地幔柱存在的依据
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摘要
从一些成熟的观察我们可推测地幔中至少有几个地幔柱,这并不需要什么假设.的确,如果我们对地球早期热状态的假设合理的话,那么用成熟的定量流体动力学模型不难预测地幔柱的存在.一些其他重要的观察,特别是溢流玄武岩和裂谷有关的岩浆活动,也被证实与物理推论基本一致.最近有人宣称用地震层析成像方法探测到地幔柱,这应该说是地幔柱存在的最直接证据,但地幔柱尾部很难被检测到,因此该探测结果尚须进一步检验.尽管地幔柱假说的可行性仍存在重要问题,但地幔柱假说似乎很值得继续研究.尽管如此,许多与板块无关的岩浆活动与地幔柱的关系并不清楚或可能无关.最近的研究表明化学组成造成的浮力变化会使得地幔柱动力学变得更复杂.这可用以解释比纯热地幔柱更宽泛的现象,包括“无柱头”的热点轨迹.
引文
1Morgan W J.Convection plumes in the lower mantle.Nature,1971,230:42~43
2Morgan W J.Plate motions and deep mantle convection.Mem Geol Soc Am,1972,132:7~22
3Wilson J T.Evidence from islands on the spreading of the ocean floor.Nature,1963,197:536~538
4Wilson J T.A possible origin of the Hawaiian islands.Can J Phys,1963,41:863~870
5Menard H W.The Ocean of Truth.Princeton,New Jersey:Prince-ton University Press,1986.353
6McDougall I.Age of shield-building volcanism of Kauai and lin-ear migration of volcanism in the Hawaiian Island chain.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1979,46:31~42
7Goldreich P,Toomre A.Some remarks on polar wandering.Jour Geophys Res,1969,74:2555~2567
8Cathles L M I.The Viscosity of the Earth's Mantle.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1975.390
9Watts A B,ten Brink U S.Crustal structure,flexure and subsi-dence history of the Hawaiian Islands.J Geophys Res,1989,94:10473~10500
10Turcotte D L,Schubert G.Geodynamics:Applications of Con-tinuum Physics to Geological Problems.New York:Wiley,1982.450
11Duncan R A,Keller R A.Radiometric ages for basement rocks from the Emperor Seamounts,ODP Leg197,Geochem.GeophysGeosyst,2004,5:Q08L03,doi:10.1029/2004GC000704
12Courtillot V,Davaille A,Besse J,et al.Three distinct types of hotspots in the Earth's mantle.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,205:295~308
13Duncan R A,Richards M A.Hotspots,mantle plumes,flood ba-salts,and true polar wander.Rev Geophys,1991,29:31~50
14Clouard V,Bonneville A.How many Pacific hotspots are fed by deep-mantle plumes.Geology,2001,29:695~698
15Davies G F.Dynamic Earth:Plates,Plumes and Mantle Convec-tion.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999.460
16Batchelor G K.An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1967
17Davies G F.Stirring geochemistry in mantle convection models with stiff plates and slabs.Geochim Cosmochim Acta,2002,66:3125~3142
18Loper D E.Mantle plumes.Tectonophys,1991,187:373~384
19Whitehead J A,Luther D S.Dynamics of laboratory diapir and plume models.Jour Geophys Res,1975,80:705~717
20Loper D E,Stacey F D.The dynamical and thermal structure of deep mantle plumes.Phys Earth Planet Interiors,1983,33:304~317
21Olson P,Singer H A.Creeping plumes.Jour Fluid Mech,1985,158:511~531
22Griffiths R W,Campbell I H.Stirring and structure in mantle plumes.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1990,99:66~78
23van Keken P,Evolution of starting mantle plumes:A comparison between numerical and laboratory models.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1997,148:1~11
24Coulliette D L,Loper D E.Experimental,numerical and analytical models of mantle starting plumes.Phys Earth Planet Interiors,1995,92:143~167
25Foulger G.Plumes,or plate tectonic processes?Astron Geophys,2002,43:6.19~23
26Foulger G R,Natland J H.Is"hotspot"volcanism a consequence of plate tectonics?Science,2003,300:921~922
27Anderson D L.Look again.Astron Geophys,2003,44:1.10~1.11
28Anderson D L.The thermal state of the upper mantle;no role for mantle plumes.Geophys Res Lett,2000,27:3623~3626
29Anderson D L.Top-down tectonics.Science,2001,293:2016~2018
30Leitch A M,Davies G F.Mantle plumes from flood basalts:En-hanced melting from plume ascent and an eclogite component.J Geophys Res,2001,106:2047~2059
31Steinberger B.Motion of the Easter hot spot relative to the Hawaii and Louisville hot spots.Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2002,3:doi:10.1029/2002GC000334
32Steinberger B,O'Connell R J.Advection of plumes in mantle flow:implications for hotspot motion,mantle viscosity and plume dis-tribution.Geophys J Int,1998,132:412~434
