海啸和海啸沉积
|
摘要
综述海啸沉积特征,认为岸上细粒海啸沉积物具有以下特点:(1)地层层序上向上变细、减薄;(2)水流方向的重复反向(即重复的双向水流);(3)含有撕裂的碎屑;(4)较差的分选性;(5)向陆地延伸更远;但将以上任何单一特征看成是海啸沉积的特征性依据都是不恰当的,需要将以上特征结合起来判断,才能作为海啸沉积的依据。而有关岸上巨砾的海啸或是风暴来源,至今仍争论不清,但较一致认为巨砾堤坝复合体是风暴成因。浅水碎屑海啸岩通常为夹在低能稳定状态的背景沉积粉砂—黏土层内的一套独特砂层,可以根据海啸能量的增加到衰减分为Tna—Tnd四个不同单元;而地震海啸岩通常具有震积岩—海啸岩的沉积序列;碳酸盐海啸岩则显示了与海啸入射流和回流相关的冲刷—充填结构。深海的海啸沉积作用机制仍然不清。尽管海啸传播阶段可以产生地中海A型均质岩,但深海海啸岩可能主要与海啸回流有关,如目前讨论最多的K—T撞击海啸岩。尽管目前的研究促进了对海啸的认识,但存在诸如海啸沉积机制仍然不明确,海啸沉积识别依然困难等许多问题,海啸沉积学的进一步发展将为解决这些问题提供坚实基础。
Tsunamis are catastrophic events in a process of evolution of the Earth.Tsunami deposits is benefit for correctly recognizing tsunami behavior and reducing hazard and also is an important subject in the geosciences for understanding the whole truth of natural phenomena and history of the Earth.A tsunami is a water wave train triggered by submarine earthquake,landslide,bolide impact and volcanism with long wavelengths and long periods which differentiate from other waves.The physics of tsunamis generally link four distinct processes: generation,propagation,inundation of onshore areas and backwash.In general,tsunamis seem unlikely that most earthquake-generated tsunamis can induce a deep water sedimentary imprint,but impact-generated tsunamis may do so close to source when tsunamis propagate from source to coast.Tsunamis erode coast and transport sediments to onshore,shallow water bay and lagoon and are deposited during run-up.Backwash flows follow the maximum landward inundation of individual tsunami waves and are traction flows to seaward.Backwash generally induced not only debris flows and turbidity currents,but also suspended clouds of mud resulting in hemipelagic setting.Because tsunami behavior depends strongly on bathymetric and topographic configurations,tsunami deposits show differences in diverse environment.Detailed sedimentary study had been carried out about onshore fine-grain tsunami deposits and storm deposits to differentiate both.Our composited view is that the deposits characterized by(1) fining and thining upward sequences;(2) repeated bi-directional currents;(3) rip-up clasts;(4) less well sorted grains;(5) large inland extent;although each of these five points of evidence could be attributed to storm or other depositional processes individually,no sedimentary process except tsunami can account for all of them simultaneously.The emplacement of onshore boulders is usually attributed to high-energy events tsunamis or storms,but the interpretation remains unsolved.However,the boulders ridge complexes may be the result of storms.Siliciclastic tsunamiites in shallow water generally show intercalation of exceptionally high-energy regimen into underlying and overlying low-energy fine-grain background deposits and can be divided into 4 different Tna-Tnd units.And earthquake-generated tsunamiites have special characteristics that show seismites-tsunamiites sequences while carbonate tsunamiites show scour-fill structure related to incoming and backwash flows.The sedimentary process of deep sea tusnamiiites remains unclear.Propagation of tsunami can induce deep sea Mediterranean A type homogenite,but deep sea tsunamiites may mainly be related to backwash,for example the current hot topic K-T impact-related tsunamiites.Although current research promotes the understanding of tsunamis,many open questions remain such as the sedimentary process of tsunamis and identification of tsunami deposits.We believe that further development of tsunamis sedimentology will supply sufficient foundation for it.
Tsunamis are catastrophic events in a process of evolution of the Earth.Tsunami deposits is benefit for correctly recognizing tsunami behavior and reducing hazard and also is an important subject in the geosciences for understanding the whole truth of natural phenomena and history of the Earth.A tsunami is a water wave train triggered by submarine earthquake,landslide,bolide impact and volcanism with long wavelengths and long periods which differentiate from other waves.The physics of tsunamis generally link four distinct processes: generation,propagation,inundation of onshore areas and backwash.In general,tsunamis seem unlikely that most earthquake-generated tsunamis can induce a deep water sedimentary imprint,but impact-generated tsunamis may do so close to source when tsunamis propagate from source to coast.Tsunamis erode coast and transport sediments to onshore,shallow water bay and lagoon and are deposited during run-up.Backwash flows follow the maximum landward inundation of individual tsunami waves and are traction flows to seaward.Backwash generally induced not only debris flows and turbidity currents,but also suspended clouds of mud resulting in hemipelagic setting.Because tsunami behavior depends strongly on bathymetric and topographic configurations,tsunami deposits show differences in diverse environment.Detailed sedimentary study had been carried out about onshore fine-grain tsunami deposits and storm deposits to differentiate both.Our composited view is that the deposits characterized by(1) fining and thining upward sequences;(2) repeated bi-directional currents;(3) rip-up clasts;(4) less well sorted grains;(5) large inland extent;although each of these five points of evidence could be attributed to storm or other depositional processes individually,no sedimentary process except tsunami can account for all of them simultaneously.The emplacement of onshore boulders is usually attributed to high-energy events tsunamis or storms,but the interpretation remains unsolved.However,the boulders ridge complexes may be the result of storms.Siliciclastic tsunamiites in shallow water generally show intercalation of exceptionally high-energy regimen into underlying and overlying low-energy fine-grain background deposits and can be divided into 4 different Tna-Tnd units.And earthquake-generated tsunamiites have special characteristics that show seismites-tsunamiites sequences while carbonate tsunamiites show scour-fill structure related to incoming and backwash flows.The sedimentary process of deep sea tusnamiiites remains unclear.Propagation of tsunami can induce deep sea Mediterranean A type homogenite,but deep sea tsunamiites may mainly be related to backwash,for example the current hot topic K-T impact-related tsunamiites.Although current research promotes the understanding of tsunamis,many open questions remain such as the sedimentary process of tsunamis and identification of tsunami deposits.We believe that further development of tsunamis sedimentology will supply sufficient foundation for it.
