从不整合面复杂的地质涵义窥视层序地层学的诞生:层序地层学重要的科学命题之一
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摘要
不整合是地层记录中最显眼的最壮观的地质现象之一,这种表现为地层的不协调接触关系的地层面具有复杂的地质学涵义。上世纪60年代以前,地质学家对不整合的地质涵义主要集中在构造地质学方面,因为角度不整合明显包含着褶皱幕,这不但产生了构造旋回或构造地层学的概念,而且产生了繁杂混乱的不整合名称。在沉积岩地层中,不整合常常表现为两种:角度不整合面和平行不连续面;前者表明存在明显的构造作用,后者可能意味着构造上升,而且均包含有明显的地层缺失。早期的学者将不整合面所限定的地层序列定义为"层序",代表只是由不整合面所限定的地层单位;随着地震地层学的兴起和广泛应用,地层体内部各种终止现象的发现、以及它们的地层学和沉积学解释,导致了层序地层学的出现,从而产生了"层序"这一术语的变化,即"不整合面及其可以对比的整合面所限定的相对整合的地层序列"为新的"层序"概念。新的定义不但使层序地层学进入了地层学实践的主流,而且赋予了层序地层学新的活力。但是,在基于地震资料的层序地层学模式中,把可以对比的整合面被刻画为等同于基准面上升的时间面。这种将概念性的时间面作为层序界面一部分的使用,导致了层序地层学等同于年代地层学,而且这种解释导致了一系列的误解和问题,这些问题主要包括层序地层学中单元的定义和界面的识别。特别有趣的是,基于地震反射终止所提供的地层体内部各种复杂的终止现象,在建立"沉积层序"的地震地层学模式时,地质学家们展现了极为精妙的地层穿时性的实际几何形态。所以,追索不整合面的复杂地质涵义来了解层序地层学的发展和存在问题自然就成为层序地层学的重要科学命题之一,解读前辈学者对这个科学命题的长期探索将有助于层序地层学的进一步发展。
As a conspicuous geological phenomenon that mark the discordant contact relationship between strata,unconformity is an important stratigraphic surface with complex geological meanings.In the 1960s,most studies focused on the tectonic meaning of unconformity because an angular unconformity signifies a folding episode,which led to both the important concept of tectonic cycle or tectonic stratigraphy and the confusing nomenclatures of unconformities.In depositional strata,there are mainly two types of unconformities that are the angular unconformity and the leurodiscontinuity.An angular unconformity indicates an obvious tectonic event and a leurodiscontinuity implies a crustal uplift,both of which mark distinct stratigraphic hiatuses.In early times,a stratigraphic succession bound by unconformities was defined as a "sequence",or an "Unconformity"-bounded Unit.With the rise and broad application of seismic stratigraphy,both the discovery of many stratigraphic terminations within strata and their stratigraphic and sedimentological interpretations led to the emergence of an important and new stratigraphic discipline:sequence stratigraphy.Further,the term "sequence" has been modified to refer to a unit "bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities".This new definition made sequence stratigraphy a mainstream of stratigraphic practice.However,correlative conformities were portrayed as time surfaces equivalent to the start of base level rise on their sequence stratigraphic model which was based on the seismic data.The use of conceptual time surfaces as part of the sequence boundary made sequence stratigraphy equated with chronostratigraphy.This interpreted equivalence between sequence stratigraphy and chronostratigraphy has led to a number of misconceptions and problems associated with boundary recognition and unit definition in sequence stratigraphy.More interestingly,during the construction of a depositional sequence model on the basis of the complex termination of seismic reflections within strata geologists have recognized excellent geometrical pattern of stratigraphic diachronism.Therefore,it is important to further understand the problems and development of sequence stratigraphy to untangle the complex geological meanings of unconformity,which is the most important scientific problem of sequence atratigraphy.Furthermore,a thorough understanding of the accumulated research by the founding scholars on the complex geological meanings of the unconformity is very helpful to further the field of sequence stratigraphy in decades ahead.
