地震次生火灾的研究进展
|
摘要
地震次生火灾是一种较易发生且后果严重的次生灾害。简要介绍了历史上次生火灾灾害比较严重的几次地震,概述了地震次生火灾的引发原因及城市地震次生火灾的研究进展。然后着重介绍了以建筑物为对象的地震次生火灾的研究进展。地震及其次生火灾是相继发生的双重灾害,作者曾提出针对建筑物的考虑地震及次生火灾的分析思路,即首先评估地震造成的建筑物的损伤,随后分析次生火灾的发生可能性及大小,接着分析考虑已有损伤的建筑物的抗火性能,最后进行危险性分析。建筑物的损伤应考虑3类损伤:建筑防火保护系统损伤、结构防火保护系统损伤以及结构损伤。分别介绍了建筑防火保护系统和结构防火保护系统的损伤及分别考虑这3类损伤的建筑物抗火性能等方面的研究进展。
Post-earthquake fire has been recognized as a serious threat in seismic zone.In this paper,several historical records about the post-earthquake fires that caused serious damage were presented.Causes of the post-earthquake fire were also discussed.Then researches on post-earthquake fire were reviewed both in regional and individual building levels.For the building's post-earthquake fire resistance analysis,the several-steps' analysis procedure was suggested because earthquake and fire happen subsequently.Firstly,the damage due to earthquake has to be evaluated.Then the possibility of fire ignition and the fire severity should be analyzed.After that,fire resistance analysis should be conducted for the damaged building.At last risk analysis can be conducted.There are three kinds of damage from earthquake should be considered for this analysis.They are the damage to non-structural fire protection system,damage to structural fire protection system and damage to structure.Researches on these issues were reviewed in this paper.
Post-earthquake fire has been recognized as a serious threat in seismic zone.In this paper,several historical records about the post-earthquake fires that caused serious damage were presented.Causes of the post-earthquake fire were also discussed.Then researches on post-earthquake fire were reviewed both in regional and individual building levels.For the building's post-earthquake fire resistance analysis,the several-steps' analysis procedure was suggested because earthquake and fire happen subsequently.Firstly,the damage due to earthquake has to be evaluated.Then the possibility of fire ignition and the fire severity should be analyzed.After that,fire resistance analysis should be conducted for the damaged building.At last risk analysis can be conducted.There are three kinds of damage from earthquake should be considered for this analysis.They are the damage to non-structural fire protection system,damage to structural fire protection system and damage to structure.Researches on these issues were reviewed in this paper.
引文
[1]ATC/SEAOC.Seismic response of nonstructural components,part:overview of component types and behavior[C].ATC/SEAOC Joint VentureTraining Curriculum,Redwood City,California,1999.
[2]Berkeley Seismological Laboratory.Where can I learn more about 1906 Earthquake?[EB/OL].2003-03-01 http://www.seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/hayward/seismicity.hist_1906.html.
[3]Borden F W.The 1994 northridge earthquake and the fires that followed[C].Thirteenth Meeting of the UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety,NISTIR 6030,p303-312,March 13-20,1996.
[4]Bukowski R.Estimates of the operational reliability of fire protection systems[C].Proceedings of Third International Conference on Fire Researchand Engineering(ICFRE3),Chicago,IL,US,1999.
[5]Carol Cameron,Charles James.The 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake and Fire[EB/OL].2004-10-25 http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/yokoha-ma.html.
[6]Chen Suwen,Lee George C,Shinozuka Masanobu.Hazard mitigation for earthquake and subsequent fire[C].2004 ANCER Annual Meeting,Networking of Young Earthquake Engineering Researchers and Professionals,Honolulu,Hawaii,USA,2004.
[7]Chen Suwen,Lee George C,Li Guo-Qiang.A study on steel buildings subjected to earthquake and the following fire[C].PRC-US EarthquakeEngineering Forum for Young Researchers Harbin,China,2006.
[8]Cortea G Della,Landolfob R,Mazzolani F M.Post-earthquake fire resistance of moment resisting steel frames[J].Fire Safety Journal,2003,38:593-612.