引文
1 Dominey-Howes D.Geological and historical records of tsunami in Aus-tralia[J].Marine Geology,2007,239(1-2):99-103
2 Wikipedia.The Free Encyclopedia.2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami[EB/OL].[2009-03-30]http:∥en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Tsunami
3 Tappin D R.Sedimentary features of tsunami deposits-their origin,rec-ognition and discrimination,an introduction[J].Sedimentary Geolo-gy,2007,200(3-4):151-154
4 Rhodes B,Tuttle M,Horton B,et al.Paleotsunami research[N].Eos,Transactions,American Geophysical Union,2006,87(21):205,209
5 Shiki T,Tachibana T.Sedimentology of tsunamiites reflecting chaoticevents in the geological record:Significance and problems[M]∥ShikiT,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunamiites:Features and implica-tions.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:342-254
6 Schnyder J,Baudin F,Deconinck J F.A possible tsunami deposit a-round the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in the Boulonnais area(north-ern France)[J].Sedimentary Geology,2005,177(3-4):209-227
7 Scheffers A,Kelletat D.Sedimentologic and geomorphologic tsunamiimprints worldwide:a review[J].Earth-Science Reviews,2003,63(1-2):83-92
8 Bryant E.Tsunami:The Underrated Hazard[M].Cambridge:Cam-bridge University Press,2001,27-47
9 Dawson A G,Stewart I.Tsunami deposits in the geological record[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,200(3-4):166-183
10 Hassler S W,Robey HF,Simonson B M.Bed forms produced by im-pact-generated tsunami~2.6 Ga Hamersley basin,Western Australia[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):283-294
11 Bhattacharya HN,Bandyopadhyay S.Seismites in a Proterozoic tidalsuccession,Singhbhum,Bihar,India[J].Sedimentary Geology,1998,119(3-4):239-252
12 Pratt B R.Oceanography,bathymetry and syndepositional tectonics ofa Precambrian intracratonic basin:Integrating sediments,storms,earthquakes and tsunamis in the Belt Supergroup(Helena Formation,c.1.45 Ga),western North America[J].Sedimentary Geology,2001,141-142,371-394
13 Pratt B R.Storms versus tsunamis:Dynamic interplay of sedimentary,diagenetic,and tectonic processes in the Cambrian of Montana[J].Geology,2002,30(5):423-426
14 Pratt B R,Bordonaro O L.Tsunamis in a stormy sea:Middle Cambri-an inner-shelf limestones of western Argentina[J].Journal of Sedi-mentary Research,2007,77(4):256-262
15 Warme J E,Kuehner H C.Anatomy of an anomaly:the Devoniancatastrophic Alamo impact breccia of southen Nevada[J].Interna-tional Geology Review,1998,40(3):189-216
16 Masaitis V L.The middle Devonian Kaluga impact crater(Russia):new interpretation of marine setting[J].Deep-Sea Research PartⅡ,2002,49(5):1157-1169
17 Brookfield M E,Blechschmidt I,Hannigan R,et al.Sedimentologyand geochemistry of extensive very coarse deep-water submarine fansediments in the Middle Jurassic of Oman,emplaced by giant tsunamitriggered by submarine mass flows[J].Sedimentary Geology,2006,192(1-2):75-98
18 Fujino S,Masuda F,Tagomori S,et al.Structure and depositionalprocesses of a gravelly tsunami deposit in a shallow marine setting:Lower Cretaceous Miyako Group,Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2006,187(3-4):127-138
19 Rossetti D,G es AM,Truckenbrot W,et al.Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-fill structures in Late Albian to Cenomanian depositsof the Graja Basin,northern Brazil[J].Sedimentology,2000,47(2):309-323
20 Bourgeois J,Hansen T A,Wiberg P L,et al.A tsunami deposit atthe Cretaceous Tertiary boundary in Texas[J].Science,1988,241(4865):567-570
21 Smit J,Montanari A,Swinburne NHM,et al.Tektite-bearing deep-water clastic unit at the Cretaceous Tertiary boundary in northeasternMexico[J].Geology,1992,20(2):99-103
22 Takayama H,Tada R,Matsui T,et al.Origin of the Penalver Forma-tion in northwestern Cuba and its relation to K/Tboundary impact e-vent[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):295-320
23 Goto K,Tada R,Tajika E,et al.Lateral lithological and composi-tional variations of the Cretaceous/Tertiary deep-sea tsunami depositsin northern Cuba[J].Cretaceous Research,2008,29(2):217-236
24 Albert G A,Martin Jr P P.A possible tsunami deposit at the Creta-ceous Tertiary boundary in Penambuco,northeastern Brazil[J].Sedi-mentary Geology,1996,104(1-4):189-201
25 Scasso R A,Concheyro A,Kiessling W,et al.A tsunami deposit atthe Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary in the Neuquen Basin of Argenti-na[J].Cretaceous Research,2005,26(2):283-297
26 King D T,Petruny L W.Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary microtektite-bearing sands and tsunami beds,Alabama Gulf Coastal Plain[J].Transactions-Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies,2005,55:382-391
