinjiangGeology,1987,5(3):52~59
8国家地震局编.阿尔金活动断裂带.地震出版社,1992.1~319Ch ina Seismological Bureau ed.The A ltun Active Fau lt Zone.Beijing:Seismological Press,1992.1~319
9 Sobel E R,Arnaud N.A possib le M idd le Paleozoic suture in theA ltyn Tagh,NW Ch ina.Tectonics,1999,18:64~74
10 W ittlinger G,Vergne J,Tapponn ier Pet al.Teleseim ic imaging ofsubducting lithosphere and Moho offsets beneath W estern Tibet.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2004,221(1~4):117~130
11杨万志,张维洲,屈迅.西昆仑山东段库牙克断裂与康西瓦断裂、阿尔金断裂关系的地球化学证据.地质通报,2005,24(4):316~321YangW anzh i,Zhang W eizhou,Qu Xun.Geochem ical evidence ofthe relation between the Kuyake fau lt of east part of west Kun lunMountains and the Kangxiwar and A ltyn Tagh fau lts.GeologicalBulletin ofChina,2005,24(4):316~321
12 Peltzer G,Tapponn ier P,Arm ijo R.Magn itude of Late Quaternaryleft-lateral d isplacem ent along the north edge of Tibet.Science,1989,246:1285~1289
13 W right T J,Parsons B,England P Cet a.l InSAR observations oflow slip rates on the major fau lts ofW estern Tibet.Science,2004,305:236~239
14 Burtman V S,Molnar P.Geological and geophysical evidence fordeep subduction of continental crust beneath the Pam ir.GeologicalSociety ofAm erica Special Paper,1993,281:76
15崔军文,唐哲民,邓晋福等著.阿尔金断裂系.地质出版社,1999.1~249Cu i Junwen,Tang Zem in,D eng Jinfuet a.l A ltun Fau lt System.Beijing:Geological Pub lish ing House,1999.1~249
16 M eng Q R,Hu J M,Yang F Z.Tim ing and magn itude ofd isplacem ent on the A ltyn Tagh fau lt:Constraints from stratigraph iccorrelation of ad join ing Tarim and Qaidam basins,NW Ch ina.TerraNova,2001,13:86~91
17 Yue Y,L iou J G.A tow-stage evolution model for the A ltyn Taghfau lt,Ch ina.Geology,1999,27:227~230
18 Yue Y,R itts B D,G raham A S Aet a.l In itiation and long-termslip h istory of the A ltyn Tagh fau lt.International Geology Review,2001,43:1087~1093
19 Sun Jim in,Zhu R ixiang,An Zh isheng.Tecton ic uplift in thenorthern Tibetan P lateau since 13.7Ma ago inferred from molassedeposits along the A ltyn Tagh fau lt.Earth and Planetary ScienceLetters,2005,235(3~4):641~653
20 Yue Y J,R itts B D,G raham S Aet a.l Slow ing extrusion tecton ics:Lowered estimate of post-EarlyM iocene slip rate for the A ltyn Taghfau lt.Earth and Planetary Science Letter,s 2003,217(1~2):111~122
21 W ang Erch ie.D isplacem ent and tim ing along the northern strand ofthe A ltyn Tagh fau lt zone,Northern Tibet.Earth and PlanetaryScience Letters,1997,150(1~2):55~64
22 Zheng J.S ign ificance of the A ltun Tagh fau lt of Ch ina.Episodes,1991,14:307~312
23丁国瑜.阿尔金活断层的古地震与分段.第四纪研究,1995,(2):97~106D ing Guoyu.Paleoearthquakes along the A ltun active fau lt and itssegm entation.Quaternary Sciences,1995,(2):97~106
24王萍,卢演俦,丁国瑜等.甘肃疏勒河冲积扇发育特征及其对构造活动的影响.第四纪研究,2004,24(1):74~81W ang P ing,Lu Yanchou,D ing Guoyuet a.l Shu lehe alluvial fan:Characteristics of its developm ent and its response to tecton icactivity.Quaternary Sciences,2004,24(1):74~81
