生物炭的稳定性及其对矿物改性的响应机制研究进展
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摘要
生物炭具有高度的碳素稳定性,是一种能有效缓解温室效应的固碳材料.研发碳素持留率高和稳定性强的生物炭对固碳减排具有重要意义.矿物改性处理能对生物炭的稳定性起调控作用,但目前相关研究并未得到足够重视,相应调控机理尚不十分清楚.本研究首先对生物炭稳定性的评价指标进行了归纳,主要包括H/C原子比、O/C原子比、稳定性系数R_(50)、挥发性物质含量、碳素热失重率、碳素(化学)氧化损失率、微生物矿化量等.其次,在分析生物炭稳定性影响因素(如原料类型、炭化条件、外界环境等)的基础上,综述了矿物改性对生物炭稳定性影响的研究进展,并探讨了稳定性增强和减弱的响应机制,认为生物炭稳定性的增强响应主要是基于矿物本身的物理阻隔作用,以及矿物与生物炭之间通过交互作用形成的有机矿物复合体对生物炭起到的保护作用,在一定程度上抑制生物炭的降解;而生物炭稳定性的减弱响应则主要与特殊矿物组分有关,例如含铁矿物组分在高温下促进生物炭的降解.最后对未来的研究方向进行了展望,以期进一步推动生物炭固碳减排技术的发展,并为获得稳定性更强的生物炭提供技术支撑和理论依据.
Biochar, with high degree of carbon stability, is considered as a kind of carbon sequestration material that can effectively alleviate the greenhouse effect. It is of great significance for carbon sequestration and mitigation to develop biochar with high carbon retention and stability. Mineral modification can regulate the stability of biochar. However, the relevant research has not received enough attention, and the underlying mechanism is not very clear. Firstly, the evaluation indices of biochar stability were summarized, mainly including H/C atomic ratio, O/C atomic ratio, coefficient of stability R_(50), volatile-matter content, thermal weight loss rate of carbon, carbon(chemical) oxidation loss rate, and cumulative CO_2 emission of microbial mineralization. Then, based on the analysis of impact factors of biochar stability(such as raw material type, carbonization condition, external environment, etc.), we reviewed research progress about the effects of mineral modification on biochar stability. Furthermore, possible mechanisms of both enhancement and weakening effects on biochar stability were put forward. Enhancement is mainly due to the effects of physical barrier of minerals and the organic mineral complex formed by the interaction of mineral and biochar. While weakening effect is mainly due to special mineral composition, such as the Fe-bearing mineral composition, which promotes the thermal decomposition of biochar at high temperature. Finally, future research directions were proposed, in order to promote the development of carbon sequestration technology of biochar and provide technical support and theoretical basis for obtaining more stable biochar.
Biochar, with high degree of carbon stability, is considered as a kind of carbon sequestration material that can effectively alleviate the greenhouse effect. It is of great significance for carbon sequestration and mitigation to develop biochar with high carbon retention and stability. Mineral modification can regulate the stability of biochar. However, the relevant research has not received enough attention, and the underlying mechanism is not very clear. Firstly, the evaluation indices of biochar stability were summarized, mainly including H/C atomic ratio, O/C atomic ratio, coefficient of stability R_(50), volatile-matter content, thermal weight loss rate of carbon, carbon(chemical) oxidation loss rate, and cumulative CO_2 emission of microbial mineralization. Then, based on the analysis of impact factors of biochar stability(such as raw material type, carbonization condition, external environment, etc.), we reviewed research progress about the effects of mineral modification on biochar stability. Furthermore, possible mechanisms of both enhancement and weakening effects on biochar stability were put forward. Enhancement is mainly due to the effects of physical barrier of minerals and the organic mineral complex formed by the interaction of mineral and biochar. While weakening effect is mainly due to special mineral composition, such as the Fe-bearing mineral composition, which promotes the thermal decomposition of biochar at high temperature. Finally, future research directions were proposed, in order to promote the development of carbon sequestration technology of biochar and provide technical support and theoretical basis for obtaining more stable biochar.
