深水砂体成因研究新进展
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摘要
在深水重力流研究中,传统浊流理论正受到砂质块体搬运和底流再改造砂体概念的冲击。陆架边缘沉积物滑塌是重力流驱动沉积过程最普遍的诱因,块体搬运过程(包含滑动、滑塌以及碎屑流)由于具有较高沉积物浓度(体积分数为25%～100%),表现为弹性和塑性特征。浊流因具有较低的沉积物浓度(体积分数为1%～23%)表现为黏性流动,不属于块体搬运的范畴。除重力流外,底流也是重要的深海搬运沉积方式。4种最常见的底流分别为:温盐流、风力驱动底流、深海潮汐及斜压流,牵引构造可用来区分这4种底流形成的再改造砂体,其中内波和内潮汐引起的斜压流再改造砂体的特征仍需深入研究。仅通过地震剖面与地质体形态无法识别块体搬运和底流再改造砂体类型,岩心和露头观察是唯一能鉴别其沉积相特征的方法。短期事件,如地震、海啸、热带风暴等,可能只持续几小时或者几天,却是沉积物滑塌的重要触发机制,比长达数千年低水位沉积期更为重要。
The emerging new concepts of sandy mass-transport deposits(SMTD) and bottom-current reworked sands(BCRS) have made a big impact on conventional turbidite concepts.Sediment failures near the shelf edge are the common cause of gravity-driven downslope processes.Mass-transport processes,which include slide,slump,and debris flow,exhibit elastic and plastic behaviors due to high sediment concentration(25%-100% by volume).Turbidity currents which represent viscous fluid behavior with low sediment concentration(1%-23% by volume) are not mass-transport processes.Four common bottom currents are thermohaline,wind-driven,deep tidal,and baroclinic types.A distinctive attribute of BCRSs is their traction structures.However,depositional aspects of baroclinic currents associated with internal waves and tides are poorly understood.Seismic facies and geometries are unreliable for distinguishing types of SMTDs and BCRSs in the ancient record.The only reliable method of distinguishing a specific depositional facies is by detailed bed-by-bed examination of sedimentological features in core and outcrop.Short-term events that represent only a matter of hours or days(e.g.,earthquakes,tsunamis,tropical cyclones,etc.) are more important in triggering sediment failures than periods of sea-level lowstands that represent thousands of years.
The emerging new concepts of sandy mass-transport deposits(SMTD) and bottom-current reworked sands(BCRS) have made a big impact on conventional turbidite concepts.Sediment failures near the shelf edge are the common cause of gravity-driven downslope processes.Mass-transport processes,which include slide,slump,and debris flow,exhibit elastic and plastic behaviors due to high sediment concentration(25%-100% by volume).Turbidity currents which represent viscous fluid behavior with low sediment concentration(1%-23% by volume) are not mass-transport processes.Four common bottom currents are thermohaline,wind-driven,deep tidal,and baroclinic types.A distinctive attribute of BCRSs is their traction structures.However,depositional aspects of baroclinic currents associated with internal waves and tides are poorly understood.Seismic facies and geometries are unreliable for distinguishing types of SMTDs and BCRSs in the ancient record.The only reliable method of distinguishing a specific depositional facies is by detailed bed-by-bed examination of sedimentological features in core and outcrop.Short-term events that represent only a matter of hours or days(e.g.,earthquakes,tsunamis,tropical cyclones,etc.) are more important in triggering sediment failures than periods of sea-level lowstands that represent thousands of years.
引文
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[2]Shanmugam G.Deep-water processes and facies models:Implicationsfor sandstone petroleum reservoirs[M].Amsterdam:Elsevier,2006.
[3]Shanmugam G.New perspectives on deep-water sandstones:Origin,recognition,initiation,and reservoir quality[M].Amsterdam:Elsevier,2012.
[4]Bouma A H.Sedimentology of some flysch deposits:A graphicapproach to facies interpretation[M].Amsterdam:Elsevier,1962.
[5]Lowe D R.Sediment gravity flows:II:Depositional models withspecial reference to the deposits of high-density turbidity currents[J].Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,1982,52:279-297.
[6]Shanmugam G.Ten turbidite myths[J].Earth Science Reviews,2002,58:311-341.
[7]Shepard F P,Dill R F.Submarine canyons and other sea valleys[M].Chicago:Rand McNally&Co.,1966.
[8]Gardner J V,Bohannon R G,Field M E,et al.The morphology,processes,and evolution of Monterey fan:A revisit[M].New York:Cambridge University Press,1996:193-220.
[9]Robb J M.Geologic features of the sea bottom around a municipalsludge dumpsite near 39N,73W,offshore New Jersey and NewYork[R].USGS Open-File Report 94-152,1994.
