国外应用纵波各向异性技术检测裂缝的研究进展
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摘要
裂缝性油气藏作为一种重要的油藏资源,已经成为地震勘探研究的热门课题。相对于国内而言,国外应用各向异性技术来检测裂缝的研究开展较早并逐渐成熟。本文回顾了各向异性技术的由来和发展,介绍了裂缝研究使用的有效介质理论,总结了纵波各向异性应用于裂缝检测的新技术新方法。分析表明,随着关注度的增强和采集处理技术的发展,裂缝检测技术的方法更加多样,实际应用的有效性得到提高。
The knowledge that the propagation of elastic waves can be anisotropic is about 180 years old. At the turn of the 20th century,Rudzki suggested the significance of seismic anisotropy. He studied many of its aspects,but without a real application of his ideas. Research in seismic anisotropy became stagnant after his death in 1916. Beginning at about 1950,the significance of seismic anisotropy for exploration seismics began to be studied,mainly in connection with thinly layered media and the resulting transverse isotropy. But it became clear that the effect of the layer induced anisotropy on the data acquired with the techniques of that time was negligible. In the last two decades of the 20th century,Crampin pointed out that the cracks in a rock mass lead to observable effects from which,in principle,the orientation and the density of the cracks could be determined. Since this information has a direct relevance to the reservoir properties of the rock,the interest in seismic anisotropy was increased considerably. The seismic anisotropy study came into a new era,with more scholars and oil companies focusing their attention on this field. Recent advances in the acquisition technology,the computer technology and the seismic processing technology have allowed the incorporation of anisotropic models into a wide range of seismic methods. In particular,the vertical and tilted transverse isotropies are currently treated as an integral part of the velocity fields employed in pre-stack depth migration algorithms,especially those based on the wave equation. Continued progress in the data-acquisition technology is likely to spur a transition from the transverse isotropy to lower anisotropic symmetries,e.g. orthorhombic ones. With the role of the anisotropy in the seismic exploration in mind,we discuss the origin of anisotropy,P-wave velocity analysis and imaging,processing,moveout inversion of wide-azimuth data,amplitude-variation-with-offset and AVO analysis and fracture characterization. Today,the anisotropy,as an important part in exploration and reservoir geophysics,has been included in every exploration geophysicist's toolkit.
The knowledge that the propagation of elastic waves can be anisotropic is about 180 years old. At the turn of the 20th century,Rudzki suggested the significance of seismic anisotropy. He studied many of its aspects,but without a real application of his ideas. Research in seismic anisotropy became stagnant after his death in 1916. Beginning at about 1950,the significance of seismic anisotropy for exploration seismics began to be studied,mainly in connection with thinly layered media and the resulting transverse isotropy. But it became clear that the effect of the layer induced anisotropy on the data acquired with the techniques of that time was negligible. In the last two decades of the 20th century,Crampin pointed out that the cracks in a rock mass lead to observable effects from which,in principle,the orientation and the density of the cracks could be determined. Since this information has a direct relevance to the reservoir properties of the rock,the interest in seismic anisotropy was increased considerably. The seismic anisotropy study came into a new era,with more scholars and oil companies focusing their attention on this field. Recent advances in the acquisition technology,the computer technology and the seismic processing technology have allowed the incorporation of anisotropic models into a wide range of seismic methods. In particular,the vertical and tilted transverse isotropies are currently treated as an integral part of the velocity fields employed in pre-stack depth migration algorithms,especially those based on the wave equation. Continued progress in the data-acquisition technology is likely to spur a transition from the transverse isotropy to lower anisotropic symmetries,e.g. orthorhombic ones. With the role of the anisotropy in the seismic exploration in mind,we discuss the origin of anisotropy,P-wave velocity analysis and imaging,processing,moveout inversion of wide-azimuth data,amplitude-variation-with-offset and AVO analysis and fracture characterization. Today,the anisotropy,as an important part in exploration and reservoir geophysics,has been included in every exploration geophysicist's toolkit.
引文
[1]Helbig K,Thomsen L.75-plus years of anisotropy in exploration and reservoir seismics:A historical review of concepts and method[J].Geophysics,2005,70(6):9-23.
[2]Thomson W.Elements of a mathematical theory of elasticity,Part1,On stresses and strains[J].Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,1856,146(21):481-498.
[3]Christoffel E B.U咬ber die fortpflanzung von Stossen durch elastisch festeKorper[J].Annalidi Matematica,1877,8:193-243.
[4]Rudzki M P.Parametrische darstellung der elastischen welle in anisotropen medien[M].Cracovie:Imprimerie de l'Université,1911:503-536.