As a conspicuous geological phenomenon that mark the discordant contact relationship between strata,unconformity is an important stratigraphic surface with complex geological meanings.In the 1960s,most studies focused on the tectonic meaning of unconformity because an angular unconformity signifies a folding episode,which led to both the important concept of tectonic cycle or tectonic stratigraphy and the confusing nomenclatures of unconformities.In depositional strata,there are mainly two types of unconformities that are the angular unconformity and the leurodiscontinuity.An angular unconformity indicates an obvious tectonic event and a leurodiscontinuity implies a crustal uplift,both of which mark distinct stratigraphic hiatuses.In early times,a stratigraphic succession bound by unconformities was defined as a "sequence",or an "Unconformity"-bounded Unit.With the rise and broad application of seismic stratigraphy,both the discovery of many stratigraphic terminations within strata and their stratigraphic and sedimentological interpretations led to the emergence of an important and new stratigraphic discipline:sequence stratigraphy.Further,the term "sequence" has been modified to refer to a unit "bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities".This new definition made sequence stratigraphy a mainstream of stratigraphic practice.However,correlative conformities were portrayed as time surfaces equivalent to the start of base level rise on their sequence stratigraphic model which was based on the seismic data.The use of conceptual time surfaces as part of the sequence boundary made sequence stratigraphy equated with chronostratigraphy.This interpreted equivalence between sequence stratigraphy and chronostratigraphy has led to a number of misconceptions and problems associated with boundary recognition and unit definition in sequence stratigraphy.More interestingly,during the construction of a depositional sequence model on the basis of the complex termination of seismic reflections within strata geologists have recognized excellent geometrical pattern of stratigraphic diachronism.Therefore,it is important to further understand the problems and development of sequence stratigraphy to untangle the complex geological meanings of unconformity,which is the most important scientific problem of sequence atratigraphy.Furthermore,a thorough understanding of the accumulated research by the founding scholars on the complex geological meanings of the unconformity is very helpful to further the field of sequence stratigraphy in decades ahead.
引文
陈晋镳,武铁山.1997.华北区区域地层.武汉:中国地质大学出版社.20-44
梅冥相.1996.淹没不整合型碳酸盐三级旋回层序——兼论碳酸盐台地的凝缩作用.岩相古地理,16(6):24-33
梅冥相,马永生.2001.从旋回层序的特征论地层记录的两种相变面及两种穿时性.地层学杂志,25(2):150-153
尹赞勋,张守信,谢翠华.1978.论褶皱幕.北京:科学出版社.1-106
章森桂,张允白,严惠君.2009.“国际地层表”(2008)简介.地层学杂志,33(1):1-10
张守信.2006.理论地层学与应用地层学.北京:高等教育出版社.1-314
Barrell J.1917.Rhythms and the measurements of geologic time.Bulletin Geological Society America,28:745-904
Brown Jr L F&Fisher WL.1977.Seismic stratigraphicinterpreta-tion of depositional systems:examples from Brazilian rift andpull apart basins.In:Payton C Eed.Seismic stratigraphy:ap-plications to hydrocarbon exploration.American Association ofPetroleum Geologists,Memoir26:213-248
Cartwright J A,Haddock R C&Pinheiro L M.1993.The lateralextent of sequence boundaries.In:Williams G D&Dobb Aeds.Tectonics and seismic sequence stratigraphy.GeologicalSociety of London,Special Publication71:15-34