引文
[1] Ahmad M,Rajapaksha AU,Lim JE,et al.Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water:A review.Chemosphere,2014,99:19-33
[2] Lehmann J.A handful of carbon.Nature,2007,447:143-144
[3] Ameloot N,Graber ER,Verheijen FGA,et al.Interactions between biochar stability and soil organisms:Review and research needs.European Journal of Soil Science,2013,64:379-390
[4] O’Toole A,Knothd ZK,Steffens M,et al.Characteri-zation,stability,and plant effects of kiln-produced wheat straw biochar.Journal of Environmental Quality,2013,42:429-436
[5] Renner R.Rethinking biochar.Environmental Science and Technology,2007,41:5932-5933
[6] Agegnehu G,Bass AM,Nelson PN,et al.Benefits of biochar,compost and biochar-compost for soil quality,maize yield and greenhouse gas emissions in a tropical agricultural soil.Science of the Total Environment,2015,543:295-306
[7] Khan S,Chao C,Waqas M,et al.Sewage sludge biochar influence upon rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield,metal bioaccumulation and greenhouse gas emissions from acidic paddy soil.Environmental Science and Technology,2013,47:8624-8632
[8] Lehmann J,Joseph S.Biochar for Environmental Mana-gement:Science and Technology.New York:Earthscan,2015,25:15801-15811
[9] Pereira RC,Kaal J,Arbestain MC,et al.Contribution to characterisation of biochar to estimate the labile fraction of carbon.Organic Geochemistry,2012,42:1331-1342
[10] Liu Y,Yao S,Wang Y,et al.Bio- and hydrochars from rice straw and pig manure:Inter-comparison.Bioresource Technology,2017,235:332-337
[11] Mcbeath AV,Smernik RJ,Krull ES,et al.The influence of feedstock and production temperature on biochar carbon chemistry:A solid-state 13C NMR study.Biomass and Bioenergy,2014,60:121-129
[12] Wei S-Y (韦思业).Influence of Biomass Feedstocks and Pyrolysis Temperatures on Physical and Chemical Properties of Biochar.PhD Thesis.Beijing:Chinese Academy of Sciences,2017 (in Chinese)
[13] Xu X,Zhao Y,Sima J,et al.Indispensable role of biochar-inherent mineral constituents in its environmental applications:A review.Bioresource Technology,2017,241:887-899
[14] Ren N,Tang Y,Li M.Mineral additive enhanced carbon retention and stabilization in sewage sludge-derived biochar.Process Safety and Environmental Protection,2018,115:70-78
[15] Li F,Cao X,Zhao L,et al.Effects of mineral additives on biochar formation:Carbon retention,stability,and properties.Environmental Science and Technology,2014,48:11211
[16] Li F-Y (李飞跃),Zhang L (张丽),Li X-L (李孝良),et al.Biomass co-pyrolysis with calcium dihydrogen phosphate improving carbon fixation of biochar.Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering (农业工程学报),2016,32(12):201-205 (in Chinese)
[17] Enders A,Hanley K,Whitman T,et al.Characterization of biochars to evaluate recalcitrance and agronomic performance.Bioresource Technology,2012,114:644-653
[18] Spokas KA.Review of the stability of biochar in soils:Predictability of O:C molar ratios.Carbon Management,2010,1:289-303
[19] Harvey OR,Kuo LJ,Zimmerman AR,et al.An index-based approach to assessing recalcitrance and soil carbon sequestration potential of engineered black carbons (biochars).Environmental Science and Technology,2012,46:1415-1421
[20] Zimmerman AR.Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (biochar).Environmental Science and Technology,2010,44:1295-1301
[21] Sohi SP.Carbon storage with benefits.Science,2012,338:1034-1035
[22] Nguyen BT,Lehmann J.Black carbon decomposition under varying water regimes.Organic Geochemistry,2009,40:846-853
[23] Cheng CH,Lehmann J,Thies JE,et al.Oxidation of black carbon by biotic and abiotic processes.Organic Geochemistry,2006,37:1477-1488
[24] Schmidt MW,Skjemstad JO,Czimczik CI,et al.Comparative analysis of black carbon in soils.Global Biogeochemical Cycles,2001,15:163-167
[25] Jin L (金梁),Wei D (魏丹),Li Y-M (李玉梅),et al.Progress on biochar preparation and its assessment methods of stability.Journal of Agricultural Resources and Environment (农业资源与环境学报),2015,32(5):423-428 (in Chinese)