27 Maurrasse F J MR,Sen G.Impacts,tsunamis,and the Haitian Cre-taceous-Tertiary boundary layer[J].Science,1991,252(5013):1690-1693
28 Ballance P F,Gregory MR,Gibson G W.Coconuts in Miocene turbi-dites in New Zealand:possible evidence for tsunami origin of someturbidity currents[J].Geology,1981,9(12):592-595
29 Shiki T,Yamazaki T.Tsunami-induced conglomerates in Miocene up-per bathyal deposits,Chita Peninsula,central Japan[J].Sedimenta-ry Geology,1996,104(1-4):175-188
30 Cantalamessa G,Di Celma C.Sedimentary features of tsunami back-wash deposits in a shallow marine Miocene setting,Mejillones Penin-sula,northern Chile[J].Sedimentary Geology,2005,178(3-4):259-273
31 Massari F,D'Alessandro A.Tsunami-related scour-and-drape undula-tions in Middle Pliocene restricted-bay carbonate deposits(Salento,south Italy)[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):265-281
32 Takashimizu Y,Masuda F.Depositional facies and sedimentary suc-cessions of earthquake-induced tsunami deposits of Upper Pleistoceneincised valley fills,central Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):231-239
33 Goff J,Chagu啨-Goff C,and Nichol S.Palaeotsunami deposits:a NewZealand perspective[J].Sedimentary Geology,2001,143(1-2):1-6
34杜远生,龚一鸣,曾雄伟,等.广西泥盆系弗拉斯-法门期之交的事件沉积及其对小行星碰撞引起的大海啸的启示[J].中国科学:D辑,2008,38(12):1504-1513[Du Yuansheng,Gong Yiming,Zeng Xiongwei,et al.The events deposits about Frasnian-Famennianin Guangxi and its implication for giant tsunami caused by asteroid im-pact[J].Science in China:Series D,Earth Sciences,2008,38(12):1504-1513]
35 Yu Kefu,Zhao Jianxin,Shi Qi,et al.Reconstruction of storm/tsuna-mi records over the last 4000 years using transported coral blocks andlagoon sediments in the southern South China Sea[J].QuaternaryInternational,2009,195,128-137
36宋天锐.北京十三陵前寒武纪碳酸盐岩地层中的一套可能的地震—海啸序列[J].科学通报,1988,38(8):609-611[Song Tian-rui.A series of possible earthquake:tsunami sequence of Precambri-an carbonate stratum in Shisanling,Beijing[J].China Science Bul-letin,1988,38(8):609-611]
37乔秀夫,宋天锐,高林志,等.碳酸盐岩振动液化地震序列[J].地质学报,1994,68(1):16-32[Qiao Xiufu,Song Tianrui,GaoLinzhi,et al.Seismic sequence in carbonate rocks by ribrational liq-uefaction[J].Acta Geologica Sinica,1994,68(1):16-32]
38杜远生,韩欣.论海啸作用和海啸岩[J].地质科技情报,2000,19(1):19-22[Du Yuansheng,Han Xin.Tsunami and Tsunamites[J].Geological Science and Technology Information,2000,19(1):19-22]
39李尚林,王根厚,马伯永,等.藏北比如县玛双布上三叠统波里拉组震积事件沉积的发现及意义[J].吉林大学学报:地球科学版,2008,38(6):973-979[Li Shanglin,Wang Genhou,Ma Boy-ong,et al.Discovery and its significance of earthquake event depositsof the Upper Triassic Bolila Formation in Mashuangbu,Biru County,Northern Tibet[J].Journal of Jilin University:Earth Science Edi-tion,2008,38(6):973-979]
40龚一鸣.风暴岩、震积岩、海啸岩—几个名词含义的商榷[J].地质论评,1988,34(5):481-482[Gong Yiming.Tempestite,Seis-mites and Tsunamites:Discussion on the meaning of some terminology[J].Geological Review,1988,34(5):481-482]
41吕林素.试用地球系统科学观解读2004年印度洋地震海啸[J].地球学报,2007,28(2):209-217[L櫣Linsu.The tentative applica-tion of the earth systems science to the interpretation of the 2004earthquake tsunami in the Indian Ocean[J].Acta Geoscientica Sini-ca,2007,28(2):209-217]
42 Morton R A,Gelfenbaum G,Jaffe B E.Physical criteria for distin-guishing sandy tsunami and storm deposits using modern examples[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,200(3-4):184-207
43 Kortekaas S,Dawson A G.Distinguishing tsunami and storm depos-its:An example from Martinhal,SW Portugal[J].Sedimentary Geol-ogy,2007,200(3-4):208-221
44 Dawson A G,Shi S.Tsunami deposits[J].Pure and Applied Geo-physics,2000,157(6-8):875-897
45 Shanmugam G.The tsunamite problem[J].Journal of SedimentaryResearch,2006,76(5):718-730
46 NOAA(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration),What isa hurricane,typhoon,or tropical cyclone?[EB/OL].[2009-03-30]
47 Morton R A.Nearshore Responses to Great Storms[M]∥Clifton HE.Sedimentologic Consequences of Convulsive Geologic Events.Geo-logical Society of America,Special Paper,1988,229:7-22
48 Ward S N.Tsunamis[M]∥Meyers R A.The Encyclopedia of Physi-cal Science and Technology,17.Academic Press,2002:175-191
49 Harbitz C B.Model Simulations of Tsunami Generated by the StoreggaSlide[M].Institute of Mathematics,University of Oslo Series,1991,5:30
50 Hubbard D K.Hurricane-induced sediment transport in open shelftropical systems:An example from St.Croix,U.S.Virgin Islands[J].Journal of Sedimentary Research,1992,62(11):946-960
51 Pickering K T,Soh W,Taira,A.Scale of tsunami-generated sedi-mentary structures in deep water[J].Journal of the Geological Socie-ty(London),1991,148(2):211-214