Catuneanu O,Abreu V,Bhattacharya J P,Blum MD,Dalrymple RW,Eriksson P G,Fielding C R,Fisher WL,Galloway WE,Gibling MR,Gile K A,Holbrook J M,Jordan R,Kendall C GSt C,Macurda B,Martinsen O J,Miall A D,Nea J E,Nummedal D,Pomar L,Posamentier H W,Pratt B R,Sarg JF,Shanley K W,Steel RJ,Strasser A,Tucker ME&WinkerC.2009.Towards the standardization of sequence stratigraphy.Earth-Science Reviews,92:1-33
Catuneanu O.2006.Principles of sequence stratigraphy.Amster-dam:Elsevier.1-375
Chang K.1975.Unconformity-bounded stratigraphic units.BulletinGeological Society America,86:1544-1552
Chen Jin-biao&Wu Tie-shan.1997.Regional stratigraphy of NorthChina.Wuhan:China University of Geosciences Press.20-44
Coe Aed.2003.The sedimentary record of sea-level change.Cam-bridge:Cambridge University Press.1-287
Embry A.2001.The six surfaces of sequence stratigraphy.In:AAPG Hedberg Conference on sequence stratigraphic and allos-tratigraphic principles and concepts,Dallas.Abstract volume:26-27
Embry A.2002.Transgressive-Regressive(T-R)sequence stratig-raphy,In:Armentrout J&Rosen N eds.Sequence strati-graphic models for exploration and production.Houston:GulfCoast SEPMConference Proceedings.151-172
Emery D&Myers K.1997.Sequence stratigraphy.London:Black-well.1-297
Eriksson P G,Catuneanu O,Nelson D R&Pop M.2005.Controlson Precambrian sealevel change and sedimentary cyclicity.Sed-imentary Geology,176:43-65
Forgotson J.1957.Nature,usage and definition of marker-definedvertically segregated rock units.AAPG,Bulletin41:2108-2113
Frazier D.1974.Depositional episodes:their relationship to theQuaternary stratigraphic frameworkinthe northwestern portionof the Gulf Basin.Bureauof Economic Geology,University ofTexas,Geological Circular74-1:1-26
Galloway WE.1989.Genetic stratigraphic sequencesin basin analy-sis,I.Architecture and genesis of flooding-surface boundeddepositional units.AAPG,Bulletin73:125-142
Gmez J J&Fernández-Lpez S.1994.Condensed processes inshallow platform.Sedimentary Geology,92:147-159
Haq B U,Hardenbol J&Vail P R.1987.Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic(250million years ago to present).Science,235:1156-1166
Hedberg H D.1959.Towards a harmonyin stratigraphic classifica-tion.American Journal of Science,257:674-683
Helland-Hansen W&Gjelberg J.1994.Conceptual basis and varia-bility in sequence stratigraphy:a different perspective.Sedi-mentary Geology,92:1-52
Helland-Hansen W&Martinsen O J.1996.Shoreline trajectoriesand sequences:description of variable depositional-dip scenari-os.Journal of Sedimentary Research,66:670-688
Hunt D&Tucker M.1992.Stranded parasequences and the forcedregressive wedge systems tract:deposition during base levelfall.Sedimentary Geology,81:1-9
Jervey M.1988.Quantitative geological modeling of siliciclastic rocksequences and their seismic expression.In:Wilgus C,HastingsB S,Kendall C G,Posamentier H W,Ross C A&Van Wag-oner J C eds.Sea level changes:an integrated approach.SEPM,Special Publication42:47-69
Krumbein W&Sloss L.1951.Stratigraphy and sedimentation.SanFrancisco:W MFreeman&Co.1-495
Mei Ming-xiang.1996.The third-order carbonate carbonate cyclicsequences of dreowned unconformity type with discussion on“condensation”of carbonate platform.Sedimentary Facies andPaleogeography,16(6):24-33