25王萍,王增光,雷生学等.阿尔金断裂东端破裂生长点的最新构造变形.第四纪研究,2006,26(1):108~116W ang P ing,W ang Zengguang,Lei Shengxueet al.The latesttecton ic deformation at the grow ing point of a new fracture on theeastern tip of the A ltyn Tagh Fau lt.Quaternary Science,s 2006,26(1):108~116
26 W ashburn Z,Arrowsm ith J R,Forman S Let a.l Late Holoceneearthquake h istory of the central A ltyn Tagh fau lt,Ch ina.Geology,2001,29:1051~1054
27 Bend ick R,B ilham R,Freymueller Jet a.l Geodetic evidence for alow slip rate in the A ltyn Tagh fau lt system.Nature,2000,404:69~72
28 W allace K,Y in G,B ilham R.Inescapab le slow slip on the A ltynTagh fau lt.Geophysical Research Letter,s 2004,31:L09613,doi:10.1029/2004GL019724
29 M eriaux A S,Ryerson F J,Tapponn ier Pet a.l Rap id slip along thecentralA ltyn Tagh fau lt:Morphochronologic evidence from CherchenHe and Su lamu Tagh.Journal ofGeophysicalResearch,2004,109:B06401,doi:10.1029/2003 JB002558
30 Fu B,L in A.Spatial d istribution of the surface rupture zoneassociated w ith the 2001Ms8.1 Central Kun lun earthquake,Northern Tibet,revealed by satellite remote sensing data.International Journal ofRem ote Sensing,2003,24:2191~2198
31 Gaudem er Y,Tapponn ier P,Turcotte D.R iver offsets across activestrike-slip fau lts.Annales Tectonicae,1989,3:55~76
32 D ing G Y,Chen J,Tian Q Jet al.Active fau lts and magn itudes ofleft-lateral d isplacem ent along the northern margin of the TibetanPlateau.Tectonophysics,2004,380(3~4):243~260
33 Clark D H,Gillespie A R,Keck W Met al.Glacial asynchrony inthe Kunlun Shan,Northwestern Tibet.Geological SocietyofAmericaAbstracts with Programs,2001,32(7):A-441
34 Zhang P,Sheng Z,Wang Met al.Continuous deformation of theTibetan Plateau fromglobal positioning systemdata.Geology,2004,32:809~812
35 van der Woerd J,Tapponnier P,Ryerson F Jet al.Uniformpostglacial slip-rate along the central 600km of the Kunlun fault(Tibet),from26Al,10Be,and14C dating of riser offsets,andclimatic origin of the regional morphology.Geophysical JournalInternational,2002,148:356~388
36 Fu B,Awata Y,Du Jet al.Late Quaternary systematic streamoffsets caused by repeated large seismic events along the Kunlunfault,Northern Tibet.Geomorphology,2005,71(3~4):278~292
37 Stein R S,King G C P,Rundle J B.The growth of geologicalstructures by repeated earthquakes:2.Field examples of continentaldip-slip faults.Journal ofGeophysical Research,1988,93:13319~13331
38 Bilham R,King G C P.The morphology of strike-slip faults:Examples from the San Andreas Fault,California.Journal ofGeophysical Research,1989,94:10204~10216
39 Sylvester A G.Strike-slip faults.Geological Society of AmericaBulletin,1988,100:1666~1703
40陈杰,陈宇坤,丁国瑜等.2001年昆仑山口西8.1级地震地表破裂带.第四纪研究,2003,23(6):629~639Chen Jie,Chen Yukun,Ding Guoyuet al.Surface rupture zones ofthe 2001 earthquakeMS8.1 west of Kunlun pass,Northern ofQinghai-Xizang Plateau.Quaternary Sciences,2003,23(6):629~639
41任金卫,王敏.GPS观测的2001年昆仑山口西Ms8.1级地震地壳变形.第四纪研究,2005,25(1):34~44Ren Jinwei,Wang Min.GPS measured crustal deformation of theMs8.1 Kunlun earthquake on November 14th 2001 in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.Quaternary Sciences,2005,25(1):34~44