[9]Corte G Della,Landolfo R.Post-earthquake fire resistance of steel structures[EB/OL].2004-3-31.http://www.aidic.it/italiano/congressi/esrel2001/webpapersesrel2001/237.
[10]Dowrick D J.Earthquake Risk Reduction,John Wiley&Sons,Ltd.
[11]EQE,http://www.eqe.com/pulications/kobe/firefoll.htm(as of March 20,2004).
[12]Evans D D,Walton WD,and Mowrer F W.Progress report on fires following the northridge earthquake[C].Thirteen Meeting of The UJNR Pan-el on Fire Research and Safety,1996.
[13]FEMA.Multi-Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment,Federal Emergency Management Agency,USA,1997.
[14]Federal Emergency Management Agency 403.World Trade Center Building Performance Study:Data Collection,Preliminary Observations,andRecommendations,FEMA403,Federal Emergency Management Agency,Washington,DC,2002.
[15]Fire Research Institute.The investigation Report on the Fires in Kobe City following the Southern Hyogo prefecture earthquake,March.
[16]Freeman J R.Earthquake damage and earthquake insurance[C].First Edition,McGraw-Hill Book Co.Inc.,New York and London.
[17]冯学云,罗建勋.地震火灾灾害及预防[C].中国消防,1998,5.
[18]Goodwin E,Maragakis E,Itani A.Experimental evaluation of the seismic performance of hospital piping systems[C].Proc.Of the StructuralEngineering Association of California(SEAOC),72nd Annual Convention,Squaw Creek,California,2003.
[19]Goodwin E,Maragakis E,Itani A.Experimental comparison of the seismic response of welded and threaded hospital piping systems[C].2004ANCER Annual Meeting,Networking of Young Earthquake Engineering Researchers and Professionals,Honolulu,Hawaii,USA,2004..
[20]Hamada M,Wakamatsu K,Yasuda S.′Liquefaction-induced ground deformations during the 1923 Kanto earthquake,"in Case Studies of Lique-faction and Lifeline Performance during Past Earthquakes,Vol.1,Japanese Case Studies,M.Hamada and T.D.O Rourke,Eds.,NCEERTechnical Report NCEER 92-0001,National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research,State University of New York,Buffalo,NY,US.
[21]Hokugo Akihiko.The performance of fire protection of buildings against the fires following the great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake[C].ThirteenMeeting of The UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety,1996.
[22]化彬,江见鲸.模糊推理法在地震火灾评判中的应用[J].自然灾害学报,1997,6(2):.
[23]ICBO Evaluation Service.Acceptance criteria for seismic qualification testing of nonstructural components,AC156[C].International Conferenceof Building Officials,Whittier,California,2000.
[24]James Charles D.The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire[M/OL].http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf(as of March 1,2005).
[25]Kanai K.Engineering Seismology[M].University of Toyko Press,Tokyo,1983.
[26]Kobe City Fire Department.Investigation report on damages to fire protection systems caused by the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in Kobe[R].1995..
[27]Lama O.Seismic Codes,HVAC Pipe Systems,and Practical Solutions[J].ASHRAE Trans,1998,104,Part 1,American Society of Heating,Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers,Atlanta,Georgia.
[28]Lee George C,Rzhevsky Vladimir,Tong Mai,Chen Suwen.From the world trade center tragedy to development of disaster engineering for land-mark buildings:An Extension of the Performance-based Earthquake Engineering Approach,MCEER Special Report Series:Engineering and Or-ganizational Issues Related to the World Trade Center Terrorist Attack,Vol.4,Sep.
[29]Lee George C,Chen Suwen,Li Guoqiang,Tong Mai.On performance-based analysis of buildings for multi-hazard mitigation[J].InternationalJournal of Steel Structures,2004,4(4):231-238.
[30]李兆治,李国强,陈素文,童迈.钢结构同时考虑火和地震灾害的性能化设计研究[C]//第二届全国钢结构防火技术研讨会论文集,杭州,2003.