33Zhong S,Zuber M T,Moresi L N,et al.Role of temperature de-pendent viscosity and surface plates in spherical shell models of mantle convection.J Geophys Res,2000,105:11063~11082
34Kerr R C,Mériaux C.Structure and dynamics of sheared mantle plumes.Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2004,5,doi:10.1029/2004GC000749
35Farnetani C G.Excess temperature of mantle plumes:The role of chemical stratification across D".Geophys Res Lett,1997,24:1583~1586
36Farnetani C,Legras B,Tackley P J.Mixing and deformations in mantle plumes.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2002,196:1~15
37Leitch A M,Davies G F,Wells M.A plume head melting under a rifting margin.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1998,161:161~177
38Anderson D L.地球动力学中的简单尺度关系:压力在地幔对流和地幔柱形成中的作用.科学通报,2004,49(20):2025~2028
39Hager B H.Subducted slabs and the geoid:Constraints on mantle rheology and flow.Jour Geophys Res,1984,89:6003~6015
40Mitrovica J X.Haskell[1935]revisited.J Geophys Res,1996,101:555~569
41Mitrovica J X,Forte A M.Radial profile of mantle viscosity:Results from the joint inversion of convection and postglacial re-bound observables.J Geophys Res,1997,102:2751~2769
42Davies G F.Geophysical and isotopic constraints on mantle con-vection:an interim synthesis.Jour Geophys Res,1984,89:6017~6040
43Whitehead J A.Instabilities of fluid conduits in a flowing earth--are plates lubricated by the asthenosphere?Geophys Jour Roy Astr Soc,1982,70:415~433
44O'Neill C,Muller D,Steinberger B.Geodynamic implications of moving Indian Ocean hotspots.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,215:151~168
45Malamud B D,Turcotte D L.How many plumes are there?Earth Planet Sci Lett,1999,174:113~124
46Zhong S.Dynamics of thermal plumes in3D isoviscous thermal convection.Geophys J Int,2005(in press)
47Davies G F.Ocean bathymetry and mantle convection,1.Large-scale flow and hotspots.Jour Geophys Res,1988,93:10467~10480
48Sleep N H.Hotspots and mantle plumes:Some phenomenology.J Geophys Res,1990,95:6715~6736
49Hill R I,Campbell I H,Davies G F,et al.Mantle plumes and con-tinental tectonics.Science,1992,256:186~193
50Labrosse S.Hotspots,mantle plumes and core heat loss.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2002,199:147~156
51Farnetani C G,Samuel H.Beyond the thermal plume paradigm.Geophys Res Lett,2005,32:L07311,doi:07310.01029/02005GL022360
52Stacey F D.Physics of the Earth.Brisbane:Brookfield Press,1992.513
53Braginsky S I,Roberts P H.Equations governing convection in Earth's core and the geodynamo.Geophys Astrophys Fluid Dyn,1995,79:1~97
54Buffett B A.Estimates of heat flow in the deep mantle based on the power requirements for the geodynamo.Geophys Res Lett,2002,29:1566
55Nimmo F,Price G D,Brodholt J,et al.The influence of potassium on core and geodynamo evolution.Geophys J Int,2004,156:363~376
56Manga M,Weeraratne D,Morris S J S.Boundary layer thickness and instabilities in Benard convection of a liquid with tempera-ture-dependent viscosity.Phys Fluids,2001,13:802~805
57Davies G F.Cooling the core and mantle by plume and plate flows.Geophys J Int,1993,115:132~146
58Wüllner U,Davies G F.Numerical evaluation of mantle plume spacing,size,flow rates and unsteadiness.J Geophys Res,1999,104:7377~7387
59Tarduno J A,Duncan R A,Scholl D W,et al.The Emporer Sea-mounts:southward motion of the Hawaiian hotspot plume in Earth's mantle.Science,2003,301:1064~1069
60Tarduno J A,Gee J.Large-scale motion between Pacific and At-lantic hotspots.Nature,1995,378:477~480
61Gordon R G,Horner-Johnson B C,Kumar R R.Latitudinal shift of the Hawaiian hotspot:Motion relative to other hotspots or motion of all hotspots in unison relative to the spin axis(i.e.true polar wander)?Geophys Res Abstracts,2005,7:10233.SRef-ID:1607-7962/gra/EGU05-A-10233
62Nataf H-C.Seismic imaging of mantle plumes.Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci,2000,28:391~417