[26] Chen J-W (陈静文),Zhang D (张迪),Wu M (吴敏),et al.Elemental composition and thermal stability of two different biochars.Environmental Chemistry (环境化学),2014,33(3):417-422 (in Chinese)
[27] Gu B-W (顾博文),Cao X-D (曹心德),Zhao L (赵玲),et al.Influence of inherent minerals on biomass pyrolysis and carbon stability in biochar.Journal of Agro-Environment Science (农业环境科学学报),2017,36(3):591-597 (in Chinese)
[28] Li F-Y (李飞跃),Wang J-F (汪建飞),Xie Y (谢越),et al.Effects of pyrolysis temperature on carbon retention and stability of biochar.Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering (农业工程学报),2015,31(4):266-271 (in Chinese)
[29] Yang M (杨敏).Stability of Raw Straw-derived Biochar and Its Mechanisem in Paddy Soil.PhD Thesis.Hangzhou:Zhejiang University,2013 (in Chinese)
[30] Sombroek WG,Nachtergaele FO,Hebel A.Amounts,dynamics and sequestering of carbon in tropical and subtropical soils.Ambio,1993,22:417-426
[31] Hammes K,Torn MS,Lapenas AG,et al.Centennial black carbon turnover observed in a Russian steppe soil.Biogeosciences,2008,5:1339-1350
[32] Sohi SP,Krull E,Lopez-Capel E,et al.A review of biochar and its use and function in soil.Advances in Agronomy,2010,105:47-82
[33] Chen J-W (陈静文),Zhang D (张迪),Wu M (吴敏),et al.Comparison of oxidation resistance of two biochars.Environmental Chemistry (环境化学),2014,33(6):943-948 (in Chinese)
[34] Mullen CA,Boateng AA,Goldberg NM,et al.Bio-oil and bio-char production from corn cobs and stover by fast pyrolysis.Biomass & Bioenergy,2010,34:67-74
[35] Lin J-Y (林珈羽),Zhang Y (张越),Liu Y (刘沅),et al.Structure and properties of biochar under different materials and carbonization temperatures.Chinese Journal of Environmental Engineering (环境工程学报),2016,10(6):3200-3206 (in Chinese)
[36] Lin X-Q (林肖庆),Lyu H-H (吕豪豪),Liu Y-X (刘玉学),et al.Effects of biomass and carbonization temperature on biochar yield and characteristics.Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis (浙江农业学报),2016,28(7):1216-1223 (in Chinese)
[37] Shan R-F (单瑞峰),Song J-Y (宋俊瑶),Deng R-N (邓若男),et al.Physical and chemical properties of materials and effect on soil water capacity.Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation (水土保持通报),2017,37(5):63-68 (in Chinese)
[38] O’Laughlin J,Mcelligott K,Joseph S.Biochar for environmental management:Science and technology.Forest Policy and Economics,2009,11:535-536
[39] Lu T (鲁涛),Yuan H-R (袁浩然),Wang Y-Z (王亚琢),et al.Influence of pyrolysis temperature on biochar stability and leaching properties of nutrients contained in biochar.Journal of Chemical Industry and Engineering (化工学报),2015,66(7):2664-2669 (in Chinese)
[40] Zhao S-X (赵世翔),Ji Q (姬强),Li Z-H (李忠徽),et al.Characteristics and mineralization in soil of apple-derived biochar produced at different temperatures.Transactions of the Chinese Society for Agricultural Machinery (农业机械学报),2015,46(6):183-192,200 (in Chinese)
[41] Keiluweit M,Nico PS,Johnson MG,et al.Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar).Environmental Science and Technology,2010,44:1247-1253
[42] Bruun EW,Hauggaard-Nielsen H,Ibrahim N,et al.Influence of fast pyrolysis temperature on biochar labile fraction and short-term carbon loss in a loamy soil.Biomass & Bioenergy,2011,35:1182-1189
[43] Ascough PL,Bird MI,Francis SM,et al.Variability in oxidative degradation of charcoal:Influence of production conditions and environmental exposure.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,2011,75:2361-2378
[44] Lu H-N (陆海楠),Hu X-Y (胡学玉),Liu H-W (刘红伟).Influence of pyrolysis conditions on stability of biochar.Environmental Science and Technology (环境科学与技术),2013,36(8):11-14 (in Chinese)
[45] Wu W,Yang M,Feng Q,et al.Chemical characterization of rice straw-derived biochar for soil amendment.Biomass and Bioenergy,2012,47:268-276
[46] Luo Y,Durenkamp M,Nobili MD,et al.Short term soil priming effects and the mineralisation of biochar following its incorporation to soils of different pH.Soil Biology and Biochemistry,2011,43:2304-2314
[47] Sheng Y-Q (盛雅琪).Effect and Mechanisms of pH on Soil Carbon Sequestraion of Biochar.PhD Thesis.Hangzhou:Zhejiang University,2017 (in Chinese)
