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美国黑人报刊在黑人种族认同形成过程中的作用
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摘要
多元文化主义的兴起和新移民的大量涌入,使得当今美国面临着国家认同的危机,各种族间矛盾不断,其中尤以黑白矛盾最为突出。
     黑白之间的种族问题由来已久。为了打破种族歧视和种族隔离,争取公民权和社会平等,美国黑人进行了长期不懈的斗争。从内战时期到民权运动时代,黑人的斗争历程同时也是他们种族意识觉醒和种族认同确立的过程。在这一过程中,黑人报刊发挥了极为重要的作用。
     在整个黑人抗争史的不同阶段,黑人所处的社会环境、认同和诉求以及黑人报刊的情况既有共性,又有每个阶段各自的特征。本文试图对这三者以及它们之间的关系进行研究,从报刊社论政策、关注的焦点、宗旨与口号、认同情感的强弱、自我称谓的变化等几方面重点研究黑人报刊在黑人斗争不同阶段的不同反应,以及它们在形成黑人种族认同过程中所起的作用。对黑人报刊的重点研究基于这样一种假设:作为斗争的工具,黑人报刊在每个阶段的变化正是对美国黑人种族意识从萌芽、发展,到最终确立种族认同的变化过程的反映。
     随着民权运动的衰落以及黑人生活条件、社会地位的提高,美国的黑人报刊似乎不太重要甚至显得有些过时了。但是21世纪的美国社会仍然存在种族歧视和不公平现象,对黑人来说战争并没有结束。因此黑人报刊在调整方向和重点后,继续从事未竟的事业。
It has been suggested that there is a crisis of national identity in the Unite States, which is challenged by the forces of globalization, multi-culturalism and migration. The conflicts among races are fierce, especially between the white and the black.
     The contradictions between the white and the black have been long since slavery period. In order to break down the racial segregation and discrimination, to strive for equality and civil rights, African Americans underwent an enduring and tough fight. From Civil War to the Civil Rights Movement, the history of black protest movement is also a process of development of African American's ethnic identity and black consciousness, during which the black press played an important role.
     A great many changes have occurred in the black setting, black protest movement, and the black press during these periods. This article is a study of the changes in these three phenomena and their interrelationships with particular attention to the responses of black press to the black protest movement and the function of the black press in the establishment of African American's ethnic identity, referring to the policies of editorials, focuses, slogans, sentiment, racial labels and so on.
     The stress on the black press is based on the assumption that the changes of the black press are just a reflection of the process, during which African American's ethnic identity is established.
     Along with the end of Civil Rights Movement and the improvement of African Americans' conditions, it seems that the black press is less important and even outdated.
     Entering 21~(st) century, as long as racial discrimination still exists in the United States, the black press continue pleading causes and serving the black community by exposing and fighting social illness, resisting separatism within black community,.