52 Kastens K A,Cita M B.Tsunami-induced transport in the abyssalMediterranean Sea[J].Geological Society of America Bulletin,1981,92(11):845-857
53 Cita MB,Camerlenghi A,Rimoldi B.Deep-sea tsunami deposits inthe eastern Mediterranean:new evidence and depositional models[J].Sedimentary Geology,1996,104(1-4):155-173
54 Nanayama F,Shigeno K.Inflowand outflowfacies from the 1993 tsu-nami in southwest Hokkaido[J].Sedimentary Geology,2006,187(3-4):139-158
55 Hindson R A,Andrade C,Dawson AG.Sedimentary processes asso-ciated with the tsunami generated by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake onthe Algarve coast,Portugal[J].The Holocene,1995,5(2):209-215
56 Dawson A G.Geomorphological processes associated with tsunamirunup and backwash[J].Geomorphology,1994,10(1-4):83-94
57 Nanayama F,Shigeno K,Satake K,et al.Sedimentary differencesbetween the 1993 Hokkaido-nansei-oki tsunami and the 1959 Miyako-jima typhoon at Taisea,southwestern Hokkaido,northern Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):255-264
58 Dawson S,Smith D E.The sedimentology of Middle Holocene tsuna-mi facies in northern Sutherland,Scotland,UK[J].Marine Geolo-gy,2000,170(1-2):69-79
59 Dawson A G,Stewart I,Morton R A,et al.Reply to Comments byKelletat(2008)comments to Dawson AG and Stewart I(2007)tsuna-mi deposits in the geological record[Sedimentary Geology,200,166-183][J].Sedimentary Geology,2008,211(3-4):92-93
60 Dawson A G,Stewart I.Offshore Tractive Current Deposition:theForgotten Tsunami Sedimentation Process[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunamiites:Features and implications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:342-254
61 Goff J,McFadgen B G,Chague-Goff C.Sedimentary differences be-tween the 2002 Easter storm and the 15th-century Okoropunga tsuna-mi,southeastern North Island,New Zealand[J].Marine Geology,2004,204(3-4):235-250
62 Tuttle M P,Ruffman A,Anderson T,et al.Distinguishing tsunamifrom storm deposits in eastern North America:the 1929 Grand Bankstsunami versus the 1991 Halloween storm[J].Seismological Re-search Letters,2004,75(1):117-131
63 Dominey-Howes D,Humphreys G,Hesse P.Tsunami and palaeotsu-nami depositional signatures and their potential value in understandingthe Late-Holocene tsunami record[J].The Holocene,2006,16(8):1095-1107
64 Kelletat D,Comments to Dawson A G and Stewart I.Tsunami depos-its in the geological record-Sedimentary Geology 200,166-183[J].Sedimentary Geology,2008,211(3-4):166-183
65 Scheffers A,Scheffers S R.Tsunami deposits on the coastline of westCrete(Greece)[J].Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2007,259(3-4):613-624
66 Scheffers S R,Scheffers A,Kelletat D,et al.The Holocene paleo-tsunami history of West Australia[J].Earth and Planetary ScienceLetters,2008,270(1-2):137-146
67 Nott J.Extremely high-energy wave deposits inside the Great BarrierReef,Australia:determining the cause-tsunami or tropical cyclone[J].Marine Geology,1997,141(1-4):193-207
68 Scicchitano G,Monaco C,Tortorici L.Large boulder deposits by tsu-nami waves along the Ionian coast of south-eastern Sicily(Italy)[J].Marine Geology,2007,238(1-4):75-91
69 Frohlich C,Hornbach MJ,Taylor F W,et al.Huge erratic bouldersin Tonga deposited by a prehistoric tsunami[J].Geology,2009,37(2):131-134
70 Morton R A,Richmond B M,Jaffe B E,et al.Coarse clast coastalridges of the Caribbean region:a reevaluation of processes and origins[J].Journal of Sedimentary Research,2008,78(9):624-637
71 Williams D M,Hall A M.Cliff-top megaclast deposits of Ireland,arecord of extreme waves in the North Atlantic:storms or tsunamis?[J].Marine Geology,2004.206(1-4):101-117
72 Stone G W,Orford J D.Editorial:storms and their significance incoastal morpho-sedimentary deposits[J].Marine Geology,2004,210(1-4):1-5
73 Etienne S,Paris R.Boulder accumulations related to storms on thesouth coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula(Iceland)[J].Geomorpholo-gy,2009,doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.02.008
74 Nott J.Waves,coastal boulders and the importance of the pre-trans-port setting[J].Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2003,210(1-2):269-276
75 Nott J.Tsunami or stormwaves?-determining the origin of a spectacu-lar field of wave emplaced boulders using numerical storm,surge andwave models and hydrodynamic transport equations[J].Journal ofCoastal Research,2003,19(2):348-356
76 Nott J.The tsunami hypothesis-comparison of field evidence againstthe effects,on the Western Australian coasts,of some of the mostpowerful storms on Earth[J].Marine Geology,2004,208(1):1-12