Mei Ming-xiang&Ma Yong-sheng.2001.On two kinds of facies-change surface and two kinds of diachronismin stratigraphicalrecords according to the natures of cyclic-sequences.Journal ofStratigraphy,25(2):150-153
Miall A D.1995.Whither stratigraphy Sedimentary Geology,100:5-20
Mitchum R,Vail P&Thompson S.1977.Seismic stratigraphy andglobal changes in sea level,part2:the depositional sequence asthe basic unit for stratigraphic analysis.In:Payton C ed.Seis-mic stratigraphy:application to hydrocarbon exploration.AAPG,Memoir26:53-62
North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature(NAC-SN).2005.North American stratigraphic code.American As-sociation of Petroleum Geologists,Bulletin89:1547-1591
Payton C ed.1977.Seismic stratigraphy:applications to hydrocar-bon exploration.AAPG,Memoir26:1-516
Plint A&Nummedal D.2000.The falling stage systems tract:rec-ognition and importance in sequence stratigraphic analysis,In:Hunt D&Gawthorpe R eds.Sedimentary responses to forcedregressions.Geological Society of London,Special Publication172:1-17
Posamentier H W.2000.Seismic stratigraphy into the next millen-nium;a focus on3Dseismic data.In:American Association ofPetroleum Geologists Annual Convention,New Orleans.Ab-stracts Volume,9:117-118
Posamentier H W&Allen G.1999.Siliciclastic sequence stratigra-phy:concepts and applications.SEPM,Concepts in Sedimen-tology and Paleontology7:1-210
Posamentier H W,Jervey MT&Vail P R.1988.Eustatic controlson clastic deposition,I.conceptual framework.In:Wilgus CK,Hastings B S,Kendall C GSt C,Posamentier H W,Ross CA&Van Wagoner J C eds.Sea level changes:an integratedApproach.SEPM,Special Publication42:110-124
Salvador A.1994.International Stratigraphic Guide(2nd edition).Boulder:International Union of Geological Sciences and Geolog-ical Society of America.1-214
Schlager W.1991.Depositional bias and environmental change:im-portant factorsin sequence stratigraphy.Sedimentary Geology,70:109-130
Schlager W.1998.Exposure,drowning and sequence boundaries oncarbonate platforms.In:Camoin G&Davies P eds.Reefs andcarbonate platforms in the Pacific and Indian oceans.Interna-tional Association of Sedimentologists,Special Publication25:321
Schlager W.1999.Type3sequence boundaries.In:Harris P,Sal-ler A&Simo Aeds.Carbonate sequence stratigraphy:applica-tion to reservoirs,outcrops and models.SEPM,Special Publi-cation63:35-46
Shaw A B.1964.Time in stratigraphy.New York:McGraw-HillBook Corporation.1-498
Sloss L,Krumbein W&Dapples E.1949.Integrated facies analy-sis,In:Longwell C ed.Sedimentary facies in geologic history.Geological Society America,Memoir39:91-124
Sloss L.1963.Sequences in the cratonic interior of North America.GSA,Bulletin74:93-113
Vail P R,Audemard F,Bowman S A,Eisner P N&Perez-Cruz C.1991.The stratigraphic signatures of tectonics,eustasy andsedimentology:an overview.In:Einsele G,Ricken W&Seila-cher Aeds.Cycles and eventsin stratigraphy.Berlin:Springer-Verlag.617-659
Vail P R,MitchumJr R M&Thompson III S.1977.Seismic stra-tigraphy and global changes of sea level,part3.relative chan-ges of sea level fromcoastal onlap.In:Payton C E ed.Seismicstratigraphy:applications to hydrocarbon exploration.AAPG,Memoir26:63-81
Van Wagoner J C.1995.Overviewof sequence stratigraphy of fore-land basin deposits:terminology,summary of papers,and glos-sary of sequence stratigraphy.In:Van Wagoner J C&BertramG Teds.Sequence stratigraphy of foreland basin deposits:out-crop and subsurface examples fromthe Cretaceous of North A-merica.AAPG,Memoir64:10-101