引文
1 nation有国家或民族的双重含义。鉴于从严格意义上讲美国不是一个民族国家,本文将nation和national identity翻译为国家和国家认同。
    2[美]本尼迪克特·安德森著:《想象的共同体——民族主义的起源与散布》,吴叡人译,第1版,上海:上海人民出版社,2003,第5页。
    1[英]齐格蒙特·鲍曼著:《共同体》,欧阳景根译,第1版,南京:江苏人民出版社,2003,第65页。
    2 数据来源:美国人口统计局官方网站http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html
    3 Robert Bernstein,Nation's Population One-Third Minority http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/population/006808.html,May.10,2005
    1[美]兹比格涅夫·布热津斯基著:《大失控与大混乱》,潘嘉玢、刘瑞祥译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1994,第125、118、126页。
    2 该问题起源于美国国会众议院2005年12月通过的一项法案。该法案将“非法滞留美国”定为重罪,并加大对非法移民雇主处罚力度,甚至连帮助非法移民的人也要受牵连。同时,布什主张推出所谓的“客籍劳工计划”,即让美国1200万非法移民中的700万左右居留5年以上的非法移民得到“绿卡”。前者受到了各国非法移民的强烈抗议,后者则遭到了美国国内众多政治人士的反对。
    3 This is a Battle for America's Identity http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1179372-2,00.html,Apr.2,2006
    1 也有学者认为,当前美国已进入“文化生成”时代。它出现的标志是:西班牙裔移民的“双文化认同”,既保守对母国的认同,又认同美国社会。
    2[英]埃里克·霍布斯鲍姆著:《民族与民族主义》,李金梅译,第1版,上海:上海人民出版社,2000,第123页。
    1[美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿著:《我们是谁——美国国家特性面临的挑战》,程克雄译,第1版,北京:新华出版社,2005,第108页。
    1 W.E.B.Du Bois,The Souls of Black Folk,New York,1969,p.45,转引自陈华:《美国黑人的文化认同及矛盾》,《求索》,2002年6月期,第221页。
    2 1885-Color and Caste Among Blacks http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=1301
    1[英]埃里克·霍布斯鲍姆著:《民族与民族主义》,李金梅译,第1版,上海:上海人民出版社,2000,第187页。
    2 Martin E.Spencer,Multi-culturalism,"Political Correctness" and the Politics of Identity,Sociological Forum,Vol.9,No.4.(Dec.,1994),p.564.
    3 The Future of Black America http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=MWVmMTEyYmNmODNhODA1ZjR1NjdhNjB1OTEwNj hM1ZDg=,Feb.3,2001
    1 本文所说的美国黑人报刊,指在美国本土,由美国黑人创办的、主要读者群为黑人的报纸和杂志。
    2 广为人知的一种批评是弗莱泽在《黑人中产阶级》中指出的“虽然黑人报纸……宣称出版的目的是为了黑人种族的利益,但是实际上却代表了黑人中产阶级的兴趣,传播所谓的黑人中产阶级的价值观”。
    1[美]丹尼尔·布尔斯廷著:《美国人——建国历程》,中国对外翻译出版公司译,第1版,北京:三联书店,1993,第219页。
    1 1872-Jim Crow http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=45
    1 Noel P.Gist,The Negro in the Daily Press,Social Forces,Vol.10,No.3.(Mar.,1932),p.406-407,410.
    2 Richard M.Perloff,The Press and Lynchings of African Americans,Journal of Black Studies,Vol.30,No.3.(Jan.,2000),p.320.
    3 Richard M.Perloff,The Press and Lynchings of African Americans,Journal of Black Studies,Vol.30,No.3.(Jan.,2000),p.320.
    4 Richard M.Perloff,The Press and Lynchings of African Americans,Journal of Black Studies,Vol.30,No.3.(Jan.,2000),p.323,326.
    1 Samuel E.Cornish;John B.Russwurm,To Our Patron,The New York Amsterdam News,Mar.14-Mar.20,2002.
    2 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.38.
    1 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.31.
    2 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.39.
    3 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.117,118,206.
    1 1865-The Last Resort:Racial Separatism http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Artiele_Search.asp?NewsID=1031
    2 1879-A Call for Self-determinism http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=989
    1 1886-Call for Unity and Militancy http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=297
    2 黄卫峰:《美国黑人称谓的种族情结》,《世界民族》,2002年第5期,第65页。
    3 黄卫峰:《美国黑人称谓的种族情结》,《世界民族》,2002年第5期,第66页。
    4 Tom W.Smith,Changing Racial Labels:From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American",The Public Opinion Quarterly,Vol.56,No.4.(Winter,1992),pp.497-498.
    1 John H.Burma,An Analysis of the Present Negro Press,Social Forces,Vol.26,No.2.(Dec.,1947),p.175.
    2 Karen E.Pride,Chicago Defender Celebrates 100 Years in Business http://www.chicagodefender.com/page/local.cfm?ArticleID=687,May.5,2005
    3 John H.Burma,An Analysis of the Present Negro Press,Social Forces,Vol.26,No.2.(Dec.,1947),p.177.
    4 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.54.