[10]Solheim A,Bryn P,Sejrup H P,et al.Ormen Lange:An integratedstudy for the safe development of a deep-water gas field within theStoregga Slide complex,NE Atlantic continental margin:Executivesummary[J].Marine and Petroleum Geology,2005,22:1-9.
[11]Shanmugam G,Bloch R B,Mitchell S M,et al.Basin-floor fans inthe North Sea:Sequence stratigraphic models vs.sedimentaryfacies[J].AAPG Bulletin,1995,79:477-512.
[12]Purvis K,Kao J,Flanagan K,et al.Complex reservoir geometries ina deep water clastic sequence,Gryphon Field,UKCS[J].Marine andPetroleum Geology,2002,19:161-179.
[13]Duranti D,Hurst A.Fluidization and injection in the deep-watersandstones of the Eocene Alba Formation(UK.North Sea)[J].Sedimentology,2004,51:503-529.
[14]Shanmugam G,Lehtonen L R,Straume T,et al.Slump and debrisflow dominated upper slope facies in the Cretaceous of theNorwegian and Northern North Seas(61～67 N):Implications forsand distribution[J].AAPG Bulletin,1994,78:910-937.
[15]Meckel T.Classifying and characterizing sand-prone submarinemass-transport deposits[R].New Orleans:AAPG Annual Conventionand Exhibition,2010.
[16]Li Xiangbo,Chen Qilin,Liu Huaqing,et al.Features of sandy debrisflows of the Yanchang Formation in the Ordos Basin and its oil andgas exploration significance[J].Acta Geologica Sinica,2011,85(5):1187-1202.
[17]Zou C N,Wang L,Li Y,et al.Deep-lacustrine transformation ofsandy debrites into turbidites,Upper Triassic,Central China[J].Sedimentary Geology,2012,265/266:143-155.
[18]Shanmugam G,Shrivastava S K,Das B.Sandy debrites and tidalitesof Pliocene reservoir sands in upper-slope canyon environments,offshore Krishna-Godavari Basin(India):Implications[J].Journal ofSedimentary Research,2009,79:736-756.
[19]Meckel L D.Reservoir characteristics and classification ofsand-prone submarine mass-transport deposits[C]//SEPM SpecialPublication,No.96:Mass-transport deposits in deepwater settings.Tulsa:SEPM,2009.
[20]Beaubouef R T,Abreu V.MTCs of the Brazos-Trinity slope system,thoughts on the sequence stratigraphy of MTCs and their possibleroles in shaping hydrocarbon traps[J].Advances in Natural andTechnological Hazards Research,2010,28:475-490.
[21]Alves T M,Cartright J A.The effect of mass-transport deposits onthe younger slope morphology,offshore Brazil[J].Marine andPetroleum Geology,2010,27:2027-2036.
[22]Gamboa D,Alves T,Cartwright J,et al.MTD distribution on a“passive”continental margin:The Espírito Santo Basin(SE Brazil)during the Palaeogene[J].Marine and Petroleum Geology,2010,27:1311-1324.
[23]Sterling G H,Strohbeck G E.The failure of South Pass 70B Platformin Hurricane Camille[J].Journal of Petroleum Technology,1975,27:263-268.
[24]Hooper J R,Suhayda J N.Hurricane induced seafloor failures in theMississippi delta:Offshore hurricane readiness and recoveryconference[R].Houston:American Petroleum Institute,2005.
[25]Nodine M C,Wright S G,Gilbert R B,et al.Mudflows and mudslidesduring hurricane Ivan[R].Houston,Texas:Offshore TechnologyConference,2006.
[26]Dott R H.Dynamics of subaqueous gravity depositional processes[J].AAPG Bulletin,1963,47:104-128.
[27]Varnes D J.Landslide types and processes[R].Washington D C:Highway Research Board,1958.
[28]Sanders J E.Primary sedimentary structures formed by turbiditycurrents and related resedimentation mechanisms[C]//Middleton G V.Primary sedimentary structures and their hydrodynamic interpretation.Tulsa:SEPM,1965.
[29]Shanmugam G.Slides,slumps,debris flows,and turbiditycurrents[C]//Steele J H,Turekian K K,Thorpe S A.Encyclopedia ofocean sciences.Amsterdam:Elsevier,2008.
[30]Middleton G V,Hampton M A.Sediment gravity flows:Mechanicsof flow and deposition[C]//Middleton G V,Bouma A H.Turbiditesand deep-water sedimentation.Anaheim,California:SEPM,1973.
[31]Shanmugam G.High-density turbidity currents:Are they sandy debris flows?[J].Journal of Sedimentary Research,1996,66:2-10.
[32]Shanmugam G.Deep-water bottom currents and their deposits[C]//Rebesco M,Camerlenghi A.Developments in sedimentology 60:contourites.Amsterdam:Elsevier,2008.