[31]李国强,吴波,韩林海.结构抗火研究进展与趋势[J].建筑钢结构进展,2006,8(1):.
[32]李杰,李国强.地震次生火灾预测模型研究,中国地震,1992,8(1),p.76-81.
[33]李杰,宋建学.地震灾场的模拟与模拟控制问题研究(I)地震灾场模拟,地震工程与工程振动,16(2),p.46-54.
[34]李杰,江建华.城市地震次生火灾危险性分析,自然灾害学报02期.
[35]李杰,江建华.地震次生火灾动态危险性分析方法研究,自然灾害学报,Vol.10,No.2,02期.
[36]林均歧.地震火灾损伤评估研究,自然灾害学报,Vol.9,No.4.
[37]陆伟民,董伟民.利用神经网络预测城市震后火灾损失,同济大学学报,Vol.23,No.1.
[38]卢振恒.日本破坏地震概观,地震出版设,1991.
[39]卢振恒,董亭.以火灾闻名于世的大地震,防灾博览,(1).
[40]Maragakis E,Itani A,Goodwin E.Seismic Behavior of Welded Hospital Piping Systems,Proc.Of the Applied Technology Council(ATC)29-2:Seminar on seismic design performance,and retrofit of nonstructural components in critical facilities,Redwood City,California,P.321-333.
[41]Mohammadi J,Alyasin S,Bak D N.Risk analysis of post-earthquake fires,Proceeding of the Fifth U.S.National Conference on Earthquake En-gineering,July 10-14,Chicago,Illinois,US.
[42]Mohammadi J,Bak D N,Alyasin S.Analysis of post-earthquake fire hazard,The Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
[43]NIBS/FEMA,HAZUS.MH,Multi-hazard Loss Estimation Methodology,Earthquake Model,Technical Manual,Developed by the Federal E-mergency Management Agency through agreements with the National Institute of Building Sciences,Washington,D.C.
[44]NIST.NISTspecial publication 901,The January 17,1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu(Kobe)earthquake[C].ICSSC TR18,July.
[45]NIST.Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Towers,Oct.[R/OL].http://wtc.nist.gov.
[46]Ohnishi K.Causes of the Seismic Fires Following the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake-Survey[C].Thirteenth Meeting of the UJNR Panel on FireResearch and Safety,NISTIR 6030,1996.
[47]Okamoto S.Introduction to earthquake engineering[M].University of Toyko Press,Toyko,Japan.
[48]Osaka City Fire Department.Investigation report on damages to fire protection systems caused by the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in Osaka[R].1995.
[49]Quintiere J G,Marzo MDi,Becker R.Asuggested cause of the fire-induced collapse of the WTC[J].Fire Safety Journal,2002,37:707-716.
[50]Scawthorn C.Simulation modeling of fire following earthquake[C].Proceedings-U.S.-Japan Workshop on Urban Earthquake Hazards Reduc-tion.,v 3.Publ by Earthquake engineering Research Inst,El Cerrito,CA,USA.
[51]Scawthorn,Charles.Yamada,Yoshikazu.Lifeline effects on post-earthquake fire risk[C].Proceedings of the 2nd Specialty Conference of theTechnical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering.Oakland,Calif,1981.
[52]Scawthorn C.Post-earthquake fire considerations in urban earthquake policy and planning[C].Proceedings-U.S.-Japan Workshop on UrbanEarthquake Hazards Reduction.,Publ by Earthquake Engineering Research Inst,Berkeley,CA,USA,1985.
[53]Scawthorn C.Fire following earthquake[J].Fire Engineering,1985,138(4):44,46-48,50-51.
[54]Scawthorn C O Rourke TD.Effects of Ground Failure on Water Supply and Fire Following Earthquake:The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake,Proc.Of 2nd US-Japan Workshop on Large Ground Deformation[C].July,National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research,Buffalo,NY,US,1989..