77 Goto K,Chavanich S A,Imamura F,et al.Distribution,origin andtransport process of boulders deposited by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsu-nami at Pakarang Cape,Thailand[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,202(4):821-837
78 Goto K,Okada K,Imamura F.Characteristics and hydrodynamics ofboulders transported by storm waves at Kudaka Island,Japan[J].Marine Geology,2009,doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.03.001
79 Bondevik S,Svendsen J I,and Mangerud J.Tsunami sedimentary fa-cies deposited by the Storegga tsunami in shallow marine basins andcoastal lakes,western Norway[J].Sedimentology,1997,44(6):1115-1131
80 Nichol S L,Goff J R,Devoy R J N,et al.Lagoon subsidence andtsunami on the West Coast of New Zealand[J].Sedimentary Geolo-gy,2007,200(3-4):248-262
81 Fujiwara O.Bedforms and sedimentary structures characterizing tsuna-mi deposits[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunami-ites:Features and implications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:51-62
82 Fujiwara O,Kamataki T.Identification of tsunami deposits consider-ing the tsunami waveform:An example of subaqueous tsunami depos-its in Holocene shallowbay on southern Boso Peninsula,Central Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,200(3-4):295-313
83 Shiki T,Tachibana T,Fujiwara O,et al.Characteristic features oftsunamiites[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunami-ites:Features and implications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:319-340
84 Puga-Bernabu,Martn J M,and Braga J C.Tsunami-related depositsin temperate carbonate ramps,Soubas Basin,southern Spain[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,199(3-4):107-127
85 Cita MB,Aliosi G.Deep-sea tsunami deposits triggered by the explo-sion of Santorini(3500 y BP),eastern Mediterranean[J].Sedimen-tary Geology,2000,135(1-4):181-302
86 Shiki T,Cita MB.Tsunami-Related Sedimentary Properties of Medi-terranean Homogenites as an Example of Deep-Sea Tsunamiite[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunamiites:Features and im-plications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:204-214
87 Lawton TF,Shipley K W,Aschoff J L,et al.Basinward transport ofChicxulub ejecta by tsunami-induced backflow,La Popa basin,north-eastern Mexico and its implications for distribution of impact-relateddeposits flanking the Gulf of Mexico[J].Geology,2005,33(2):81-84
2 Wikipedia.The Free Encyclopedia.2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami[EB/OL].[2009-03-30]http:∥en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean_Tsunami
3 Tappin D R.Sedimentary features of tsunami deposits-their origin,rec-ognition and discrimination,an introduction[J].Sedimentary Geolo-gy,2007,200(3-4):151-154
4 Rhodes B,Tuttle M,Horton B,et al.Paleotsunami research[N].Eos,Transactions,American Geophysical Union,2006,87(21):205,209
5 Shiki T,Tachibana T.Sedimentology of tsunamiites reflecting chaoticevents in the geological record:Significance and problems[M]∥ShikiT,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunamiites:Features and implica-tions.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:342-254
6 Schnyder J,Baudin F,Deconinck J F.A possible tsunami deposit a-round the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary in the Boulonnais area(north-ern France)[J].Sedimentary Geology,2005,177(3-4):209-227
7 Scheffers A,Kelletat D.Sedimentologic and geomorphologic tsunamiimprints worldwide:a review[J].Earth-Science Reviews,2003,63(1-2):83-92
8 Bryant E.Tsunami:The Underrated Hazard[M].Cambridge:Cam-bridge University Press,2001,27-47
9 Dawson A G,Stewart I.Tsunami deposits in the geological record[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,200(3-4):166-183
10 Hassler S W,Robey HF,Simonson B M.Bed forms produced by im-pact-generated tsunami~2.6 Ga Hamersley basin,Western Australia[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):283-294
11 Bhattacharya HN,Bandyopadhyay S.Seismites in a Proterozoic tidalsuccession,Singhbhum,Bihar,India[J].Sedimentary Geology,1998,119(3-4):239-252
12 Pratt B R.Oceanography,bathymetry and syndepositional tectonics ofa Precambrian intracratonic basin:Integrating sediments,storms,earthquakes and tsunamis in the Belt Supergroup(Helena Formation,c.1.45 Ga),western North America[J].Sedimentary Geology,2001,141-142,371-394
13 Pratt B R.Storms versus tsunamis:Dynamic interplay of sedimentary,diagenetic,and tectonic processes in the Cambrian of Montana[J].Geology,2002,30(5):423-426
14 Pratt B R,Bordonaro O L.Tsunamis in a stormy sea:Middle Cambri-an inner-shelf limestones of western Argentina[J].Journal of Sedi-mentary Research,2007,77(4):256-262