[48] Fang Y,Singh B,Singh BP.Effect of temperature on biochar priming effects and its stability in soils.Soil Biology and Biochemistry,2015,80:136-145
[49] Guo J,Chen B.Insights on the molecular mechanism for the recalcitrance of biochars:Interactive effects of carbon and silicon components.Environmental Science and Technology,2014,48:9103-9012
[50] Rosas JM,Ruiz-Rosas R,Rodríguez-Mirasol J,et al.Kinetic study of oxidation resistance of phosphorus-containing activated carbons.Carbon,2012,50:1523-1537
[51] Zhao L,Cao X,Zheng W,et al.Copyrolysis of biomass with phosphate fertilizers to improve biochar carbon retention,slow nutrient release,and stabilize heavy metals in soil.ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering,2016,21:409-414
[52] Fan Y,Ling Z,Gao B,et al.The interfacial behavior between biochar and soil minerals and its effect on biochar stability.Environmental Science and Technology,2016,50:2264-2271
[53] Zhao L,Cao X,Wang Q,et al.Mineral constituents profile of biochar derived from diversified waste biomasses:Implications for agricultural applications.Journal of Environmental Quality,2013,42:545-552
[54] Yang Y,Sun K,Han L,et al.Effect of minerals on the stability of biochar.Chemosphere,2018,204:310-317
[55] Pace B,Munroe P,Marjo CE,et al.The mechanisms and consequences of inorganic reactions during the production of ferrous sulphate enriched bamboo biochars.Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,2018,131:101-112
[56] Hu X,Ding Z,Zimmerman AR,et al.Batch and colu-mn sorption of arsenic onto iron-impregnated biochar synthesized through hydrolysis.Water Research,2015,68:206-216
[57] Lu XQ,Vassallo AM,Johnson WD.Thermal stability of humic substances and their metal forms:An investigation using FTIR emission spectroscopy.Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,1997,43:103-113
[58] Miltner A,Zech W.Effects of minerals on the transformation of organic matter during simulated fire-induced pyrolysis.Organic Geochemistry,1997,26:175-182
[2] Lehmann J.A handful of carbon.Nature,2007,447:143-144
[3] Ameloot N,Graber ER,Verheijen FGA,et al.Interactions between biochar stability and soil organisms:Review and research needs.European Journal of Soil Science,2013,64:379-390
[4] O’Toole A,Knothd ZK,Steffens M,et al.Characteri-zation,stability,and plant effects of kiln-produced wheat straw biochar.Journal of Environmental Quality,2013,42:429-436
[5] Renner R.Rethinking biochar.Environmental Science and Technology,2007,41:5932-5933
[6] Agegnehu G,Bass AM,Nelson PN,et al.Benefits of biochar,compost and biochar-compost for soil quality,maize yield and greenhouse gas emissions in a tropical agricultural soil.Science of the Total Environment,2015,543:295-306
[7] Khan S,Chao C,Waqas M,et al.Sewage sludge biochar influence upon rice (Oryza sativa L.) yield,metal bioaccumulation and greenhouse gas emissions from acidic paddy soil.Environmental Science and Technology,2013,47:8624-8632
[8] Lehmann J,Joseph S.Biochar for Environmental Mana-gement:Science and Technology.New York:Earthscan,2015,25:15801-15811
[9] Pereira RC,Kaal J,Arbestain MC,et al.Contribution to characterisation of biochar to estimate the labile fraction of carbon.Organic Geochemistry,2012,42:1331-1342
[10] Liu Y,Yao S,Wang Y,et al.Bio- and hydrochars from rice straw and pig manure:Inter-comparison.Bioresource Technology,2017,235:332-337
[11] Mcbeath AV,Smernik RJ,Krull ES,et al.The influence of feedstock and production temperature on biochar carbon chemistry:A solid-state 13C NMR study.Biomass and Bioenergy,2014,60:121-129
[12] Wei S-Y (韦思业).Influence of Biomass Feedstocks and Pyrolysis Temperatures on Physical and Chemical Properties of Biochar.PhD Thesis.Beijing:Chinese Academy of Sciences,2017 (in Chinese)
[13] Xu X,Zhao Y,Sima J,et al.Indispensable role of biochar-inherent mineral constituents in its environmental applications:A review.Bioresource Technology,2017,241:887-899