    1 Gunnar Myrdal,An American Dilemma:the Negro Problem and Modern Democracy,New York,1944,p.911.
    2 Guy Johnson,Some Factors in the Development of Negro Social Institutions in the United States,American Journal of Sociology,Vol.40,No.3.(Nov.,1934),p.334.
    3 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.41-42.
    4 Charlotte G.O'Kelly,Black Newspapers and the Black Protest Movement:Their Historical Relationship,1827-1945,Phylon,Vol.43,No.1.(1~(st) Qtr.,1982),p.6.
    1 Jean Williams Booker,Support the Black Press,The New York Amsterdam's News,Mar.21-Mar.27,2002,p.12.
    2 Charlotte G.O'Kelly,Black Newspapers and the Black Protest Movement:Their Historical Relationship,1827-1945,Phylon,Vol.43,No.1.(1~(st) Qtr.1982),p.6.
    3 Martin E.Dann,The Black Press 1827-1890:The Quest for National Identity,New York,1971,p.8,转引自Charlotte G.O'Kelly,Black Newspapers and the Black Protest Movement:Their Historical Relationship,1827-1945,Phylon,Vol.43,No.1.(1~(st) Qtr.,1982),p.8.
    1 宽扎节,即果实初收节。它是美国黑人的节日,共七天,从12月26日至1月1日。源自非洲传统的收获节,以烛光仪式揭开序幕,每天点燃一支蜡烛,象征美国黑人的七个原则:团结、自决、共同生活、合作经济、目的、创造和信念。庆祝活动还包括互赠礼品、吃一顿名为“卡拉姆”的非洲餐。近些年随着美国黑人自我意识的增强,越来越多的黑人开始崇尚庆祝自己的节日。
    2 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.81
    1 Charlotte G.O'Kelly,Black Newspapers and the Black Protest Movement,1946-1972,Phylon,Vol.41,No.4.(4th Qtr.,1980),pp.313-324.
    1 FEPC:Fair Employment practices Committee,公平就业措施委员会,由罗斯福总统于1941年6月成立。
    2 NAACP:The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People,有色人种协进会。
    1 黄卫峰:《美国黑人称谓的种族情结》,《世界民族》,2002年第5期,第69页。
    1 1951-Black Student Admitted to Medical School http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=494
    2 1955-Rose Parks Arrest Sparks Bus Boycott http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Artiele_Search.asp?NewsID=1625
    3 1955-Emmett Till Killed in Mississippi http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=1142
    4 1969-Panther Leader Fred Hampton Killed http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article_Seareh.asp?NewsID=1662
    1 The Victory Edition of the Chicago Defender,Sept.26,1942,p.2.
    2 1955年8月,14岁黑人少年埃米特·蒂尔因为向一名白人妇女吹了口哨,被两个白人绑架并残忍地杀害,此事经媒体报道后震惊了整个美国。
    3 1956-Althea Gibson Wins French Open http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Artiele_Seareh.asp?NewsID=621
    4 Langston Hughes,Ebony's Nativity,Ebony,Vol.46,No.1.(Nov.,1990),reprinted from Nov.,1965 issue,p.142.
    1 本节于早期《黑檀》的史实,除单独注解外,其他均综合以下文献所得:Langston Hughes,Ebony's Nativity,Ebony,Vol.46,No.1.(Nov.,1990),reprinted from Nov.,1965 issue,pp.138-144.
    Lerone Bennett Jr,The Ebony Revolution,Ebony,Vol.61,No.1.(Nov.,2005),pp.74-77.
    Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,pp.85-89,142-144,321-324.
    Theodore Cross,Ebony Magazine:Sometimes the Bell Curve's Best Friend,The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education,No.10.(Winter,1995-1996),pp.75-76.
    Ebony,Vol.42,No.4.(Feb.1984)-Vol.62,No.6.(Apr.,2007)http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=5&hid=122&sid=428e861a-c5ce-402d-923a-2841f0149185%40sessionmgr102
    1 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.142.