Van Wagoner J C,Posamentier H W,Mitchum R M,Vail P R,Sarg J F,Loutit TS&Hardenbol J.1988.An overviewof se-quence stratigraphy and key definitions.In:Wilgus C K,Has-tings B S,Kendall C G St C,Posamentier H W,Ross C A&Van Wagoner J C eds.Sea level changes:an integrated ap-proach.SEPM,Special Publication42:39-45
Van Wagoner J C,MitchumJr R M,Campion K M&Rahmanian VD.1990.Siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy in well logs,core,and outcrops:concepts for high-resolution correlation of timeand facies.AAPG,Methods in Exploration Series7:1-55
Wheeler HE.1948.Critique of the time-stratigraphic concept.Bul-letin of Geological Society of America,59:75-85
Wheeler H E.1958.Time stratigraphy.AAPG,Bulletin42:1208-1218
Wilgus C K,Hastings B S,Kendall C G St C,Posamentier H W,Ross C A&Van Wagoner J C eds.Sea level changes:aninte-grated approach.SEPM,Special Publication42:1-499
Yin Zan-xun,Zhang Shou-xin&Xie Cui-hua.1978.Discussion onthe fold episode.Beijing:Science Press.1-106
Zhang Sen-gui,Zhang Yun-bai&Yan Hui-jun.2009.Abrief intro-duction to the‘International Stratigraphic Chart’(2008).Journal of Stratigraphy,33(1):1-10
Zhang Shou-xin.2006.Theoretical stratigraphy and applied stratig-raphy.Beijing:Higher Education Press.1-314
梅冥相.1996.淹没不整合型碳酸盐三级旋回层序——兼论碳酸盐台地的凝缩作用.岩相古地理,16(6):24-33
梅冥相,马永生.2001.从旋回层序的特征论地层记录的两种相变面及两种穿时性.地层学杂志,25(2):150-153
尹赞勋,张守信,谢翠华.1978.论褶皱幕.北京:科学出版社.1-106
章森桂,张允白,严惠君.2009.“国际地层表”(2008)简介.地层学杂志,33(1):1-10
张守信.2006.理论地层学与应用地层学.北京:高等教育出版社.1-314
Barrell J.1917.Rhythms and the measurements of geologic time.Bulletin Geological Society America,28:745-904
Brown Jr L F&Fisher WL.1977.Seismic stratigraphicinterpreta-tion of depositional systems:examples from Brazilian rift andpull apart basins.In:Payton C Eed.Seismic stratigraphy:ap-plications to hydrocarbon exploration.American Association ofPetroleum Geologists,Memoir26:213-248
Cartwright J A,Haddock R C&Pinheiro L M.1993.The lateralextent of sequence boundaries.In:Williams G D&Dobb Aeds.Tectonics and seismic sequence stratigraphy.GeologicalSociety of London,Special Publication71:15-34
Catuneanu O,Abreu V,Bhattacharya J P,Blum MD,Dalrymple RW,Eriksson P G,Fielding C R,Fisher WL,Galloway WE,Gibling MR,Gile K A,Holbrook J M,Jordan R,Kendall C GSt C,Macurda B,Martinsen O J,Miall A D,Nea J E,Nummedal D,Pomar L,Posamentier H W,Pratt B R,Sarg JF,Shanley K W,Steel RJ,Strasser A,Tucker ME&WinkerC.2009.Towards the standardization of sequence stratigraphy.Earth-Science Reviews,92:1-33
Catuneanu O.2006.Principles of sequence stratigraphy.Amster-dam:Elsevier.1-375
Chang K.1975.Unconformity-bounded stratigraphic units.BulletinGeological Society America,86:1544-1552
Chen Jin-biao&Wu Tie-shan.1997.Regional stratigraphy of NorthChina.Wuhan:China University of Geosciences Press.20-44
Coe Aed.2003.The sedimentary record of sea-level change.Cam-bridge:Cambridge University Press.1-287
Embry A.2001.The six surfaces of sequence stratigraphy.In:AAPG Hedberg Conference on sequence stratigraphic and allos-tratigraphic principles and concepts,Dallas.Abstract volume:26-27
Embry A.2002.Transgressive-Regressive(T-R)sequence stratig-raphy,In:Armentrout J&Rosen N eds.Sequence strati-graphic models for exploration and production.Houston:GulfCoast SEPMConference Proceedings.151-172