63Davies G F.Temporal variation of the Hawaiian plume flux.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1992,113:277~286
64Ji Y,Nataf H-C.Detection of mantle plumes in the lower mantle by diffraction tomography:Theory.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1998,159:87~98
65Ritsema J,Allen R M.The elusive mantle plume.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,207:1~12
66Montelli R,Nolet G,Dahlen F A,et al.Finite-frequency tomogra-phy reveals a variety of plumes in the mantle.Science,2004,303:338~343
67Farley K A,Neroda E.Noble gases in the earth's mantle.Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci,1998,26:189~218
68Montelli R,Nolet G,Dahlen F A.Deep plumes in the mantle:Geometry and dynamics.Geophys Res Abstracts,2005,7:02473.SRef-ID:1607-7962/gra/EGU05-A-02473
69Natland J H,Winterer E L.Fissure control on volcanic action in the Pacific.In:Foulger G R,Natland J,Presnall D,et al,eds.Plumes,Plates and Paradigms.Geological Society of America,2005
70Davies G F.Thermomechanical erosion of the lithosphere by man-tle plumes.J Geophys Res,1994,99:15709~715722
71Davies G F.Mantle plumes,mantle stirring and hotspot chemistry.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1990,99:94~109
72Yaxley G M,Green D H.Reactions between ecogite and peridotite:Mantle refertilisation by subduction of oceanic crust,Schweiz.Mineral Petrog Mitt,1998,78:243~255
73Spiegelman M,Kelemen P B,Aharonov E.Causes and conse-quences of flow organization during melt transport:The reaction infiltration instability in compactible media.J Geophys Res,2001,106:2061~2078
74Takahashi E,Nakajima K,Wright T L.,Origin of the Columbia River basalts:Melting model of a heterogeneous plume head.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1998,162:63~80
75Putirka K D.Mantle potential temperatures at Hawaii,Iceland,and the mid-ocean ridge system,as inferred from olivine phenocrysts:Evidence for thermally driven mantle plumes.Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2005,6:Q05L08,doi:10.1029/2005GC000915
76Coffin M.F,Eldholm O.Large igneous provinces:crustal struc-ture,dimensions and external consequences.Rev Geophys,1994,32:1~36
77Mutter J C,Zehnder C M.Deep crustal structure and magmatic processes:The inception of seafloor spreading in the Norwe-gian-Greenland Sea.In:Morton AC,Parsons L M,eds.Early Ter-tiary Volcanism and the Opening of the NE Atlantic.Geol Soc Amer Spec Publ,39Geol Soc Amer Spec Publ,1988,39:35~48
78Morgan W J.Hotspot tracks and the opening of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.In:Emiliani C,ed.The Sea7.New York:Wiley,1981.443~487
79Campbell I H,Griffiths R W.Implications of mantle plume struc-ture for the evolution of flood basalts.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1990,99:79~83
80White R,McKenzie D.Magmatism at rift zones:The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts.Jour Geophys Res,1989,94:7685~7730
81Hooper P R.The timing of crustal extension and the eruption of continental flood basalts.Nature,1990,345:246~249
82Courtillot V,Besse J,Vandamme D,et al.Deccan flood basalts at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary?Earth Planet Sci Lett,1986,80:361~374
83Hofmann A W.Mantle chemistry:the message from oceanic volcanism.Nature,1997,385:219~229
84Forte A M,Mitrovica J X.New inferences of mantle viscosity from joint inversion of long-wavelength mantle convection and post-glacial rebound data.Geophys Res Lett,1996,23:1147~1150
85Davies G F.Movies of plates and plumes.2002.http://rses.anu.edu.au/gfd/members/davies/index.html
86Kelemen P B,Holbrook W S.Origin of thick,high-velocity igne-ous crust along the U.S.East Coast Margin.J Geophys Res,1995,100:10077~10094
87Hill R I.Starting plumes and continental breakup.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1991,104:398~416
88Langmuir C H,Klein E M,Plank T.Petrological systematics of mid-ocean ridge basalts:Constraints on melt generation beneath ocean ridges.In:Morgan J P,Blackman D K,Sinton J M,eds.Mantle Flow and Melt Generation at Mid-Ocean Ridges.Geo-physical Monograph71,Washington,DC:American Geophyical Union,1992