[55]Scawthorn C,Cowell A D,Borden F.Fire-Related Aspects of the Northridge Earthquake,NIST-GCR-98-743,1996.
[56]Scawthorn C.Fire following earthquakes,Earthquake Engineering Handbook[M].
[57]Sekizawa Ai,Ebihara Manabu,Notake Hiroaki.Development of Seismic-induced Fire Risk Assessment Method for a Building[C].Fire SafetyScience-Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium,Worcester,MA,US,2002.
[58]宋建学,李杰.地震次生火灾计算机仿真研究[J].工程抗震,1997,(3):32-36.
[59]宋建学,李杰.城市地震次生火灾灾度分析[J].华北水利水电学院学报,1996,(1)
[60]Stephen Pessiki,Kihyon Kwon,Byoung-Jun LEE.Fire load behavior of steel building columns with damaged spray-applied fire resistive material[C].Fourth International Workshop Structure in Fire,Aveiro,Portugal.
[61]The Marine and Fire Insurance Association of Japan.Study report on reliability of fire protection systems at an earthquake[R].1995.
[62]The New York Times Science.Wounded Buildings offer survival lessons[J].Tuesday,December 4.
[63]The SAN FRANCISCO Earthquake and fire of april[EB/OL]http://americahurrah.com/SanFrancisco/MunicipalReports/1906/Fire/DayBe-fore.htm.
[64]Todd D,Carino N,et al.The 1994 Northridge Earthquake,performance of Structures,Lifelines,and Fire Protection Systems[C].NISTSpecialPublication 862,May.
[65]USGS.The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of April 18,1906 and Their Effects on Structures and Structural Materials[J].Bull,1907,324,U.S.Geological Survey,Washington DC,US.
[66]王国权,马宗晋,周锡元,苏桂武.国外几次震后火灾的对比研究[J].《自然灾害学报》,1999,8(3).
[67]王佳,李国强.防火涂料局部破损对钢构件在火灾下的温度分布影响[J].结构工程师,2005,21(5).
[68]Wasiweski R J.Seismic Restraints for Piping Systems[J].ASHRAE Trans[J].1998,2003,104,Part1,American Society of Heating,Refrig-erating and Air-conditioning Engineers,Atlanta,Georgia.
[69]Wiegel,Robert L.地震工程学(中译本)[M].北京:科学出版社,1978.
[70]谢旭阳,任爱珠.城市地震次生火灾蔓延模拟系统[J].消防科学与技术,2003,22(6).
[71]谢旭阳,任爱珠,刘铁民,张兴凯.基于GIS的地震次生火灾起火点预测[J].中国安全科学学报,2005,1.
[72]谢旭阳,任爱珠,刘铁民,张兴凯.基于GIS的地震次生火灾蔓延范围模拟[J].中国安全科学学报,2005,5.
[73]Yang D,Benichou N.Consideration of reliability and performance of fire protection systems in FireCAM[C].InFIRE Conference 2000,Ottawa,Canada,2000.
[74]KANG Yu,George V Hadjisophocleous,et al.The effect of partial fire protection loss on the fire resistance reduction of steel beams[C].FourthInternational Workshop‘Structure in Fire’,Aveiro,Portugal.
[75]许建东,王新茹,林建德,张宁.基于GIS的城市地震次生火灾蔓延初步研究[J].地震地质,2002,24(3).
[76]张宝红,陈宏德.地震火灾事例调查[J].自然灾害学报,1994,3(4).
[77]赵荣国,李卫平.浅析现代城市地震火灾和减灾问题[J].城市防震减灾,1999,(2).
[78]赵思健,熊利亚,任爱珠.城市地震次生火灾的潜在危险性——基于城市地理信息系统网格的评价[J].自然灾害学报,2006,15(3).
[79]赵思健,熊利亚,任爱珠.基于GIS的震后消防扑救仿真[J].消防科学与技术,2006,4.
[80]赵思健,任爱珠,熊利亚.城市地震次生火灾研究综述[J].自然灾害学报,2006,15(2):.