15 Warme J E,Kuehner H C.Anatomy of an anomaly:the Devoniancatastrophic Alamo impact breccia of southen Nevada[J].Interna-tional Geology Review,1998,40(3):189-216
16 Masaitis V L.The middle Devonian Kaluga impact crater(Russia):new interpretation of marine setting[J].Deep-Sea Research PartⅡ,2002,49(5):1157-1169
17 Brookfield M E,Blechschmidt I,Hannigan R,et al.Sedimentologyand geochemistry of extensive very coarse deep-water submarine fansediments in the Middle Jurassic of Oman,emplaced by giant tsunamitriggered by submarine mass flows[J].Sedimentary Geology,2006,192(1-2):75-98
18 Fujino S,Masuda F,Tagomori S,et al.Structure and depositionalprocesses of a gravelly tsunami deposit in a shallow marine setting:Lower Cretaceous Miyako Group,Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2006,187(3-4):127-138
19 Rossetti D,G es AM,Truckenbrot W,et al.Tsunami-induced large-scale scour-and-fill structures in Late Albian to Cenomanian depositsof the Graja Basin,northern Brazil[J].Sedimentology,2000,47(2):309-323
20 Bourgeois J,Hansen T A,Wiberg P L,et al.A tsunami deposit atthe Cretaceous Tertiary boundary in Texas[J].Science,1988,241(4865):567-570
21 Smit J,Montanari A,Swinburne NHM,et al.Tektite-bearing deep-water clastic unit at the Cretaceous Tertiary boundary in northeasternMexico[J].Geology,1992,20(2):99-103
22 Takayama H,Tada R,Matsui T,et al.Origin of the Penalver Forma-tion in northwestern Cuba and its relation to K/Tboundary impact e-vent[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):295-320
23 Goto K,Tada R,Tajika E,et al.Lateral lithological and composi-tional variations of the Cretaceous/Tertiary deep-sea tsunami depositsin northern Cuba[J].Cretaceous Research,2008,29(2):217-236
24 Albert G A,Martin Jr P P.A possible tsunami deposit at the Creta-ceous Tertiary boundary in Penambuco,northeastern Brazil[J].Sedi-mentary Geology,1996,104(1-4):189-201
25 Scasso R A,Concheyro A,Kiessling W,et al.A tsunami deposit atthe Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary in the Neuquen Basin of Argenti-na[J].Cretaceous Research,2005,26(2):283-297
26 King D T,Petruny L W.Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary microtektite-bearing sands and tsunami beds,Alabama Gulf Coastal Plain[J].Transactions-Gulf Coast Association of Geological Societies,2005,55:382-391
27 Maurrasse F J MR,Sen G.Impacts,tsunamis,and the Haitian Cre-taceous-Tertiary boundary layer[J].Science,1991,252(5013):1690-1693
28 Ballance P F,Gregory MR,Gibson G W.Coconuts in Miocene turbi-dites in New Zealand:possible evidence for tsunami origin of someturbidity currents[J].Geology,1981,9(12):592-595
29 Shiki T,Yamazaki T.Tsunami-induced conglomerates in Miocene up-per bathyal deposits,Chita Peninsula,central Japan[J].Sedimenta-ry Geology,1996,104(1-4):175-188
30 Cantalamessa G,Di Celma C.Sedimentary features of tsunami back-wash deposits in a shallow marine Miocene setting,Mejillones Penin-sula,northern Chile[J].Sedimentary Geology,2005,178(3-4):259-273
31 Massari F,D'Alessandro A.Tsunami-related scour-and-drape undula-tions in Middle Pliocene restricted-bay carbonate deposits(Salento,south Italy)[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):265-281
32 Takashimizu Y,Masuda F.Depositional facies and sedimentary suc-cessions of earthquake-induced tsunami deposits of Upper Pleistoceneincised valley fills,central Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):231-239
33 Goff J,Chagu啨-Goff C,and Nichol S.Palaeotsunami deposits:a NewZealand perspective[J].Sedimentary Geology,2001,143(1-2):1-6
34杜远生,龚一鸣,曾雄伟,等.广西泥盆系弗拉斯-法门期之交的事件沉积及其对小行星碰撞引起的大海啸的启示[J].中国科学:D辑,2008,38(12):1504-1513[Du Yuansheng,Gong Yiming,Zeng Xiongwei,et al.The events deposits about Frasnian-Famennianin Guangxi and its implication for giant tsunami caused by asteroid im-pact[J].Science in China:Series D,Earth Sciences,2008,38(12):1504-1513]
35 Yu Kefu,Zhao Jianxin,Shi Qi,et al.Reconstruction of storm/tsuna-mi records over the last 4000 years using transported coral blocks andlagoon sediments in the southern South China Sea[J].QuaternaryInternational,2009,195,128-137
36宋天锐.北京十三陵前寒武纪碳酸盐岩地层中的一套可能的地震—海啸序列[J].科学通报,1988,38(8):609-611[Song Tian-rui.A series of possible earthquake:tsunami sequence of Precambri-an carbonate stratum in Shisanling,Beijing[J].China Science Bul-letin,1988,38(8):609-611]
37乔秀夫,宋天锐,高林志,等.碳酸盐岩振动液化地震序列[J].地质学报,1994,68(1):16-32[Qiao Xiufu,Song Tianrui,GaoLinzhi,et al.Seismic sequence in carbonate rocks by ribrational liq-uefaction[J].Acta Geologica Sinica,1994,68(1):16-32]