[33]Shanmugam G.Deep-marine tidal bottom currents and theirreworked sands in modern and ancient submarine canyons[J].Mar.Petroleum Geol.,2003,20:471-491.
[34]Shanmugam G.Comment on“Internal waves,an underexploredsource of turbulence events in the sedimentary record”by Pomar L,Morsilli M,Hallock P,and Bádenas B[J].Earth Science Reviews,2012,111:56-81.
[35]Shanmugam G.Modern internal waves and internal tides alongoceanic pycnoclines:Challenges and implications for ancientdeep-marine baroclinic sands[J].AAPG Bulletin,2013,97(5):514-518.
[36]Mulder T,Zaragosi S,Garlan T,et al.Present deep-submarinecanyons activity in the Bay of Biscay(NE Atlantic)[J].MarineGeology,2012,295-298:113-127.
[37]Gao Z,Eriksson K A.Internal-tide deposits in an Ordoviciansubmarine channel:Previously unrecognized facies?[J].Geology,1991,19:734-737.
[38]He Y B,Luo J X,Li X D,et al.Evidence of internal-wave andinternal-tide deposits in the Middle Ordovician Xujiajuan Formationof the Xiangshan Group,Ningxia,China[J].Geo-Marine Letters,2011,31(5/6):509-523.
[39]Pomar L,Morsilli M,Hallock P,et al.Internal waves,anunder-explored source of turbulence events in the sedimentaryrecord[J].Earth Science Reviews,2012,111:56-81.
[40]Dykstra M.Deep water tidal sedimentology[C]//Davis R A,Dalrymple R W.Principles of tidal sedimentology.Berlin:Springer,2012.
[41]Laurent L S,Alford M H,Paluszkiewicz T.An introduction to thespecial issue on internal waves[J].Oceanography,2012,25(2):15-19.
[42]Masson D G,Harbitz C B,Wynn R B,et al.Submarine landslides:Processes,triggers,and hazard prevention[J].Marine Geology,2006,289:2009-2019.
[43]Feeley K.Triggering mechanisms of submarine landslides[R].Boston:Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Northeastern University,2007.
[44]Shanmugam G.The tsunamite problem[J].Journal of SedimentaryResearch,2006,76:718-730.
[45]Shanmugam G.Process-sedimentological challenges in distinguishingpaleo-tsunamis deposits[J].Natural Hazards,2012,63:5-30.
[46]Mulder T,Philippe R,Faugères J C,et al.Reply to the discussion byRoger Higgs on“Hummocky cross stratification-like structures indeep-sea turbidites:Upper Cretaceous Basque Basins(WesternPyrenees,France)”[J].Sedimentology,2010,56:997-1015.
[47]Saller A H,Lin R,Dunham J.Leaves in turbidite sands:The mainsource of oil and gas in the deep-water Kutei Basin,Indonesia[J].AAPG Bulletin,2006,90:1585-1608.
[48]Shanmugam G.Leaves in turbidite sands:The main source of oil andgas in the deep-water Kutei Basin,Indonesia:Discussion[J].AAPGBulletin,2008,92:127-137.
[49]Shanmugam G.The constructive functions of tropical cyclones andtsunamis on deepwater sand deposition during sea level highstand:Implications for petroleum exploration[J].AAPG Bulletin,2008,92:443-471.
[50]Meyer D,Zarra L,Yun J.From BAHA to jack,evolution of the lowerTertiary Wilcox trend in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico[J].Sedimentary Record,2007,5:4-9.
[51]Hubbard D K.Hurricane-induced sediment transport in open shelftropical systems:An example from St.Croix,US Virgin Islands[J].Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,1992,62:946-960.
[52]Kudrass H R,Michels K H,Wiedicke M.Cyclones and tides asfeeders of a submarine canyon off Bangladesh[J].Geology,1998,26:715-718.
[53]Mulder T,Migeon S,Savoye B,et al.Inversely graded turbiditesequences in the deep Mediterranean:A record of deposits fromflood-generated turbidity currents?[J].Geo-Marine Letters,2001,21:86-93.
[54]Palanques A,Durieu de Madron X,Puig P,et al.Suspended sedimentfluxes and transport processes in the Gulf of Lions submarinecanyons,The role of storms and dense water cascading[J].MarineGeology,2006,234:43-61.
[55]Puig P,Ogston A S,Mullenbach B L,et al.Shelf-to-canyonsediment-transport processes on the Eel continental margin(northernCalifornia)[J].Marine Geology,2003,193:129-149.
[56]Shanmugam G.The obsolescence of deep-water sequencestratigraphy in petroleum geology[J].Indian Journal of PetroleumGeology,2007,16(1):1-45.
[57]Embley R W.The role of mass transport in the distribution andcharacter of deep-ocean sediments with special reference to theNorth Atlantic[J].Marine Geology,1980,38:23-50.
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