[81]赵振东,余世舟,钟江荣.建筑物震后火灾发生与蔓延危险性分析的概率模型[J].地震工程与工程振动,2003,23(4):.
[82]赵振东,余世舟,钟江荣.基于GIS确定城市地震次生火灾高危区方法的研究[J].地震工程与工程振动,2004,24(2):.
[83]曹文衔,董宝,沈祖炎.单向应力状态下钢材高温分析的损伤模型[J].力学季刊,1998,(02):136-140.
[84]曹文衔.损伤累积条件下钢框架结构火灾反应的分析研究[D].上海:同济大学.
[85]Izzuddin B A,Song L,Elnashai AS,et al.An integrated adaptive environment for fire and explosion analysis of steel frames-Part II:verificationand application,Journal of constructional steel research,2000,53,87-111.
[86]Liew Richard,Chen Hong.Explosion and fire analysis of steel frames using fiber element approach[J].Journal of structural engineering,2004,130(77):991-1000.
[87]Song L,Izzuddin B A,Elnashai A S,et al.An integrated adaptive environment for fire and explosion analysis of steel frames-Part I:analyticalmodels[J].Journal of constructional steel research,2000,53,63-85.
[2]Berkeley Seismological Laboratory.Where can I learn more about 1906 Earthquake?[EB/OL].2003-03-01 http://www.seismo.berkeley.edu/seismo/hayward/seismicity.hist_1906.html.
[3]Borden F W.The 1994 northridge earthquake and the fires that followed[C].Thirteenth Meeting of the UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety,NISTIR 6030,p303-312,March 13-20,1996.
[4]Bukowski R.Estimates of the operational reliability of fire protection systems[C].Proceedings of Third International Conference on Fire Researchand Engineering(ICFRE3),Chicago,IL,US,1999.
[5]Carol Cameron,Charles James.The 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake and Fire[EB/OL].2004-10-25 http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/yokoha-ma.html.
[6]Chen Suwen,Lee George C,Shinozuka Masanobu.Hazard mitigation for earthquake and subsequent fire[C].2004 ANCER Annual Meeting,Networking of Young Earthquake Engineering Researchers and Professionals,Honolulu,Hawaii,USA,2004.
[7]Chen Suwen,Lee George C,Li Guo-Qiang.A study on steel buildings subjected to earthquake and the following fire[C].PRC-US EarthquakeEngineering Forum for Young Researchers Harbin,China,2006.
[8]Cortea G Della,Landolfob R,Mazzolani F M.Post-earthquake fire resistance of moment resisting steel frames[J].Fire Safety Journal,2003,38:593-612.
[9]Corte G Della,Landolfo R.Post-earthquake fire resistance of steel structures[EB/OL].2004-3-31.http://www.aidic.it/italiano/congressi/esrel2001/webpapersesrel2001/237.
[10]Dowrick D J.Earthquake Risk Reduction,John Wiley&Sons,Ltd.
[11]EQE,http://www.eqe.com/pulications/kobe/firefoll.htm(as of March 20,2004).
[12]Evans D D,Walton WD,and Mowrer F W.Progress report on fires following the northridge earthquake[C].Thirteen Meeting of The UJNR Pan-el on Fire Research and Safety,1996.
[13]FEMA.Multi-Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment,Federal Emergency Management Agency,USA,1997.
[14]Federal Emergency Management Agency 403.World Trade Center Building Performance Study:Data Collection,Preliminary Observations,andRecommendations,FEMA403,Federal Emergency Management Agency,Washington,DC,2002.
[15]Fire Research Institute.The investigation Report on the Fires in Kobe City following the Southern Hyogo prefecture earthquake,March.
[16]Freeman J R.Earthquake damage and earthquake insurance[C].First Edition,McGraw-Hill Book Co.Inc.,New York and London.
[17]冯学云,罗建勋.地震火灾灾害及预防[C].中国消防,1998,5.
[18]Goodwin E,Maragakis E,Itani A.Experimental evaluation of the seismic performance of hospital piping systems[C].Proc.Of the StructuralEngineering Association of California(SEAOC),72nd Annual Convention,Squaw Creek,California,2003.