42 Fu B,Awata Y,Du Jet al.Complex geometry and segmentation ofthe surface rupture associated with the 14 November 2001 greatKunlun earthquake,Northern Tibet,China.Tectonophysics,2005,407:43~63
43 Xu X,Chen W,Ma Wet al.Surface rupture of the Kunlunshanearthquake(Ms8.1),Northern Tibetan Plateau,China.Seismological Research Letters,2002,73:884~892
44 Wells D L,Coopersmith K J.New empirical relationships amongmagnitude,rupture length,rupture width,rupture area,and surfacedisplacement.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,1994,84:974~1002
45 Cowgill E,Arrowsmith J R,Yin Aet al.The Akato Tagh bendalong the Altyn Tagh Fault,Northwest Tibet 1:Smoothing byvertical-axis rotation and the effect of topographic stresses on bend-flanking faults.Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin,2004,116:1423~1442
2 M eyer B,Tapponn ier P,Bourjot Let a.l C rustal th icken ing inGansu-Q inghai,lithospheric mantle subduction,and ob lique,strike-slip controlled growth of the Tibetan P lateau.GeophysicalJournal Internationa,l 1998,135:1~47
3 Tapponn ier P,Xu Z Q,Roger Fet a.l Ob lique stepw ise rise andgrowth of the Tibet P lateau.Science,2001,294:1671~1677
4 Molnar P,Burchfiel B C,L iang Ket al.Geomorph ic evidence foractive fau lting in the A ltyn Tagh and Northern Tibet and qualitativeestimates of its contribution to the convergence of Ind ia and Eurasia.Geology,1987,15:249~253
5 Avouac J P,Tapponn ier P.K inematic model of active deformationin CentralAsia.Geophysical Research Letters,1993,20:895~898
6 Y in A,Rum elhart P E,ButlerRet a.l Tecton ic h istory of the A ltynTagh fau lt system in Northern Tibet inferred from Cenozoicsed im entation.Geological Society ofAm erica Bulletin,2002,114:1257~1295
7张志德,李嵩龄,杨德朴.康西瓦断裂的地质特征及形成和发展.新疆地质,1987,5(3):52~59Zhang Zh ide,L i Songling,Yang D epu.The geologic characteristicsof Kangxiwar fau lt and its formation and developm ent.XinjiangGeology,1987,5(3):52~59
8国家地震局编.阿尔金活动断裂带.地震出版社,1992.1~319Ch ina Seismological Bureau ed.The A ltun Active Fau lt Zone.Beijing:Seismological Press,1992.1~319
9 Sobel E R,Arnaud N.A possib le M idd le Paleozoic suture in theA ltyn Tagh,NW Ch ina.Tectonics,1999,18:64~74
10 W ittlinger G,Vergne J,Tapponn ier Pet al.Teleseim ic imaging ofsubducting lithosphere and Moho offsets beneath W estern Tibet.Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2004,221(1~4):117~130
11杨万志,张维洲,屈迅.西昆仑山东段库牙克断裂与康西瓦断裂、阿尔金断裂关系的地球化学证据.地质通报,2005,24(4):316~321YangW anzh i,Zhang W eizhou,Qu Xun.Geochem ical evidence ofthe relation between the Kuyake fau lt of east part of west Kun lunMountains and the Kangxiwar and A ltyn Tagh fau lts.GeologicalBulletin ofChina,2005,24(4):316~321
12 Peltzer G,Tapponn ier P,Arm ijo R.Magn itude of Late Quaternaryleft-lateral d isplacem ent along the north edge of Tibet.Science,1989,246:1285~1289