Emery D&Myers K.1997.Sequence stratigraphy.London:Black-well.1-297
Eriksson P G,Catuneanu O,Nelson D R&Pop M.2005.Controlson Precambrian sealevel change and sedimentary cyclicity.Sed-imentary Geology,176:43-65
Forgotson J.1957.Nature,usage and definition of marker-definedvertically segregated rock units.AAPG,Bulletin41:2108-2113
Frazier D.1974.Depositional episodes:their relationship to theQuaternary stratigraphic frameworkinthe northwestern portionof the Gulf Basin.Bureauof Economic Geology,University ofTexas,Geological Circular74-1:1-26
Galloway WE.1989.Genetic stratigraphic sequencesin basin analy-sis,I.Architecture and genesis of flooding-surface boundeddepositional units.AAPG,Bulletin73:125-142
Gmez J J&Fernández-Lpez S.1994.Condensed processes inshallow platform.Sedimentary Geology,92:147-159
Haq B U,Hardenbol J&Vail P R.1987.Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic(250million years ago to present).Science,235:1156-1166
Hedberg H D.1959.Towards a harmonyin stratigraphic classifica-tion.American Journal of Science,257:674-683
Helland-Hansen W&Gjelberg J.1994.Conceptual basis and varia-bility in sequence stratigraphy:a different perspective.Sedi-mentary Geology,92:1-52
Helland-Hansen W&Martinsen O J.1996.Shoreline trajectoriesand sequences:description of variable depositional-dip scenari-os.Journal of Sedimentary Research,66:670-688
Hunt D&Tucker M.1992.Stranded parasequences and the forcedregressive wedge systems tract:deposition during base levelfall.Sedimentary Geology,81:1-9
Jervey M.1988.Quantitative geological modeling of siliciclastic rocksequences and their seismic expression.In:Wilgus C,HastingsB S,Kendall C G,Posamentier H W,Ross C A&Van Wag-oner J C eds.Sea level changes:an integrated approach.SEPM,Special Publication42:47-69
Krumbein W&Sloss L.1951.Stratigraphy and sedimentation.SanFrancisco:W MFreeman&Co.1-495
Mei Ming-xiang.1996.The third-order carbonate carbonate cyclicsequences of dreowned unconformity type with discussion on“condensation”of carbonate platform.Sedimentary Facies andPaleogeography,16(6):24-33
Mei Ming-xiang&Ma Yong-sheng.2001.On two kinds of facies-change surface and two kinds of diachronismin stratigraphicalrecords according to the natures of cyclic-sequences.Journal ofStratigraphy,25(2):150-153
Miall A D.1995.Whither stratigraphy Sedimentary Geology,100:5-20
Mitchum R,Vail P&Thompson S.1977.Seismic stratigraphy andglobal changes in sea level,part2:the depositional sequence asthe basic unit for stratigraphic analysis.In:Payton C ed.Seis-mic stratigraphy:application to hydrocarbon exploration.AAPG,Memoir26:53-62
North American Commission on Stratigraphic Nomenclature(NAC-SN).2005.North American stratigraphic code.American As-sociation of Petroleum Geologists,Bulletin89:1547-1591
Payton C ed.1977.Seismic stratigraphy:applications to hydrocar-bon exploration.AAPG,Memoir26:1-516
Plint A&Nummedal D.2000.The falling stage systems tract:rec-ognition and importance in sequence stratigraphic analysis,In:Hunt D&Gawthorpe R eds.Sedimentary responses to forcedregressions.Geological Society of London,Special Publication172:1-17
Posamentier H W.2000.Seismic stratigraphy into the next millen-nium;a focus on3Dseismic data.In:American Association ofPetroleum Geologists Annual Convention,New Orleans.Ab-stracts Volume,9:117-118