89Kelemen P B,Hirth G,Shimizu N,et al.A review of melt migra-tion processes in the adiabatically upwelling mantle beneath oce-anic spreading ridges.Philos Trans R Soc London,Ser A,1997,355:1~35
2Morgan W J.Plate motions and deep mantle convection.Mem Geol Soc Am,1972,132:7~22
3Wilson J T.Evidence from islands on the spreading of the ocean floor.Nature,1963,197:536~538
4Wilson J T.A possible origin of the Hawaiian islands.Can J Phys,1963,41:863~870
5Menard H W.The Ocean of Truth.Princeton,New Jersey:Prince-ton University Press,1986.353
6McDougall I.Age of shield-building volcanism of Kauai and lin-ear migration of volcanism in the Hawaiian Island chain.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1979,46:31~42
7Goldreich P,Toomre A.Some remarks on polar wandering.Jour Geophys Res,1969,74:2555~2567
8Cathles L M I.The Viscosity of the Earth's Mantle.Princeton:Princeton University Press,1975.390
9Watts A B,ten Brink U S.Crustal structure,flexure and subsi-dence history of the Hawaiian Islands.J Geophys Res,1989,94:10473~10500
10Turcotte D L,Schubert G.Geodynamics:Applications of Con-tinuum Physics to Geological Problems.New York:Wiley,1982.450
11Duncan R A,Keller R A.Radiometric ages for basement rocks from the Emperor Seamounts,ODP Leg197,Geochem.GeophysGeosyst,2004,5:Q08L03,doi:10.1029/2004GC000704
12Courtillot V,Davaille A,Besse J,et al.Three distinct types of hotspots in the Earth's mantle.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,205:295~308
13Duncan R A,Richards M A.Hotspots,mantle plumes,flood ba-salts,and true polar wander.Rev Geophys,1991,29:31~50
14Clouard V,Bonneville A.How many Pacific hotspots are fed by deep-mantle plumes.Geology,2001,29:695~698
15Davies G F.Dynamic Earth:Plates,Plumes and Mantle Convec-tion.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999.460
16Batchelor G K.An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1967
17Davies G F.Stirring geochemistry in mantle convection models with stiff plates and slabs.Geochim Cosmochim Acta,2002,66:3125~3142
18Loper D E.Mantle plumes.Tectonophys,1991,187:373~384
19Whitehead J A,Luther D S.Dynamics of laboratory diapir and plume models.Jour Geophys Res,1975,80:705~717
20Loper D E,Stacey F D.The dynamical and thermal structure of deep mantle plumes.Phys Earth Planet Interiors,1983,33:304~317
21Olson P,Singer H A.Creeping plumes.Jour Fluid Mech,1985,158:511~531
22Griffiths R W,Campbell I H.Stirring and structure in mantle plumes.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1990,99:66~78
23van Keken P,Evolution of starting mantle plumes:A comparison between numerical and laboratory models.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1997,148:1~11
24Coulliette D L,Loper D E.Experimental,numerical and analytical models of mantle starting plumes.Phys Earth Planet Interiors,1995,92:143~167
25Foulger G.Plumes,or plate tectonic processes?Astron Geophys,2002,43:6.19~23
26Foulger G R,Natland J H.Is"hotspot"volcanism a consequence of plate tectonics?Science,2003,300:921~922
27Anderson D L.Look again.Astron Geophys,2003,44:1.10~1.11
28Anderson D L.The thermal state of the upper mantle;no role for mantle plumes.Geophys Res Lett,2000,27:3623~3626
29Anderson D L.Top-down tectonics.Science,2001,293:2016~2018
30Leitch A M,Davies G F.Mantle plumes from flood basalts:En-hanced melting from plume ascent and an eclogite component.J Geophys Res,2001,106:2047~2059
31Steinberger B.Motion of the Easter hot spot relative to the Hawaii and Louisville hot spots.Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2002,3:doi:10.1029/2002GC000334
32Steinberger B,O'Connell R J.Advection of plumes in mantle flow:implications for hotspot motion,mantle viscosity and plume dis-tribution.Geophys J Int,1998,132:412~434
33Zhong S,Zuber M T,Moresi L N,et al.Role of temperature de-pendent viscosity and surface plates in spherical shell models of mantle convection.J Geophys Res,2000,105:11063~11082