[19]Goodwin E,Maragakis E,Itani A.Experimental comparison of the seismic response of welded and threaded hospital piping systems[C].2004ANCER Annual Meeting,Networking of Young Earthquake Engineering Researchers and Professionals,Honolulu,Hawaii,USA,2004..
[20]Hamada M,Wakamatsu K,Yasuda S.′Liquefaction-induced ground deformations during the 1923 Kanto earthquake,"in Case Studies of Lique-faction and Lifeline Performance during Past Earthquakes,Vol.1,Japanese Case Studies,M.Hamada and T.D.O Rourke,Eds.,NCEERTechnical Report NCEER 92-0001,National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research,State University of New York,Buffalo,NY,US.
[21]Hokugo Akihiko.The performance of fire protection of buildings against the fires following the great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake[C].ThirteenMeeting of The UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety,1996.
[22]化彬,江见鲸.模糊推理法在地震火灾评判中的应用[J].自然灾害学报,1997,6(2):.
[23]ICBO Evaluation Service.Acceptance criteria for seismic qualification testing of nonstructural components,AC156[C].International Conferenceof Building Officials,Whittier,California,2000.
[24]James Charles D.The 1923 Tokyo Earthquake and Fire[M/OL].http://nisee.berkeley.edu/kanto/tokyo1923.pdf(as of March 1,2005).
[25]Kanai K.Engineering Seismology[M].University of Toyko Press,Tokyo,1983.
[26]Kobe City Fire Department.Investigation report on damages to fire protection systems caused by the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in Kobe[R].1995..
[27]Lama O.Seismic Codes,HVAC Pipe Systems,and Practical Solutions[J].ASHRAE Trans,1998,104,Part 1,American Society of Heating,Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers,Atlanta,Georgia.
[28]Lee George C,Rzhevsky Vladimir,Tong Mai,Chen Suwen.From the world trade center tragedy to development of disaster engineering for land-mark buildings:An Extension of the Performance-based Earthquake Engineering Approach,MCEER Special Report Series:Engineering and Or-ganizational Issues Related to the World Trade Center Terrorist Attack,Vol.4,Sep.
[29]Lee George C,Chen Suwen,Li Guoqiang,Tong Mai.On performance-based analysis of buildings for multi-hazard mitigation[J].InternationalJournal of Steel Structures,2004,4(4):231-238.
[30]李兆治,李国强,陈素文,童迈.钢结构同时考虑火和地震灾害的性能化设计研究[C]//第二届全国钢结构防火技术研讨会论文集,杭州,2003.
[31]李国强,吴波,韩林海.结构抗火研究进展与趋势[J].建筑钢结构进展,2006,8(1):.
[32]李杰,李国强.地震次生火灾预测模型研究,中国地震,1992,8(1),p.76-81.
[33]李杰,宋建学.地震灾场的模拟与模拟控制问题研究(I)地震灾场模拟,地震工程与工程振动,16(2),p.46-54.
[34]李杰,江建华.城市地震次生火灾危险性分析,自然灾害学报02期.
[35]李杰,江建华.地震次生火灾动态危险性分析方法研究,自然灾害学报,Vol.10,No.2,02期.
[36]林均歧.地震火灾损伤评估研究,自然灾害学报,Vol.9,No.4.
[37]陆伟民,董伟民.利用神经网络预测城市震后火灾损失,同济大学学报,Vol.23,No.1.
[38]卢振恒.日本破坏地震概观,地震出版设,1991.
[39]卢振恒,董亭.以火灾闻名于世的大地震,防灾博览,(1).
[40]Maragakis E,Itani A,Goodwin E.Seismic Behavior of Welded Hospital Piping Systems,Proc.Of the Applied Technology Council(ATC)29-2:Seminar on seismic design performance,and retrofit of nonstructural components in critical facilities,Redwood City,California,P.321-333.