[5]Love A.A treatise on the mathematical theory of elasticity[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1892.
[6]Bruggeman D A D.Berechnung verschiedener physikalisher konstanten vonheterogenen Substantzen[J].Annalen der Physik,1935,416(7):636-664.
[7]Crampin S.Seismic wave propagation through a cracked solid:Polarization as a possible dilatancy diagnostic[J].Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society,1978,53(3):467-496.
[8]Gupta I N.Premonitory variations in S-wave velocity anisotropy before earthquakes in Nevada[J].Science,1973,182(4117):1129-1132.
[9]Gupta I N.Premonitory seismic wave phenomena before earthquakes near Fairview Peak,Nevada[J].EOS,Transactions of the American Geophysical Union,1975,65(2):425-437.
[10]Crampin S.A review of wave motion in an anisotropic and cracked elastic media[J].Wave Motion,1981,3(4):343-391.
[11]Crampin S.Shear-wave polarizations:A plea for three-component recording[C]//53rd Annual International Meeting.California:SEG,1983:425-428.
[12]Crampin S.Evaluation of anisotropy by shear-wave splitting[J].Geophysics,1985,50:142-152.
[13]Crampin S.Calculable fluid-rock interactions[J].Journal of the Geological Society,1999,156(3):501-514.
[14]Crampin S,Peacock S.A review of shear-wave splitting in the compliant crack-critical anisotropic earth[J].Wave Motion,2005,41(1):59-77.
[15]Danbom S,Domenico N.Shear-wave exploration[M].California:SEG Geophysical Developments1,1987.
[16]Hudson J A.Wave speeds and attenuation of elastic waves in material containing cracks[J].Geophysical Journal International,1981,64(1):133-150.
[17]Hudson J A.A higher order approximation to the wave propagation constants for a cracked solid[J].Geophysical Journal International,1986,87(1):265-274.
[18]Thomsen L.Weak elastic anisotropy[J].Geophysics,1986,51(10):1954-1966.
[19]Wang Z.Seismic anisotropy in sedimentary rocks,part2:Laboratory data[J].Geophysics,2002,67(5):1423-1440.
[20]Tsvankin I.Anisotropic parameters and P-wave velocity for orthorhombic media[J].Geophysics,1997,62(4):1292-1309.
[21]Grechka V,Tsvankin I.3-D description of normal moveout in anisotropic inhomogeneous media[J].Geophysics,1998,63(3):1079-1092.
[22]Mensch T,Rasolofosaon P.Elastic-wave velocities in anisotropic media of arbitrary symmetry-generalization of Thomsen's parameters epsilon,delta and gamma[J].Geophysical Journal International,1997,128(2):43-64.
[23]Grechka V.Parameter estimation in orthorhombic media using multicomponent wide-azimuth reflection data[J].Geophysics,2005,70(2):D1-D8.
[24]Zhu Y P,Tsvankin I.Plane-wave propagation in attenuative transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,2006,71(2):T17-T30.
[25]Zhu Y P,Tsvankin I.Plane-wave attenuation anisotropy in orthorhombic media[J].Geophysics,2007,72(1):D9-D19.
[26]Eshelby J D.The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion and related problems[J].Proceedings of the Royal Society,1957,241(1226):376-396.
[27]Bristow J R.Microcracks and the static and dynamic elastic constants of annealed and heavily cold-worked metals[J].British Journal of Applied Physics,1960,11(2):81-85.
[28]Schoenberg M.Elastic wave behavior across linear slip interfaces[J].Journal of Acoustical Society of America,1980,68(5):1516-1521.
[29]Grechka V,Tsvankin I.3-D moveout inversion in azimuthally anisotropic media with lateral velocity variation:Theory and a case study[J].Geophysics,1999,64(4):1202-1218.
[30]Grechka V,Tsvankin I,Cohen J K.Generalized Dix equation and analytic treatment of normal-moveout velocity for anisotropic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,1999,47(2):117-148.
[31]Jenner E.Azimuthal anisotropy of3-D compressional wave seismic data,Weyburn fleld,Saskatchewan,Canada[D].Colorado:Colorado School of Mines,2001.
[32]Grechka V,Contreras P,Tsvankin I.Inversion of normal moveout for monoclinic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2000,48(3):577-602.
[33]Grechka V,Mateeva A,Franco G,et al.Estimation of seismic anisotropy from P-wave VSP data[J].The Leading Edge,2007,26(6):756-759.