13 W right T J,Parsons B,England P Cet a.l InSAR observations oflow slip rates on the major fau lts ofW estern Tibet.Science,2004,305:236~239
14 Burtman V S,Molnar P.Geological and geophysical evidence fordeep subduction of continental crust beneath the Pam ir.GeologicalSociety ofAm erica Special Paper,1993,281:76
15崔军文,唐哲民,邓晋福等著.阿尔金断裂系.地质出版社,1999.1~249Cu i Junwen,Tang Zem in,D eng Jinfuet a.l A ltun Fau lt System.Beijing:Geological Pub lish ing House,1999.1~249
16 M eng Q R,Hu J M,Yang F Z.Tim ing and magn itude ofd isplacem ent on the A ltyn Tagh fau lt:Constraints from stratigraph iccorrelation of ad join ing Tarim and Qaidam basins,NW Ch ina.TerraNova,2001,13:86~91
17 Yue Y,L iou J G.A tow-stage evolution model for the A ltyn Taghfau lt,Ch ina.Geology,1999,27:227~230
18 Yue Y,R itts B D,G raham A S Aet a.l In itiation and long-termslip h istory of the A ltyn Tagh fau lt.International Geology Review,2001,43:1087~1093
19 Sun Jim in,Zhu R ixiang,An Zh isheng.Tecton ic uplift in thenorthern Tibetan P lateau since 13.7Ma ago inferred from molassedeposits along the A ltyn Tagh fau lt.Earth and Planetary ScienceLetters,2005,235(3~4):641~653
20 Yue Y J,R itts B D,G raham S Aet a.l Slow ing extrusion tecton ics:Lowered estimate of post-EarlyM iocene slip rate for the A ltyn Taghfau lt.Earth and Planetary Science Letter,s 2003,217(1~2):111~122
21 W ang Erch ie.D isplacem ent and tim ing along the northern strand ofthe A ltyn Tagh fau lt zone,Northern Tibet.Earth and PlanetaryScience Letters,1997,150(1~2):55~64
22 Zheng J.S ign ificance of the A ltun Tagh fau lt of Ch ina.Episodes,1991,14:307~312
23丁国瑜.阿尔金活断层的古地震与分段.第四纪研究,1995,(2):97~106D ing Guoyu.Paleoearthquakes along the A ltun active fau lt and itssegm entation.Quaternary Sciences,1995,(2):97~106
24王萍,卢演俦,丁国瑜等.甘肃疏勒河冲积扇发育特征及其对构造活动的影响.第四纪研究,2004,24(1):74~81W ang P ing,Lu Yanchou,D ing Guoyuet a.l Shu lehe alluvial fan:Characteristics of its developm ent and its response to tecton icactivity.Quaternary Sciences,2004,24(1):74~81
25王萍,王增光,雷生学等.阿尔金断裂东端破裂生长点的最新构造变形.第四纪研究,2006,26(1):108~116W ang P ing,W ang Zengguang,Lei Shengxueet al.The latesttecton ic deformation at the grow ing point of a new fracture on theeastern tip of the A ltyn Tagh Fau lt.Quaternary Science,s 2006,26(1):108~116
26 W ashburn Z,Arrowsm ith J R,Forman S Let a.l Late Holoceneearthquake h istory of the central A ltyn Tagh fau lt,Ch ina.Geology,2001,29:1051~1054
27 Bend ick R,B ilham R,Freymueller Jet a.l Geodetic evidence for alow slip rate in the A ltyn Tagh fau lt system.Nature,2000,404:69~72
28 W allace K,Y in G,B ilham R.Inescapab le slow slip on the A ltynTagh fau lt.Geophysical Research Letter,s 2004,31:L09613,doi:10.1029/2004GL019724
29 M eriaux A S,Ryerson F J,Tapponn ier Pet a.l Rap id slip along thecentralA ltyn Tagh fau lt:Morphochronologic evidence from CherchenHe and Su lamu Tagh.Journal ofGeophysicalResearch,2004,109:B06401,doi:10.1029/2003 JB002558