[41]Mohammadi J,Alyasin S,Bak D N.Risk analysis of post-earthquake fires,Proceeding of the Fifth U.S.National Conference on Earthquake En-gineering,July 10-14,Chicago,Illinois,US.
[42]Mohammadi J,Bak D N,Alyasin S.Analysis of post-earthquake fire hazard,The Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
[43]NIBS/FEMA,HAZUS.MH,Multi-hazard Loss Estimation Methodology,Earthquake Model,Technical Manual,Developed by the Federal E-mergency Management Agency through agreements with the National Institute of Building Sciences,Washington,D.C.
[44]NIST.NISTspecial publication 901,The January 17,1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu(Kobe)earthquake[C].ICSSC TR18,July.
[45]NIST.Final Report on the Collapse of World Trade Center Towers,Oct.[R/OL].http://wtc.nist.gov.
[46]Ohnishi K.Causes of the Seismic Fires Following the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake-Survey[C].Thirteenth Meeting of the UJNR Panel on FireResearch and Safety,NISTIR 6030,1996.
[47]Okamoto S.Introduction to earthquake engineering[M].University of Toyko Press,Toyko,Japan.
[48]Osaka City Fire Department.Investigation report on damages to fire protection systems caused by the Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in Osaka[R].1995.
[49]Quintiere J G,Marzo MDi,Becker R.Asuggested cause of the fire-induced collapse of the WTC[J].Fire Safety Journal,2002,37:707-716.
[50]Scawthorn C.Simulation modeling of fire following earthquake[C].Proceedings-U.S.-Japan Workshop on Urban Earthquake Hazards Reduc-tion.,v 3.Publ by Earthquake engineering Research Inst,El Cerrito,CA,USA.
[51]Scawthorn,Charles.Yamada,Yoshikazu.Lifeline effects on post-earthquake fire risk[C].Proceedings of the 2nd Specialty Conference of theTechnical Council on Lifeline Earthquake Engineering.Oakland,Calif,1981.
[52]Scawthorn C.Post-earthquake fire considerations in urban earthquake policy and planning[C].Proceedings-U.S.-Japan Workshop on UrbanEarthquake Hazards Reduction.,Publ by Earthquake Engineering Research Inst,Berkeley,CA,USA,1985.
[53]Scawthorn C.Fire following earthquake[J].Fire Engineering,1985,138(4):44,46-48,50-51.
[54]Scawthorn C O Rourke TD.Effects of Ground Failure on Water Supply and Fire Following Earthquake:The 1906 San Francisco Earthquake,Proc.Of 2nd US-Japan Workshop on Large Ground Deformation[C].July,National Center for Earthquake Engineering Research,Buffalo,NY,US,1989..
[55]Scawthorn C,Cowell A D,Borden F.Fire-Related Aspects of the Northridge Earthquake,NIST-GCR-98-743,1996.
[56]Scawthorn C.Fire following earthquakes,Earthquake Engineering Handbook[M].
[57]Sekizawa Ai,Ebihara Manabu,Notake Hiroaki.Development of Seismic-induced Fire Risk Assessment Method for a Building[C].Fire SafetyScience-Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium,Worcester,MA,US,2002.
[58]宋建学,李杰.地震次生火灾计算机仿真研究[J].工程抗震,1997,(3):32-36.
[59]宋建学,李杰.城市地震次生火灾灾度分析[J].华北水利水电学院学报,1996,(1)
[60]Stephen Pessiki,Kihyon Kwon,Byoung-Jun LEE.Fire load behavior of steel building columns with damaged spray-applied fire resistive material[C].Fourth International Workshop Structure in Fire,Aveiro,Portugal.
[61]The Marine and Fire Insurance Association of Japan.Study report on reliability of fire protection systems at an earthquake[R].1995.
[62]The New York Times Science.Wounded Buildings offer survival lessons[J].Tuesday,December 4.
[63]The SAN FRANCISCO Earthquake and fire of april[EB/OL]http://americahurrah.com/SanFrancisco/MunicipalReports/1906/Fire/DayBe-fore.htm.