[34]Sena A G.Seismic traveltime equations for azimuthally anisotropic and isotropicmedia:Estimation of interval elastic properties[J].Geophysics,1991,56(12):2090-2101.
[35]Byun B S,Corrigan D,Gaiser J E.Anisotropic velocity analysis for lithology discrimination[J].Geophysics,1989,54(12):1564-1574.
[36]Tsvankin I,Thomsen L.Nonhyperbolic reflection moveout in anisotropic media[J].Geophysics,1994,59(8):1290-1304.
[37]Alkhalifah T,Tsvankin I.Velocity analysis for transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,1995,60(5):1550-1566.
[38]Vasconcelos I,Tsvankin I.Nonhyperbolic moveout inversion of wide-azimuth P-wave data for orthorhombic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2006,54(5):535-552.
[39]Daley P,Hron F.Reflection and transmission coefficients for transversely isotropic media[J].Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,1977,67(3):661-675.
[40]Rüger A.Reflection coefficients and azimuthal AVO analysis in anisotropic media[M].USA:Society of Exploration Geophysicists,2002.
[41]Banik N C.An effective anisotropy parameter in transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,1987,52(12):1654-1664.
[42]Thomsen L.Weak anisotropic refiections[C]//Castagna J,Backus M.Offset dependent reflectivity.SEG,1993:103-114.
[43]Rüger A.P-wave refiection coefficients for transversely isotropic models with vertical and horizontal axis of symmetry[J].Geophysics,1997,62(3):713-722.
[44]de Nicolao A,Drufuca G,Rocca F.Eigenvectors and eigenvalues oflinearized elastic inversion[J].Geophysics,1993,58(5):670-679.
[45]Mallick S,Frazer L N.Reflection/transmission coefficients and azimuthal anisotropy in marine seismic studies[J].Geophysical Journal International,1991,105(1):241-252.
[46]Gray F D,Roberts G,Head K J.Recent advances in determination of fracture strike and crack density from P-wave seismic data[J].The Leading Edge,2002,21(3):280-285.
[47]Vavryc姚uk V,Ps姚enc姚ík I.PP-wave reflection coefficients in weakly anisotropic elastic media[J].Geophysics,1998,63(3):2129-2141.
[48]Rüger A.Variation of P-wave reflectivity with offset and azimuth in anisotropic media[J].Geophysics,1998,63(3):935-947.
[49]Gray F D,Todorovic-Marinic D.Fracture detection using3D azimuthal AVO[J].CSEG Recorder,2004,29:5-8.
[50]Hall S,Kendall J M.Fracture characterization at Valhall:Application of P-wave amplitude variation with offset and azimuth analysis to a3-D ocean-bottom data set[J].Geophysics,2003,68(4):1150-1160.
[51]Clark R A,Benson P M,Carter A J G,et al.Anisotropic P-wave attenuation measured from a multi-azimuth surface seismic reflection survey[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2009,57(7):835-845.
[52]Chapman C.Fundamentals of seismic wave propagation[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004.
[53]Chapman C.The influence of abnormally high reservoir attenuation on the AVO signature[J].The Leading Edge,2005,24(11):1120-1125.
[54]Zhu Y P,Tsvankin I,Dewangan P,et al.Physical modeling and analysis of P-wave attenuation anisotropy in transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,2007,72(1):D1-D7.
[55]Chichinina T,Obolentseva I,Gik L,et al.Attenuation anisotropy in the linear-slip model:Interpretation of physical modeling data[J].Geophysics,2009,74(5):WB165-WB176.
[56]Martinez R D.Wave propagation effects on amplitude variation with offset measurements:A modeling study[J].Geophysics,1993,58(4):534-543.
[57]Maultzsch S,Horne S,Archer S,et al.Effects of an anisotropic overburden on azimuthal amplitude analysis in horizontal transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2003,51(1):61-74.
[58]Vanelle C,Gajewski D.Determination of geometrical spreading from traveltimes[J].Journal of Applied Geophysics,2003,54(3-4):391-400.
[59]Ursin B,Hokstad K.Geometrical spreading in a layered transversely isotropic medium with vertical symmetry axis[J].Geophysics,2003,68(6):2082-2091.
[60]Xu X,Tsvankin I.Moveout-based geometrical-spreading correction for PS-waves in layered anisotropic media[J].Journal of Geophysics and Engineering,2008,5(2):195-202.
[2]Thomson W.Elements of a mathematical theory of elasticity,Part1,On stresses and strains[J].Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,1856,146(21):481-498.
[3]Christoffel E B.U咬ber die fortpflanzung von Stossen durch elastisch festeKorper[J].Annalidi Matematica,1877,8:193-243.