38杜远生,韩欣.论海啸作用和海啸岩[J].地质科技情报,2000,19(1):19-22[Du Yuansheng,Han Xin.Tsunami and Tsunamites[J].Geological Science and Technology Information,2000,19(1):19-22]
39李尚林,王根厚,马伯永,等.藏北比如县玛双布上三叠统波里拉组震积事件沉积的发现及意义[J].吉林大学学报:地球科学版,2008,38(6):973-979[Li Shanglin,Wang Genhou,Ma Boy-ong,et al.Discovery and its significance of earthquake event depositsof the Upper Triassic Bolila Formation in Mashuangbu,Biru County,Northern Tibet[J].Journal of Jilin University:Earth Science Edi-tion,2008,38(6):973-979]
40龚一鸣.风暴岩、震积岩、海啸岩—几个名词含义的商榷[J].地质论评,1988,34(5):481-482[Gong Yiming.Tempestite,Seis-mites and Tsunamites:Discussion on the meaning of some terminology[J].Geological Review,1988,34(5):481-482]
41吕林素.试用地球系统科学观解读2004年印度洋地震海啸[J].地球学报,2007,28(2):209-217[L櫣Linsu.The tentative applica-tion of the earth systems science to the interpretation of the 2004earthquake tsunami in the Indian Ocean[J].Acta Geoscientica Sini-ca,2007,28(2):209-217]
42 Morton R A,Gelfenbaum G,Jaffe B E.Physical criteria for distin-guishing sandy tsunami and storm deposits using modern examples[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,200(3-4):184-207
43 Kortekaas S,Dawson A G.Distinguishing tsunami and storm depos-its:An example from Martinhal,SW Portugal[J].Sedimentary Geol-ogy,2007,200(3-4):208-221
44 Dawson A G,Shi S.Tsunami deposits[J].Pure and Applied Geo-physics,2000,157(6-8):875-897
45 Shanmugam G.The tsunamite problem[J].Journal of SedimentaryResearch,2006,76(5):718-730
46 NOAA(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration),What isa hurricane,typhoon,or tropical cyclone?[EB/OL].[2009-03-30]
47 Morton R A.Nearshore Responses to Great Storms[M]∥Clifton HE.Sedimentologic Consequences of Convulsive Geologic Events.Geo-logical Society of America,Special Paper,1988,229:7-22
48 Ward S N.Tsunamis[M]∥Meyers R A.The Encyclopedia of Physi-cal Science and Technology,17.Academic Press,2002:175-191
49 Harbitz C B.Model Simulations of Tsunami Generated by the StoreggaSlide[M].Institute of Mathematics,University of Oslo Series,1991,5:30
50 Hubbard D K.Hurricane-induced sediment transport in open shelftropical systems:An example from St.Croix,U.S.Virgin Islands[J].Journal of Sedimentary Research,1992,62(11):946-960
51 Pickering K T,Soh W,Taira,A.Scale of tsunami-generated sedi-mentary structures in deep water[J].Journal of the Geological Socie-ty(London),1991,148(2):211-214
52 Kastens K A,Cita M B.Tsunami-induced transport in the abyssalMediterranean Sea[J].Geological Society of America Bulletin,1981,92(11):845-857
53 Cita MB,Camerlenghi A,Rimoldi B.Deep-sea tsunami deposits inthe eastern Mediterranean:new evidence and depositional models[J].Sedimentary Geology,1996,104(1-4):155-173
54 Nanayama F,Shigeno K.Inflowand outflowfacies from the 1993 tsu-nami in southwest Hokkaido[J].Sedimentary Geology,2006,187(3-4):139-158
55 Hindson R A,Andrade C,Dawson AG.Sedimentary processes asso-ciated with the tsunami generated by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake onthe Algarve coast,Portugal[J].The Holocene,1995,5(2):209-215
56 Dawson A G.Geomorphological processes associated with tsunamirunup and backwash[J].Geomorphology,1994,10(1-4):83-94
57 Nanayama F,Shigeno K,Satake K,et al.Sedimentary differencesbetween the 1993 Hokkaido-nansei-oki tsunami and the 1959 Miyako-jima typhoon at Taisea,southwestern Hokkaido,northern Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2000,135(1-4):255-264
58 Dawson S,Smith D E.The sedimentology of Middle Holocene tsuna-mi facies in northern Sutherland,Scotland,UK[J].Marine Geolo-gy,2000,170(1-2):69-79
59 Dawson A G,Stewart I,Morton R A,et al.Reply to Comments byKelletat(2008)comments to Dawson AG and Stewart I(2007)tsuna-mi deposits in the geological record[Sedimentary Geology,200,166-183][J].Sedimentary Geology,2008,211(3-4):92-93
60 Dawson A G,Stewart I.Offshore Tractive Current Deposition:theForgotten Tsunami Sedimentation Process[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunamiites:Features and implications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:342-254
61 Goff J,McFadgen B G,Chague-Goff C.Sedimentary differences be-tween the 2002 Easter storm and the 15th-century Okoropunga tsuna-mi,southeastern North Island,New Zealand[J].Marine Geology,2004,204(3-4):235-250
62 Tuttle M P,Ruffman A,Anderson T,et al.Distinguishing tsunamifrom storm deposits in eastern North America:the 1929 Grand Bankstsunami versus the 1991 Halloween storm[J].Seismological Re-search Letters,2004,75(1):117-131
63 Dominey-Howes D,Humphreys G,Hesse P.Tsunami and palaeotsu-nami depositional signatures and their potential value in understandingthe Late-Holocene tsunami record[J].The Holocene,2006,16(8):1095-1107