[64]Todd D,Carino N,et al.The 1994 Northridge Earthquake,performance of Structures,Lifelines,and Fire Protection Systems[C].NISTSpecialPublication 862,May.
[65]USGS.The San Francisco Earthquake and Fire of April 18,1906 and Their Effects on Structures and Structural Materials[J].Bull,1907,324,U.S.Geological Survey,Washington DC,US.
[66]王国权,马宗晋,周锡元,苏桂武.国外几次震后火灾的对比研究[J].《自然灾害学报》,1999,8(3).
[67]王佳,李国强.防火涂料局部破损对钢构件在火灾下的温度分布影响[J].结构工程师,2005,21(5).
[68]Wasiweski R J.Seismic Restraints for Piping Systems[J].ASHRAE Trans[J].1998,2003,104,Part1,American Society of Heating,Refrig-erating and Air-conditioning Engineers,Atlanta,Georgia.
[69]Wiegel,Robert L.地震工程学(中译本)[M].北京:科学出版社,1978.
[70]谢旭阳,任爱珠.城市地震次生火灾蔓延模拟系统[J].消防科学与技术,2003,22(6).
[71]谢旭阳,任爱珠,刘铁民,张兴凯.基于GIS的地震次生火灾起火点预测[J].中国安全科学学报,2005,1.
[72]谢旭阳,任爱珠,刘铁民,张兴凯.基于GIS的地震次生火灾蔓延范围模拟[J].中国安全科学学报,2005,5.
[73]Yang D,Benichou N.Consideration of reliability and performance of fire protection systems in FireCAM[C].InFIRE Conference 2000,Ottawa,Canada,2000.
[74]KANG Yu,George V Hadjisophocleous,et al.The effect of partial fire protection loss on the fire resistance reduction of steel beams[C].FourthInternational Workshop‘Structure in Fire’,Aveiro,Portugal.
[75]许建东,王新茹,林建德,张宁.基于GIS的城市地震次生火灾蔓延初步研究[J].地震地质,2002,24(3).
[76]张宝红,陈宏德.地震火灾事例调查[J].自然灾害学报,1994,3(4).
[77]赵荣国,李卫平.浅析现代城市地震火灾和减灾问题[J].城市防震减灾,1999,(2).
[78]赵思健,熊利亚,任爱珠.城市地震次生火灾的潜在危险性——基于城市地理信息系统网格的评价[J].自然灾害学报,2006,15(3).
[79]赵思健,熊利亚,任爱珠.基于GIS的震后消防扑救仿真[J].消防科学与技术,2006,4.
[80]赵思健,任爱珠,熊利亚.城市地震次生火灾研究综述[J].自然灾害学报,2006,15(2):.
[81]赵振东,余世舟,钟江荣.建筑物震后火灾发生与蔓延危险性分析的概率模型[J].地震工程与工程振动,2003,23(4):.
[82]赵振东,余世舟,钟江荣.基于GIS确定城市地震次生火灾高危区方法的研究[J].地震工程与工程振动,2004,24(2):.
[83]曹文衔,董宝,沈祖炎.单向应力状态下钢材高温分析的损伤模型[J].力学季刊,1998,(02):136-140.
[84]曹文衔.损伤累积条件下钢框架结构火灾反应的分析研究[D].上海:同济大学.
[85]Izzuddin B A,Song L,Elnashai AS,et al.An integrated adaptive environment for fire and explosion analysis of steel frames-Part II:verificationand application,Journal of constructional steel research,2000,53,87-111.
[86]Liew Richard,Chen Hong.Explosion and fire analysis of steel frames using fiber element approach[J].Journal of structural engineering,2004,130(77):991-1000.
[87]Song L,Izzuddin B A,Elnashai A S,et al.An integrated adaptive environment for fire and explosion analysis of steel frames-Part I:analyticalmodels[J].Journal of constructional steel research,2000,53,63-85.
版权所有：© 2023 中国地质图书馆 中国地质调查局地学文献中心