    2 http://www.reportingcivilrights.org/authors/biblio.jsp?authorId=67
    3 Tony Atwater:"Ebony's" Civil Rights Focus:A Study of Editorial Policy before and after the Civil Rights Act of 1964http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_Search Value_0=ED189613&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&acc no=ED189613,1980.8
    4 希尔达·希姆斯(1918—1994):美国百老汇黑人女演员,主演舞台剧和电影。
    约瑟芬·蓓克(1906—1975):首个在美国和欧洲受到欢迎的美国黑人女艺人,影视歌多栖。
    1 Ebony's African world,Ebony,Vol.51,No.1.(Nov.,1995),pp.88-92.
    1 J.Spencer Cordie;James W.Christiansen,An Indirect Technique for the Measurement of Changes in Black Identity,Phylon(1960-),Vol.38,No.1.(1~(st) Qtr.1977),p.49.
    1 Tony Atwater;Kwadwo Anokwa,Race Relations in Ebony:An Analysis of Interracial Statements in Selected Feature Stories,Journal of Black Studies,Vol.21,No.3.(Mar.,1991),pp.268-278.
    2 Todd Steven Burroughs,Black Press Reflects Black America's Goals,The New York Amsterdam's News,Mar.14-Mar.20,2002,p.30.
    1 Todd Steven Burroughs,Black Press Reflects Black America's Goals,The New York Amsterdam's News,Mar.14-Mar.20,2002,p.30.
    2 1995年11月的《黑檀》创办50周年纪念刊,回顾了过去50年美国黑人在政治、宗教、民权、体育、音乐、影视、服饰、发型、选美皇后大赛等方面所取得的成就,唯独没有在教育、学术科研方面的内容。这引起了美国黑人学术界人士的不满和抗议。
    1 2007年4月4日,艾莫斯在其广播节目《清晨艾莫斯》中称罗格斯大学女子篮球队的队员(其中有8名美国黑人)是一群野蛮女孩,像男人一样有纹身,甚至称她们为“卷毛妓女”。该节目的播出最终导致艾莫斯被解雇,其节目被电台取消。
    2 在弗吉尼亚理工大学枪击事件发生之前。
    3 Tom Rosenstiel;Paul Hitlin,Imus Second Biggest Story of 2007 So Far http://www.journalism.org/node/5085,Apr.15,2007
    4 从1978年开始,促进新闻采编室多样化成为美国报纸编辑协会(ASNE)的主要任务之一。每年,ASNE会对全国范围内新闻行业少数族裔从业者所占的比例进行统计,以便在2025年能达到既定目标:使新闻采编室的少数族裔从业者比例与美国人口的实际种族比例保持一致。
    5 政治正确是20世纪80年代始于美国的一场语言使用正统化社会运动,目的在于去除语言中因传统而承继下来的偏见,以创造一个中性、无歧视的传播与沟通环境。在政治正确检验中,通常第一项就是针对美国黑人。
    1 http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html
    2 2006年美国的人权纪录(全文)http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2007-03/08/content_5816368.htm,2007年3月8日
    3 Hazel Trice Edney,State of Black America:Future of Black Men Critical for "American Family"http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article.asp?SID=3&Title=Hot+Stories&NewsID=12934,Apr.20,2007
    4 2006年美国的人权纪录(全文)http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2007-03/08/eontent_5816368.htm,2007年3月8日
    5 Hazel Trice Edney,State of Black America:Future of Black Men Critical for "American Family"http://www.blackpressusa.com/News/Article.asp?SID=3&Title=Hot+Stories&NewsID=12934,Apr.20,2007
    1 一个典型的例子:1965年建立在洛杉矶市中心的马丁·路德·金纪念医院,多年以来一直受到黑人患者的青睐,即使其医疗水平和硬件设施均在全国同行中排名最后,还时常发生医疗事故。2006年9月,洛杉矶政府因为预算问题决定关闭这家医院。此消息一出,引起了当地美国黑人的强烈反对。见King/Drew Hospital Troubles,http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-kingdrew-gallery,0,5651209.storygallery
    2 数据来源:美国人口统计局官方网站http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen=2000.html
    1 阿里:美国黑人踊跃归信伊斯兰http://www.norislam.com/informations/2007-03-01/informations_20070301152938.html,2007年3月1日