34Kerr R C,Mériaux C.Structure and dynamics of sheared mantle plumes.Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2004,5,doi:10.1029/2004GC000749
35Farnetani C G.Excess temperature of mantle plumes:The role of chemical stratification across D".Geophys Res Lett,1997,24:1583~1586
36Farnetani C,Legras B,Tackley P J.Mixing and deformations in mantle plumes.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2002,196:1~15
37Leitch A M,Davies G F,Wells M.A plume head melting under a rifting margin.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1998,161:161~177
38Anderson D L.地球动力学中的简单尺度关系:压力在地幔对流和地幔柱形成中的作用.科学通报,2004,49(20):2025~2028
39Hager B H.Subducted slabs and the geoid:Constraints on mantle rheology and flow.Jour Geophys Res,1984,89:6003~6015
40Mitrovica J X.Haskell[1935]revisited.J Geophys Res,1996,101:555~569
41Mitrovica J X,Forte A M.Radial profile of mantle viscosity:Results from the joint inversion of convection and postglacial re-bound observables.J Geophys Res,1997,102:2751~2769
42Davies G F.Geophysical and isotopic constraints on mantle con-vection:an interim synthesis.Jour Geophys Res,1984,89:6017~6040
43Whitehead J A.Instabilities of fluid conduits in a flowing earth--are plates lubricated by the asthenosphere?Geophys Jour Roy Astr Soc,1982,70:415~433
44O'Neill C,Muller D,Steinberger B.Geodynamic implications of moving Indian Ocean hotspots.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,215:151~168
45Malamud B D,Turcotte D L.How many plumes are there?Earth Planet Sci Lett,1999,174:113~124
46Zhong S.Dynamics of thermal plumes in3D isoviscous thermal convection.Geophys J Int,2005(in press)
47Davies G F.Ocean bathymetry and mantle convection,1.Large-scale flow and hotspots.Jour Geophys Res,1988,93:10467~10480
48Sleep N H.Hotspots and mantle plumes:Some phenomenology.J Geophys Res,1990,95:6715~6736
49Hill R I,Campbell I H,Davies G F,et al.Mantle plumes and con-tinental tectonics.Science,1992,256:186~193
50Labrosse S.Hotspots,mantle plumes and core heat loss.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2002,199:147~156
51Farnetani C G,Samuel H.Beyond the thermal plume paradigm.Geophys Res Lett,2005,32:L07311,doi:07310.01029/02005GL022360
52Stacey F D.Physics of the Earth.Brisbane:Brookfield Press,1992.513
53Braginsky S I,Roberts P H.Equations governing convection in Earth's core and the geodynamo.Geophys Astrophys Fluid Dyn,1995,79:1~97
54Buffett B A.Estimates of heat flow in the deep mantle based on the power requirements for the geodynamo.Geophys Res Lett,2002,29:1566
55Nimmo F,Price G D,Brodholt J,et al.The influence of potassium on core and geodynamo evolution.Geophys J Int,2004,156:363~376
56Manga M,Weeraratne D,Morris S J S.Boundary layer thickness and instabilities in Benard convection of a liquid with tempera-ture-dependent viscosity.Phys Fluids,2001,13:802~805
57Davies G F.Cooling the core and mantle by plume and plate flows.Geophys J Int,1993,115:132~146
58Wüllner U,Davies G F.Numerical evaluation of mantle plume spacing,size,flow rates and unsteadiness.J Geophys Res,1999,104:7377~7387
59Tarduno J A,Duncan R A,Scholl D W,et al.The Emporer Sea-mounts:southward motion of the Hawaiian hotspot plume in Earth's mantle.Science,2003,301:1064~1069
60Tarduno J A,Gee J.Large-scale motion between Pacific and At-lantic hotspots.Nature,1995,378:477~480
61Gordon R G,Horner-Johnson B C,Kumar R R.Latitudinal shift of the Hawaiian hotspot:Motion relative to other hotspots or motion of all hotspots in unison relative to the spin axis(i.e.true polar wander)?Geophys Res Abstracts,2005,7:10233.SRef-ID:1607-7962/gra/EGU05-A-10233
62Nataf H-C.Seismic imaging of mantle plumes.Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci,2000,28:391~417
63Davies G F.Temporal variation of the Hawaiian plume flux.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1992,113:277~286
64Ji Y,Nataf H-C.Detection of mantle plumes in the lower mantle by diffraction tomography:Theory.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1998,159:87~98