30 Fu B,L in A.Spatial d istribution of the surface rupture zoneassociated w ith the 2001Ms8.1 Central Kun lun earthquake,Northern Tibet,revealed by satellite remote sensing data.International Journal ofRem ote Sensing,2003,24:2191~2198
31 Gaudem er Y,Tapponn ier P,Turcotte D.R iver offsets across activestrike-slip fau lts.Annales Tectonicae,1989,3:55~76
32 D ing G Y,Chen J,Tian Q Jet al.Active fau lts and magn itudes ofleft-lateral d isplacem ent along the northern margin of the TibetanPlateau.Tectonophysics,2004,380(3~4):243~260
33 Clark D H,Gillespie A R,Keck W Met al.Glacial asynchrony inthe Kunlun Shan,Northwestern Tibet.Geological SocietyofAmericaAbstracts with Programs,2001,32(7):A-441
34 Zhang P,Sheng Z,Wang Met al.Continuous deformation of theTibetan Plateau fromglobal positioning systemdata.Geology,2004,32:809~812
35 van der Woerd J,Tapponnier P,Ryerson F Jet al.Uniformpostglacial slip-rate along the central 600km of the Kunlun fault(Tibet),from26Al,10Be,and14C dating of riser offsets,andclimatic origin of the regional morphology.Geophysical JournalInternational,2002,148:356~388
36 Fu B,Awata Y,Du Jet al.Late Quaternary systematic streamoffsets caused by repeated large seismic events along the Kunlunfault,Northern Tibet.Geomorphology,2005,71(3~4):278~292
37 Stein R S,King G C P,Rundle J B.The growth of geologicalstructures by repeated earthquakes:2.Field examples of continentaldip-slip faults.Journal ofGeophysical Research,1988,93:13319~13331
38 Bilham R,King G C P.The morphology of strike-slip faults:Examples from the San Andreas Fault,California.Journal ofGeophysical Research,1989,94:10204~10216
39 Sylvester A G.Strike-slip faults.Geological Society of AmericaBulletin,1988,100:1666~1703
40陈杰,陈宇坤,丁国瑜等.2001年昆仑山口西8.1级地震地表破裂带.第四纪研究,2003,23(6):629~639Chen Jie,Chen Yukun,Ding Guoyuet al.Surface rupture zones ofthe 2001 earthquakeMS8.1 west of Kunlun pass,Northern ofQinghai-Xizang Plateau.Quaternary Sciences,2003,23(6):629~639
41任金卫,王敏.GPS观测的2001年昆仑山口西Ms8.1级地震地壳变形.第四纪研究,2005,25(1):34~44Ren Jinwei,Wang Min.GPS measured crustal deformation of theMs8.1 Kunlun earthquake on November 14th 2001 in Qinghai-Xizang Plateau.Quaternary Sciences,2005,25(1):34~44
42 Fu B,Awata Y,Du Jet al.Complex geometry and segmentation ofthe surface rupture associated with the 14 November 2001 greatKunlun earthquake,Northern Tibet,China.Tectonophysics,2005,407:43~63
43 Xu X,Chen W,Ma Wet al.Surface rupture of the Kunlunshanearthquake(Ms8.1),Northern Tibetan Plateau,China.Seismological Research Letters,2002,73:884~892
44 Wells D L,Coopersmith K J.New empirical relationships amongmagnitude,rupture length,rupture width,rupture area,and surfacedisplacement.Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,1994,84:974~1002
45 Cowgill E,Arrowsmith J R,Yin Aet al.The Akato Tagh bendalong the Altyn Tagh Fault,Northwest Tibet 1:Smoothing byvertical-axis rotation and the effect of topographic stresses on bend-flanking faults.Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin,2004,116:1423~1442
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