[4]Rudzki M P.Parametrische darstellung der elastischen welle in anisotropen medien[M].Cracovie:Imprimerie de l'Université,1911:503-536.
[5]Love A.A treatise on the mathematical theory of elasticity[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1892.
[6]Bruggeman D A D.Berechnung verschiedener physikalisher konstanten vonheterogenen Substantzen[J].Annalen der Physik,1935,416(7):636-664.
[7]Crampin S.Seismic wave propagation through a cracked solid:Polarization as a possible dilatancy diagnostic[J].Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society,1978,53(3):467-496.
[8]Gupta I N.Premonitory variations in S-wave velocity anisotropy before earthquakes in Nevada[J].Science,1973,182(4117):1129-1132.
[9]Gupta I N.Premonitory seismic wave phenomena before earthquakes near Fairview Peak,Nevada[J].EOS,Transactions of the American Geophysical Union,1975,65(2):425-437.
[10]Crampin S.A review of wave motion in an anisotropic and cracked elastic media[J].Wave Motion,1981,3(4):343-391.
[11]Crampin S.Shear-wave polarizations:A plea for three-component recording[C]//53rd Annual International Meeting.California:SEG,1983:425-428.
[12]Crampin S.Evaluation of anisotropy by shear-wave splitting[J].Geophysics,1985,50:142-152.
[13]Crampin S.Calculable fluid-rock interactions[J].Journal of the Geological Society,1999,156(3):501-514.
[14]Crampin S,Peacock S.A review of shear-wave splitting in the compliant crack-critical anisotropic earth[J].Wave Motion,2005,41(1):59-77.
[15]Danbom S,Domenico N.Shear-wave exploration[M].California:SEG Geophysical Developments1,1987.
[16]Hudson J A.Wave speeds and attenuation of elastic waves in material containing cracks[J].Geophysical Journal International,1981,64(1):133-150.
[17]Hudson J A.A higher order approximation to the wave propagation constants for a cracked solid[J].Geophysical Journal International,1986,87(1):265-274.
[18]Thomsen L.Weak elastic anisotropy[J].Geophysics,1986,51(10):1954-1966.
[19]Wang Z.Seismic anisotropy in sedimentary rocks,part2:Laboratory data[J].Geophysics,2002,67(5):1423-1440.
[20]Tsvankin I.Anisotropic parameters and P-wave velocity for orthorhombic media[J].Geophysics,1997,62(4):1292-1309.
[21]Grechka V,Tsvankin I.3-D description of normal moveout in anisotropic inhomogeneous media[J].Geophysics,1998,63(3):1079-1092.
[22]Mensch T,Rasolofosaon P.Elastic-wave velocities in anisotropic media of arbitrary symmetry-generalization of Thomsen's parameters epsilon,delta and gamma[J].Geophysical Journal International,1997,128(2):43-64.
[23]Grechka V.Parameter estimation in orthorhombic media using multicomponent wide-azimuth reflection data[J].Geophysics,2005,70(2):D1-D8.
[24]Zhu Y P,Tsvankin I.Plane-wave propagation in attenuative transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,2006,71(2):T17-T30.
[25]Zhu Y P,Tsvankin I.Plane-wave attenuation anisotropy in orthorhombic media[J].Geophysics,2007,72(1):D9-D19.
[26]Eshelby J D.The determination of the elastic field of an ellipsoidal inclusion and related problems[J].Proceedings of the Royal Society,1957,241(1226):376-396.
[27]Bristow J R.Microcracks and the static and dynamic elastic constants of annealed and heavily cold-worked metals[J].British Journal of Applied Physics,1960,11(2):81-85.
[28]Schoenberg M.Elastic wave behavior across linear slip interfaces[J].Journal of Acoustical Society of America,1980,68(5):1516-1521.
[29]Grechka V,Tsvankin I.3-D moveout inversion in azimuthally anisotropic media with lateral velocity variation:Theory and a case study[J].Geophysics,1999,64(4):1202-1218.
[30]Grechka V,Tsvankin I,Cohen J K.Generalized Dix equation and analytic treatment of normal-moveout velocity for anisotropic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,1999,47(2):117-148.
[31]Jenner E.Azimuthal anisotropy of3-D compressional wave seismic data,Weyburn fleld,Saskatchewan,Canada[D].Colorado:Colorado School of Mines,2001.
[32]Grechka V,Contreras P,Tsvankin I.Inversion of normal moveout for monoclinic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2000,48(3):577-602.