65Ritsema J,Allen R M.The elusive mantle plume.Earth Planet Sci Lett,2003,207:1~12
66Montelli R,Nolet G,Dahlen F A,et al.Finite-frequency tomogra-phy reveals a variety of plumes in the mantle.Science,2004,303:338~343
67Farley K A,Neroda E.Noble gases in the earth's mantle.Annu Rev Earth Planet Sci,1998,26:189~218
68Montelli R,Nolet G,Dahlen F A.Deep plumes in the mantle:Geometry and dynamics.Geophys Res Abstracts,2005,7:02473.SRef-ID:1607-7962/gra/EGU05-A-02473
69Natland J H,Winterer E L.Fissure control on volcanic action in the Pacific.In:Foulger G R,Natland J,Presnall D,et al,eds.Plumes,Plates and Paradigms.Geological Society of America,2005
70Davies G F.Thermomechanical erosion of the lithosphere by man-tle plumes.J Geophys Res,1994,99:15709~715722
71Davies G F.Mantle plumes,mantle stirring and hotspot chemistry.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1990,99:94~109
72Yaxley G M,Green D H.Reactions between ecogite and peridotite:Mantle refertilisation by subduction of oceanic crust,Schweiz.Mineral Petrog Mitt,1998,78:243~255
73Spiegelman M,Kelemen P B,Aharonov E.Causes and conse-quences of flow organization during melt transport:The reaction infiltration instability in compactible media.J Geophys Res,2001,106:2061~2078
74Takahashi E,Nakajima K,Wright T L.,Origin of the Columbia River basalts:Melting model of a heterogeneous plume head.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1998,162:63~80
75Putirka K D.Mantle potential temperatures at Hawaii,Iceland,and the mid-ocean ridge system,as inferred from olivine phenocrysts:Evidence for thermally driven mantle plumes.Geochem Geophys Geosyst,2005,6:Q05L08,doi:10.1029/2005GC000915
76Coffin M.F,Eldholm O.Large igneous provinces:crustal struc-ture,dimensions and external consequences.Rev Geophys,1994,32:1~36
77Mutter J C,Zehnder C M.Deep crustal structure and magmatic processes:The inception of seafloor spreading in the Norwe-gian-Greenland Sea.In:Morton AC,Parsons L M,eds.Early Ter-tiary Volcanism and the Opening of the NE Atlantic.Geol Soc Amer Spec Publ,39Geol Soc Amer Spec Publ,1988,39:35~48
78Morgan W J.Hotspot tracks and the opening of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.In:Emiliani C,ed.The Sea7.New York:Wiley,1981.443~487
79Campbell I H,Griffiths R W.Implications of mantle plume struc-ture for the evolution of flood basalts.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1990,99:79~83
80White R,McKenzie D.Magmatism at rift zones:The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts.Jour Geophys Res,1989,94:7685~7730
81Hooper P R.The timing of crustal extension and the eruption of continental flood basalts.Nature,1990,345:246~249
82Courtillot V,Besse J,Vandamme D,et al.Deccan flood basalts at the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary?Earth Planet Sci Lett,1986,80:361~374
83Hofmann A W.Mantle chemistry:the message from oceanic volcanism.Nature,1997,385:219~229
84Forte A M,Mitrovica J X.New inferences of mantle viscosity from joint inversion of long-wavelength mantle convection and post-glacial rebound data.Geophys Res Lett,1996,23:1147~1150
85Davies G F.Movies of plates and plumes.2002.http://rses.anu.edu.au/gfd/members/davies/index.html
86Kelemen P B,Holbrook W S.Origin of thick,high-velocity igne-ous crust along the U.S.East Coast Margin.J Geophys Res,1995,100:10077~10094
87Hill R I.Starting plumes and continental breakup.Earth Planet Sci Lett,1991,104:398~416
88Langmuir C H,Klein E M,Plank T.Petrological systematics of mid-ocean ridge basalts:Constraints on melt generation beneath ocean ridges.In:Morgan J P,Blackman D K,Sinton J M,eds.Mantle Flow and Melt Generation at Mid-Ocean Ridges.Geo-physical Monograph71,Washington,DC:American Geophyical Union,1992
89Kelemen P B,Hirth G,Shimizu N,et al.A review of melt migra-tion processes in the adiabatically upwelling mantle beneath oce-anic spreading ridges.Philos Trans R Soc London,Ser A,1997,355:1~35
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