自然灾难管理中的跨组织合作——基于社会弱点的视角
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摘要
自然灾难事件的发生具有随机性,但是它们所带来的破坏以及社会群体和个体对此表现出来的响应能力和恢复能力却不是随机的。其原因之一,是社会弱点的存在影响着自然灾难的作用结果。资源等空间和地理分布的不均衡造成和增加了社会弱点,弱点的存在影响了灾难威胁、灾难抵抗力和恢复力,不断发现和消除弱点是灾难管理的重要工作。而跨组织合作能消除或缓解资源分布不均和资源匮乏所带来的社会弱点,进而增强灾难管理的效率和效果。本文主要以地震这类常见的自然灾难为例,在分析社会弱点和灾难威胁、灾难抵抗力和恢复力之间的关系以及集中式灾难管理模式弊端的基础上,指出跨组织合作在社会弱点发现和消除以及在灾难管理中的作用,进而从区域内政府机构之间合作、区域间跨组织合作和与第三方组织合作三个方面剖析在自然灾难管理中的跨组织的合作问题,最后围绕社会弱点、跨组织合作为我国政府的灾难管理提出若干建议。
Natural events may appear randomly,but their resulting impacts and communities' and individuals' capacities during response and recovery process are far from random. One of the reasons is that the vulnerabilities affect the impacts of natural disasters. Unbalanced spatial and geographical distribution of resources causes and increases social vulnerabilities,and the vulnerabilities affect society's capability of exposure,resistance and resilience in disaster management. Therefore,it is important to find out and eliminate these vulnerabilities continuously. This paper puts forwards that cross-organization collaborations can overcome the vulnerabilities which are caused by unbalanced spatial and geographical distribution of resources. Taking earthquakes for example,this paper firstly analyzes the relationship between social vulnerabilities and society's exposure,resistance and resilience in disaster management and the drawbacks of central-commanding structure of disaster management,and then points out the func-tions of cross-organization collaborations in discovering and eliminating vulnerabilities and disaster management. Thirdly,it discusses cross-organization collaboration in government emergency management from the perspective of cooperating with different sectors,different administrative areas and third organizations. Finally,it provides some proposes about vulnerabilities and crossorganization collaboration for China's government's disaster management.
Natural events may appear randomly,but their resulting impacts and communities' and individuals' capacities during response and recovery process are far from random. One of the reasons is that the vulnerabilities affect the impacts of natural disasters. Unbalanced spatial and geographical distribution of resources causes and increases social vulnerabilities,and the vulnerabilities affect society's capability of exposure,resistance and resilience in disaster management. Therefore,it is important to find out and eliminate these vulnerabilities continuously. This paper puts forwards that cross-organization collaborations can overcome the vulnerabilities which are caused by unbalanced spatial and geographical distribution of resources. Taking earthquakes for example,this paper firstly analyzes the relationship between social vulnerabilities and society's exposure,resistance and resilience in disaster management and the drawbacks of central-commanding structure of disaster management,and then points out the func-tions of cross-organization collaborations in discovering and eliminating vulnerabilities and disaster management. Thirdly,it discusses cross-organization collaboration in government emergency management from the perspective of cooperating with different sectors,different administrative areas and third organizations. Finally,it provides some proposes about vulnerabilities and crossorganization collaboration for China's government's disaster management.
引文
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[25]TIERNEY K.Social Inequality,Hazards,and Disasters[C]//DANIELS R J,KETTL D F,KUNREUTHER H.On Risk and Disaster:Lessons from Hurricane Katrina.Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press,2006:109-128.
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[33]WILLIAM L,DANIEL K.Business"Not"as Usual:The National Incident Management System,Federalism,and leader-ship[J].Public Administration Review,2007,61(1):84-93.
[34]CHAN N W,PARKER D J.Response to Dynamic Flood Hazard Factors in Peninsular Malaysia[J].The Geographical Journal,1996,162(3):324.
[35]JAIN N K.Floods in a South Asian Context:Critical Reflec-tions on the International Decade and Local Community Par-ticipation in Flood Disaster Reduction[C]//PARKER D J.London:Routledge,2000:255-259.
[36]PALAST G.Top Hurricane Expert Says Officials Threatened His Job over Pre-Katrina Warnings.Democracy Now![DB/OL].[2006-08-28]http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=06/08/28/1342209.
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[41]MARGARET O L.The First72Hours:A Community approach to Disaster Preparedness[M].New York:iUniverse,2004:5.