Posamentier H W&Allen G.1999.Siliciclastic sequence stratigra-phy:concepts and applications.SEPM,Concepts in Sedimen-tology and Paleontology7:1-210
Posamentier H W,Jervey MT&Vail P R.1988.Eustatic controlson clastic deposition,I.conceptual framework.In:Wilgus CK,Hastings B S,Kendall C GSt C,Posamentier H W,Ross CA&Van Wagoner J C eds.Sea level changes:an integratedApproach.SEPM,Special Publication42:110-124
Salvador A.1994.International Stratigraphic Guide(2nd edition).Boulder:International Union of Geological Sciences and Geolog-ical Society of America.1-214
Schlager W.1991.Depositional bias and environmental change:im-portant factorsin sequence stratigraphy.Sedimentary Geology,70:109-130
Schlager W.1998.Exposure,drowning and sequence boundaries oncarbonate platforms.In:Camoin G&Davies P eds.Reefs andcarbonate platforms in the Pacific and Indian oceans.Interna-tional Association of Sedimentologists,Special Publication25:321
Schlager W.1999.Type3sequence boundaries.In:Harris P,Sal-ler A&Simo Aeds.Carbonate sequence stratigraphy:applica-tion to reservoirs,outcrops and models.SEPM,Special Publi-cation63:35-46
Shaw A B.1964.Time in stratigraphy.New York:McGraw-HillBook Corporation.1-498
Sloss L,Krumbein W&Dapples E.1949.Integrated facies analy-sis,In:Longwell C ed.Sedimentary facies in geologic history.Geological Society America,Memoir39:91-124
Sloss L.1963.Sequences in the cratonic interior of North America.GSA,Bulletin74:93-113
Vail P R,Audemard F,Bowman S A,Eisner P N&Perez-Cruz C.1991.The stratigraphic signatures of tectonics,eustasy andsedimentology:an overview.In:Einsele G,Ricken W&Seila-cher Aeds.Cycles and eventsin stratigraphy.Berlin:Springer-Verlag.617-659
Vail P R,MitchumJr R M&Thompson III S.1977.Seismic stra-tigraphy and global changes of sea level,part3.relative chan-ges of sea level fromcoastal onlap.In:Payton C E ed.Seismicstratigraphy:applications to hydrocarbon exploration.AAPG,Memoir26:63-81
Van Wagoner J C.1995.Overviewof sequence stratigraphy of fore-land basin deposits:terminology,summary of papers,and glos-sary of sequence stratigraphy.In:Van Wagoner J C&BertramG Teds.Sequence stratigraphy of foreland basin deposits:out-crop and subsurface examples fromthe Cretaceous of North A-merica.AAPG,Memoir64:10-101
Van Wagoner J C,Posamentier H W,Mitchum R M,Vail P R,Sarg J F,Loutit TS&Hardenbol J.1988.An overviewof se-quence stratigraphy and key definitions.In:Wilgus C K,Has-tings B S,Kendall C G St C,Posamentier H W,Ross C A&Van Wagoner J C eds.Sea level changes:an integrated ap-proach.SEPM,Special Publication42:39-45
Van Wagoner J C,MitchumJr R M,Campion K M&Rahmanian VD.1990.Siliciclastic sequence stratigraphy in well logs,core,and outcrops:concepts for high-resolution correlation of timeand facies.AAPG,Methods in Exploration Series7:1-55
Wheeler HE.1948.Critique of the time-stratigraphic concept.Bul-letin of Geological Society of America,59:75-85
Wheeler H E.1958.Time stratigraphy.AAPG,Bulletin42:1208-1218
Wilgus C K,Hastings B S,Kendall C G St C,Posamentier H W,Ross C A&Van Wagoner J C eds.Sea level changes:aninte-grated approach.SEPM,Special Publication42:1-499
Yin Zan-xun,Zhang Shou-xin&Xie Cui-hua.1978.Discussion onthe fold episode.Beijing:Science Press.1-106
Zhang Sen-gui,Zhang Yun-bai&Yan Hui-jun.2009.Abrief intro-duction to the‘International Stratigraphic Chart’(2008).Journal of Stratigraphy,33(1):1-10
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