    2 NNPA Media Services http://www.nnpa.org/News/article/artiele.asp?sID=24%20
    3 在美国,黑人报纸中只有《纽约阿姆斯特丹新闻》、《费城论坛》和《巴尔的摩非裔美国人》的发行量经过ABC的稽查认证。
    1 The Ethnic Media in America:The Giant Hidden in Plain Sight http://www.ncmonline.com/polls/full_em_poll.pdf,Jun.7,2005
    1 History of the Philadelphia Tribune http://www.phila-tribune.com/pdf/ThePhiladelphiaTribune_MediaKit.pdf,2004
    2 Chicago Defender Launches Podcast http://www.chicagodefender.com/page/local.cfm?ArtieleID=840,May.25,2006
    1 http://newpittsburghcourieronline.com/articlelive/articles/37514/1/Strange-behavior-Imus-and -nappy-headed-hos/Page1.html,Apr.12,2007
    1 http://newpittsburghcourieronline.com/articlelive/articles/37515/1/Basketball-players-are-not -nappy-headed-hos/Pagel.html,Apr.12,2007
    2 http://www.amsterdamnews.org/News/search/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=77808&sID=4,Apr.12,2007
    3 mea culpa:拉丁语中的一个词汇,在英语中解释为“我的错”(my fault)。
    4 http://www.amsterdamnews.org/News/search/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=77807&sID=4,Apr.12,2007http://www.arnsterdamnews.org/News/search/Article_Search.asp?NewsID=77806&sID=4,Apr.12,2007
    1 Filmmaker Finds Newspapers a 'Window' on Black History http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=6550
    2 Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990,p.402.
    1 Beverly Kees,Ethnic Press Provides Urgency,Connection that's Missing in Mainstream,Panelists Say http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/doeument.asp?documentID=7953
    2 Bryan Monroe,Newsroom Diversity:True vs.Fiction,Nierman Reports,Vol.57,No.3.(Fall,2003),p.29.
    1 John Burma,An Analysis of the Present Negro Press,Social Forces,Vol.26,No.2.(Dec.,1947),p.173.
    2 Todd Steven Burroughs,Black Press Reflects Black America's Goals,The New York Amsterdam's News,Mar.14-Mar.20,2002,p.30.
    1 John Burma,An Analysis of the Present Negro Press,Social Forces,Vol.26,No.2.(Dec.,1947),p.173.
    2 Lee Finkle,The Conservative Aims of Militant Rhetoric:Black Protest during World War Ⅱ,The Journal of American History,Vol.60,No.3.(Dee.,1973),pp.692-713
    3 Karen Pride,Chicago Defender Celebrates 100 Years in business http://www.chicagodefender.com/page/local.cfm?ArticleID=687,May 5,2005
    [1]Paula S.Rothenberg,Race,Class,and Gender in the United States:A Integrated Study,Fourth Edition,New York:St.Martin's Press,1998.
    [2]Richard T.Schaefer,Racial and Ethnic Groups,Seventh Edition,New York:Longman,1998.
    [3]Roland E.Wolseley,The Black Press,U.S.A.,Second Edition,Iowa State University Press,1990.
    [4][美]丹尼尔·布尔斯廷著:《美国人——开拓历程》,中国对外翻译出版公司译,第1版,北京:三联书店,1993。
    [5][美]丹尼尔·布尔斯廷著:《美国人——建国历程》,中国对外翻译出版公司译,第1版,北京:三联书店,1993。
    [6][美]丹尼尔·布尔斯廷著:《美国人——民主历程》,中国对外翻译出版公司译,第1版,北京:三联书店,1993。
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