[33]Grechka V,Mateeva A,Franco G,et al.Estimation of seismic anisotropy from P-wave VSP data[J].The Leading Edge,2007,26(6):756-759.
[34]Sena A G.Seismic traveltime equations for azimuthally anisotropic and isotropicmedia:Estimation of interval elastic properties[J].Geophysics,1991,56(12):2090-2101.
[35]Byun B S,Corrigan D,Gaiser J E.Anisotropic velocity analysis for lithology discrimination[J].Geophysics,1989,54(12):1564-1574.
[36]Tsvankin I,Thomsen L.Nonhyperbolic reflection moveout in anisotropic media[J].Geophysics,1994,59(8):1290-1304.
[37]Alkhalifah T,Tsvankin I.Velocity analysis for transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,1995,60(5):1550-1566.
[38]Vasconcelos I,Tsvankin I.Nonhyperbolic moveout inversion of wide-azimuth P-wave data for orthorhombic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2006,54(5):535-552.
[39]Daley P,Hron F.Reflection and transmission coefficients for transversely isotropic media[J].Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,1977,67(3):661-675.
[40]Rüger A.Reflection coefficients and azimuthal AVO analysis in anisotropic media[M].USA:Society of Exploration Geophysicists,2002.
[41]Banik N C.An effective anisotropy parameter in transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,1987,52(12):1654-1664.
[42]Thomsen L.Weak anisotropic refiections[C]//Castagna J,Backus M.Offset dependent reflectivity.SEG,1993:103-114.
[43]Rüger A.P-wave refiection coefficients for transversely isotropic models with vertical and horizontal axis of symmetry[J].Geophysics,1997,62(3):713-722.
[44]de Nicolao A,Drufuca G,Rocca F.Eigenvectors and eigenvalues oflinearized elastic inversion[J].Geophysics,1993,58(5):670-679.
[45]Mallick S,Frazer L N.Reflection/transmission coefficients and azimuthal anisotropy in marine seismic studies[J].Geophysical Journal International,1991,105(1):241-252.
[46]Gray F D,Roberts G,Head K J.Recent advances in determination of fracture strike and crack density from P-wave seismic data[J].The Leading Edge,2002,21(3):280-285.
[47]Vavryc姚uk V,Ps姚enc姚ík I.PP-wave reflection coefficients in weakly anisotropic elastic media[J].Geophysics,1998,63(3):2129-2141.
[48]Rüger A.Variation of P-wave reflectivity with offset and azimuth in anisotropic media[J].Geophysics,1998,63(3):935-947.
[49]Gray F D,Todorovic-Marinic D.Fracture detection using3D azimuthal AVO[J].CSEG Recorder,2004,29:5-8.
[50]Hall S,Kendall J M.Fracture characterization at Valhall:Application of P-wave amplitude variation with offset and azimuth analysis to a3-D ocean-bottom data set[J].Geophysics,2003,68(4):1150-1160.
[51]Clark R A,Benson P M,Carter A J G,et al.Anisotropic P-wave attenuation measured from a multi-azimuth surface seismic reflection survey[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2009,57(7):835-845.
[52]Chapman C.Fundamentals of seismic wave propagation[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004.
[53]Chapman C.The influence of abnormally high reservoir attenuation on the AVO signature[J].The Leading Edge,2005,24(11):1120-1125.
[54]Zhu Y P,Tsvankin I,Dewangan P,et al.Physical modeling and analysis of P-wave attenuation anisotropy in transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysics,2007,72(1):D1-D7.
[55]Chichinina T,Obolentseva I,Gik L,et al.Attenuation anisotropy in the linear-slip model:Interpretation of physical modeling data[J].Geophysics,2009,74(5):WB165-WB176.
[56]Martinez R D.Wave propagation effects on amplitude variation with offset measurements:A modeling study[J].Geophysics,1993,58(4):534-543.
[57]Maultzsch S,Horne S,Archer S,et al.Effects of an anisotropic overburden on azimuthal amplitude analysis in horizontal transversely isotropic media[J].Geophysical Prospecting,2003,51(1):61-74.
[58]Vanelle C,Gajewski D.Determination of geometrical spreading from traveltimes[J].Journal of Applied Geophysics,2003,54(3-4):391-400.
[59]Ursin B,Hokstad K.Geometrical spreading in a layered transversely isotropic medium with vertical symmetry axis[J].Geophysics,2003,68(6):2082-2091.
[60]Xu X,Tsvankin I.Moveout-based geometrical-spreading correction for PS-waves in layered anisotropic media[J].Journal of Geophysics and Engineering,2008,5(2):195-202.
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