[14] Ren N,Tang Y,Li M.Mineral additive enhanced carbon retention and stabilization in sewage sludge-derived biochar.Process Safety and Environmental Protection,2018,115:70-78
[15] Li F,Cao X,Zhao L,et al.Effects of mineral additives on biochar formation:Carbon retention,stability,and properties.Environmental Science and Technology,2014,48:11211
[16] Li F-Y (李飞跃),Zhang L (张丽),Li X-L (李孝良),et al.Biomass co-pyrolysis with calcium dihydrogen phosphate improving carbon fixation of biochar.Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering (农业工程学报),2016,32(12):201-205 (in Chinese)
[17] Enders A,Hanley K,Whitman T,et al.Characterization of biochars to evaluate recalcitrance and agronomic performance.Bioresource Technology,2012,114:644-653
[18] Spokas KA.Review of the stability of biochar in soils:Predictability of O:C molar ratios.Carbon Management,2010,1:289-303
[19] Harvey OR,Kuo LJ,Zimmerman AR,et al.An index-based approach to assessing recalcitrance and soil carbon sequestration potential of engineered black carbons (biochars).Environmental Science and Technology,2012,46:1415-1421
[20] Zimmerman AR.Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (biochar).Environmental Science and Technology,2010,44:1295-1301
[21] Sohi SP.Carbon storage with benefits.Science,2012,338:1034-1035
[22] Nguyen BT,Lehmann J.Black carbon decomposition under varying water regimes.Organic Geochemistry,2009,40:846-853
[23] Cheng CH,Lehmann J,Thies JE,et al.Oxidation of black carbon by biotic and abiotic processes.Organic Geochemistry,2006,37:1477-1488
[24] Schmidt MW,Skjemstad JO,Czimczik CI,et al.Comparative analysis of black carbon in soils.Global Biogeochemical Cycles,2001,15:163-167
[25] Jin L (金梁),Wei D (魏丹),Li Y-M (李玉梅),et al.Progress on biochar preparation and its assessment methods of stability.Journal of Agricultural Resources and Environment (农业资源与环境学报),2015,32(5):423-428 (in Chinese)
[26] Chen J-W (陈静文),Zhang D (张迪),Wu M (吴敏),et al.Elemental composition and thermal stability of two different biochars.Environmental Chemistry (环境化学),2014,33(3):417-422 (in Chinese)
[27] Gu B-W (顾博文),Cao X-D (曹心德),Zhao L (赵玲),et al.Influence of inherent minerals on biomass pyrolysis and carbon stability in biochar.Journal of Agro-Environment Science (农业环境科学学报),2017,36(3):591-597 (in Chinese)
[28] Li F-Y (李飞跃),Wang J-F (汪建飞),Xie Y (谢越),et al.Effects of pyrolysis temperature on carbon retention and stability of biochar.Transactions of the Chinese Society of Agricultural Engineering (农业工程学报),2015,31(4):266-271 (in Chinese)
[29] Yang M (杨敏).Stability of Raw Straw-derived Biochar and Its Mechanisem in Paddy Soil.PhD Thesis.Hangzhou:Zhejiang University,2013 (in Chinese)
[30] Sombroek WG,Nachtergaele FO,Hebel A.Amounts,dynamics and sequestering of carbon in tropical and subtropical soils.Ambio,1993,22:417-426
[31] Hammes K,Torn MS,Lapenas AG,et al.Centennial black carbon turnover observed in a Russian steppe soil.Biogeosciences,2008,5:1339-1350
[32] Sohi SP,Krull E,Lopez-Capel E,et al.A review of biochar and its use and function in soil.Advances in Agronomy,2010,105:47-82
[33] Chen J-W (陈静文),Zhang D (张迪),Wu M (吴敏),et al.Comparison of oxidation resistance of two biochars.Environmental Chemistry (环境化学),2014,33(6):943-948 (in Chinese)
[34] Mullen CA,Boateng AA,Goldberg NM,et al.Bio-oil and bio-char production from corn cobs and stover by fast pyrolysis.Biomass & Bioenergy,2010,34:67-74
[35] Lin J-Y (林珈羽),Zhang Y (张越),Liu Y (刘沅),et al.Structure and properties of biochar under different materials and carbonization temperatures.Chinese Journal of Environmental Engineering (环境工程学报),2016,10(6):3200-3206 (in Chinese)
[36] Lin X-Q (林肖庆),Lyu H-H (吕豪豪),Liu Y-X (刘玉学),et al.Effects of biomass and carbonization temperature on biochar yield and characteristics.Acta Agriculturae Zhejiangensis (浙江农业学报),2016,28(7):1216-1223 (in Chinese)
[37] Shan R-F (单瑞峰),Song J-Y (宋俊瑶),Deng R-N (邓若男),et al.Physical and chemical properties of materials and effect on soil water capacity.Bulletin of Soil and Water Conservation (水土保持通报),2017,37(5):63-68 (in Chinese)