[42]SCANLON J.The Crucial Role of the Cayor in Canadian Emergency Management[C]//RICHARD T S,WILLIAM L,WAUGH J.Disaster Management in the U.S.and Canada,Springfield,IL:Charles C.Thomas,1996:294-310.
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[44]POPKIN R S.The History and Politics of Disaster Management in the United States[M]//KIRBY A.Nothing to Fear.Tucson:University of Arizona Press,1990.
[45]WAUGH W L,GREGORY S.Collaboration and Leadership for Effective Emergency Management.Special Issue[J].PublicAdministration Review,2006,66(1):131-140.
[46]GEORGE T.Pooling in Multi-location Periodic Inventory Distribution Systems[J].Omega,1999,27(1):39-59.
[47]WISE C R.Organizing for Homeland Security after Katrina:Is Adaptive Management What's Cissing?[J].Public Adminis-tration Review,2006,66(3):302-318.
[48]SALAMON L M,ANHEIER H K.The Emerging Sector Revisited[R].Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Institute for Policy Studies,1998:3-11.
[49]ROBERT S.Managing Government-third Sector Collaboration:Accountability,Ambiguity,and Politics[J].International Journal of Public Administration,2001,24(11):1161-1188.
[50]KRAMER R M,LORENTZEN H,MELIEF W B,et al.Privatization in Four European Countries:Comparative Studies in Government-third Sector Relationships[M].New York:M.E.Sharpe,1993:233.
[51]SALAMON L M.Partners in Public Service:Government-nonprofit Relations in the Modern Welfare State[M].Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1995:3.
[52]BLANCHARD B W.FEMA Higher Education Project Emmitsburg[DB/OL].MD:FEMA Higher Education Workshop[2008-12-01]http://training.fema.gov/emiweb.edu.
[53]LIPSKY M,SMITH S R.Nonprofit Organizations,Govern-ment and the Welfare State[J].Political Science Quarterly,1989,104(4):625-648.
[54]SMITH S R,LIPSKY M.Nonprofits for Hire:The Welfare State in the Age of Contracting[M].Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1993:5.
[55]SMITH S R.Government Financing of Nonprofit Activity[C]//BORIS E T,STEUERLE C E.Nonprofits and Government:Collaboration and Conflict.Washington D C:Urban Institute,1999:177-212.
[56]SMITH S R.Transforming Public Services;Contracting for Social and Health Services in the US[J].Public Administration,1996,74(1):113-127.
[57]LEAT D.Voluntary Organizations and Accountability:Theory and Practice in the Third Sector:Comparative Studies of Nonprofit Organizations[M]//ANHEIER H,SEIBEL W.Berlin:Walter de Gruyter,1990:141-153.
[58]KEARNS K P.The Strategic Management of Accountability in Nonprofit Organizations:An Analytical Framework[J].Public Administration Review,1994,54(2):185-192.
[59]TAYLOR M.Between Public and Private:Accountability and Voluntary Organizations[J].Policy and Politics,1996,24(1):57-72.
[60]CIBORRA C U.The Platform Organization:Recombining Strategies,Structures,and Surprises[J].Organization Science,1996,7(2):103-118.
[61]SCHILLING M A.Toward a General Modular Systems Theory and Its Application to Inter-firm Product Modularity[J].Academy of Management Review,2000,25(2):312-334.
[62]ANHEIER H K,TOEPLER S,SOKOLOWSKI S W.The Implications of Government Funding for Non-profit Organiza-tions:Three Propositions[J].International Journal of Public Sector Management,l997,10(3):190-213.
[63]GODDEERIS J H,WEISBROD B A.Why Not For-profit?Conversions and Public Policy[R]//BORIS E T,STEUERLE C E.Nonprofits and Government:Collaboration and Conflict.Washington D C:Urban Institute,1999:235-266.
[64]SALAMON L M.The Nonprofit Sector at a Crossroads:The Case of America[J].International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations,1999,10(1):5-24.
[65]CORNALL R.New Levels of Government Responsiveness for"All-Hazards":The Management of Natural Disasters and Emergencies[J].Australian Journal of Public Administration,2005,64(2):27-30.
[66]WAUGH W,STREIB G.Collaboration and Leadership for Effective Emergency Management[J].Public Administration Review,2006,66(1):131-140.
[67]CIGLER B A.Current Policy Issues in Mitigation[C]//COMFORT L K.Managing Disaster:Strategies and Policy Perspectives.Durham:Duke University Press,1988:39-52.
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