64 Kelletat D,Comments to Dawson A G and Stewart I.Tsunami depos-its in the geological record-Sedimentary Geology 200,166-183[J].Sedimentary Geology,2008,211(3-4):166-183
65 Scheffers A,Scheffers S R.Tsunami deposits on the coastline of westCrete(Greece)[J].Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2007,259(3-4):613-624
66 Scheffers S R,Scheffers A,Kelletat D,et al.The Holocene paleo-tsunami history of West Australia[J].Earth and Planetary ScienceLetters,2008,270(1-2):137-146
67 Nott J.Extremely high-energy wave deposits inside the Great BarrierReef,Australia:determining the cause-tsunami or tropical cyclone[J].Marine Geology,1997,141(1-4):193-207
68 Scicchitano G,Monaco C,Tortorici L.Large boulder deposits by tsu-nami waves along the Ionian coast of south-eastern Sicily(Italy)[J].Marine Geology,2007,238(1-4):75-91
69 Frohlich C,Hornbach MJ,Taylor F W,et al.Huge erratic bouldersin Tonga deposited by a prehistoric tsunami[J].Geology,2009,37(2):131-134
70 Morton R A,Richmond B M,Jaffe B E,et al.Coarse clast coastalridges of the Caribbean region:a reevaluation of processes and origins[J].Journal of Sedimentary Research,2008,78(9):624-637
71 Williams D M,Hall A M.Cliff-top megaclast deposits of Ireland,arecord of extreme waves in the North Atlantic:storms or tsunamis?[J].Marine Geology,2004.206(1-4):101-117
72 Stone G W,Orford J D.Editorial:storms and their significance incoastal morpho-sedimentary deposits[J].Marine Geology,2004,210(1-4):1-5
73 Etienne S,Paris R.Boulder accumulations related to storms on thesouth coast of the Reykjanes Peninsula(Iceland)[J].Geomorpholo-gy,2009,doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.02.008
74 Nott J.Waves,coastal boulders and the importance of the pre-trans-port setting[J].Earth and Planetary Science Letters,2003,210(1-2):269-276
75 Nott J.Tsunami or stormwaves?-determining the origin of a spectacu-lar field of wave emplaced boulders using numerical storm,surge andwave models and hydrodynamic transport equations[J].Journal ofCoastal Research,2003,19(2):348-356
76 Nott J.The tsunami hypothesis-comparison of field evidence againstthe effects,on the Western Australian coasts,of some of the mostpowerful storms on Earth[J].Marine Geology,2004,208(1):1-12
77 Goto K,Chavanich S A,Imamura F,et al.Distribution,origin andtransport process of boulders deposited by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsu-nami at Pakarang Cape,Thailand[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,202(4):821-837
78 Goto K,Okada K,Imamura F.Characteristics and hydrodynamics ofboulders transported by storm waves at Kudaka Island,Japan[J].Marine Geology,2009,doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.03.001
79 Bondevik S,Svendsen J I,and Mangerud J.Tsunami sedimentary fa-cies deposited by the Storegga tsunami in shallow marine basins andcoastal lakes,western Norway[J].Sedimentology,1997,44(6):1115-1131
80 Nichol S L,Goff J R,Devoy R J N,et al.Lagoon subsidence andtsunami on the West Coast of New Zealand[J].Sedimentary Geolo-gy,2007,200(3-4):248-262
81 Fujiwara O.Bedforms and sedimentary structures characterizing tsuna-mi deposits[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunami-ites:Features and implications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:51-62
82 Fujiwara O,Kamataki T.Identification of tsunami deposits consider-ing the tsunami waveform:An example of subaqueous tsunami depos-its in Holocene shallowbay on southern Boso Peninsula,Central Japan[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,200(3-4):295-313
83 Shiki T,Tachibana T,Fujiwara O,et al.Characteristic features oftsunamiites[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunami-ites:Features and implications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:319-340
84 Puga-Bernabu,Martn J M,and Braga J C.Tsunami-related depositsin temperate carbonate ramps,Soubas Basin,southern Spain[J].Sedimentary Geology,2007,199(3-4):107-127
85 Cita MB,Aliosi G.Deep-sea tsunami deposits triggered by the explo-sion of Santorini(3500 y BP),eastern Mediterranean[J].Sedimen-tary Geology,2000,135(1-4):181-302
86 Shiki T,Cita MB.Tsunami-Related Sedimentary Properties of Medi-terranean Homogenites as an Example of Deep-Sea Tsunamiite[M]∥Shiki T,Tsuji Y,Yamazaki T,et al.Tsunamiites:Features and im-plications.Oxford:Elsevier,2008:204-214
87 Lawton TF,Shipley K W,Aschoff J L,et al.Basinward transport ofChicxulub ejecta by tsunami-induced backflow,La Popa basin,north-eastern Mexico and its implications for distribution of impact-relateddeposits flanking the Gulf of Mexico[J].Geology,2005,33(2):81-84
版权所有：© 2023 中国地质图书馆 中国地质调查局地学文献中心