[38] O’Laughlin J,Mcelligott K,Joseph S.Biochar for environmental management:Science and technology.Forest Policy and Economics,2009,11:535-536
[39] Lu T (鲁涛),Yuan H-R (袁浩然),Wang Y-Z (王亚琢),et al.Influence of pyrolysis temperature on biochar stability and leaching properties of nutrients contained in biochar.Journal of Chemical Industry and Engineering (化工学报),2015,66(7):2664-2669 (in Chinese)
[40] Zhao S-X (赵世翔),Ji Q (姬强),Li Z-H (李忠徽),et al.Characteristics and mineralization in soil of apple-derived biochar produced at different temperatures.Transactions of the Chinese Society for Agricultural Machinery (农业机械学报),2015,46(6):183-192,200 (in Chinese)
[41] Keiluweit M,Nico PS,Johnson MG,et al.Dynamic molecular structure of plant biomass-derived black carbon (biochar).Environmental Science and Technology,2010,44:1247-1253
[42] Bruun EW,Hauggaard-Nielsen H,Ibrahim N,et al.Influence of fast pyrolysis temperature on biochar labile fraction and short-term carbon loss in a loamy soil.Biomass & Bioenergy,2011,35:1182-1189
[43] Ascough PL,Bird MI,Francis SM,et al.Variability in oxidative degradation of charcoal:Influence of production conditions and environmental exposure.Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta,2011,75:2361-2378
[44] Lu H-N (陆海楠),Hu X-Y (胡学玉),Liu H-W (刘红伟).Influence of pyrolysis conditions on stability of biochar.Environmental Science and Technology (环境科学与技术),2013,36(8):11-14 (in Chinese)
[45] Wu W,Yang M,Feng Q,et al.Chemical characterization of rice straw-derived biochar for soil amendment.Biomass and Bioenergy,2012,47:268-276
[46] Luo Y,Durenkamp M,Nobili MD,et al.Short term soil priming effects and the mineralisation of biochar following its incorporation to soils of different pH.Soil Biology and Biochemistry,2011,43:2304-2314
[47] Sheng Y-Q (盛雅琪).Effect and Mechanisms of pH on Soil Carbon Sequestraion of Biochar.PhD Thesis.Hangzhou:Zhejiang University,2017 (in Chinese)
[48] Fang Y,Singh B,Singh BP.Effect of temperature on biochar priming effects and its stability in soils.Soil Biology and Biochemistry,2015,80:136-145
[49] Guo J,Chen B.Insights on the molecular mechanism for the recalcitrance of biochars:Interactive effects of carbon and silicon components.Environmental Science and Technology,2014,48:9103-9012
[50] Rosas JM,Ruiz-Rosas R,Rodríguez-Mirasol J,et al.Kinetic study of oxidation resistance of phosphorus-containing activated carbons.Carbon,2012,50:1523-1537
[51] Zhao L,Cao X,Zheng W,et al.Copyrolysis of biomass with phosphate fertilizers to improve biochar carbon retention,slow nutrient release,and stabilize heavy metals in soil.ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering,2016,21:409-414
[52] Fan Y,Ling Z,Gao B,et al.The interfacial behavior between biochar and soil minerals and its effect on biochar stability.Environmental Science and Technology,2016,50:2264-2271
[53] Zhao L,Cao X,Wang Q,et al.Mineral constituents profile of biochar derived from diversified waste biomasses:Implications for agricultural applications.Journal of Environmental Quality,2013,42:545-552
[54] Yang Y,Sun K,Han L,et al.Effect of minerals on the stability of biochar.Chemosphere,2018,204:310-317
[55] Pace B,Munroe P,Marjo CE,et al.The mechanisms and consequences of inorganic reactions during the production of ferrous sulphate enriched bamboo biochars.Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,2018,131:101-112
[56] Hu X,Ding Z,Zimmerman AR,et al.Batch and colu-mn sorption of arsenic onto iron-impregnated biochar synthesized through hydrolysis.Water Research,2015,68:206-216
[57] Lu XQ,Vassallo AM,Johnson WD.Thermal stability of humic substances and their metal forms:An investigation using FTIR emission spectroscopy.Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis,1997,43:103-113
[58] Miltner A,Zech W.Effects of minerals on the transformation of organic matter during simulated fire-induced pyrolysis.Organic Geochemistry,1997,26:175-182
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