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浙江农村相对贫困:演变趋势、结构特征及影响因素
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摘要
人类历史是贫困与财富共生的历史,但随着社会生产力的发展和人类创造物质财富能力的不断增强,普遍性的绝对贫困将逐渐演变为部分人的相对贫困,相对贫困将逐渐取代绝对贫困而成为社会关注的焦点。发达国家的贫困实践早已证实了这一点。对于转型期的中国,虽然绝对贫困依然存在,但其发生率已经很低,而且主要集中在中西部和少数民族地区,相反,随着人均收入水平的提高和收入分配不平等的加剧,相对贫困问题却越来越突出,并引起了社会各界的关注。而作为经济增长最快,农村居民人均收入水平最高,并且第一个进入上中等国家行列的浙江,经济的持续增长在基本消除绝对贫困的同时,也带来了农村居民收入差距的不断扩大,特别是农村居民内部贫富两极的相对运动及其加剧,使其相对贫困问题日益凸现和严重,既对社会经济运行造成一定的负面影响,也威胁到和谐社会的构建和新农村建设。因此,研究浙江农村相对贫困,掌握其外在表现,探讨其发生和演变的内在机理和规律,既可对有效治理相对贫困问题提供一定的理论和现实依据,而且还可以为预见不发达地区相对贫困的未来走势和有效防治提供一定的借鉴意义,并最终促进农村以及全国经济和社会的健康持续发展。
     本文利用浙江省农村固定观察点1993—2006年的跟踪调查数据,运用世界银行DAD软件和Logit以及Probit等计量模型,以演进为脉络,从经济贫困为核心延展到非经济贫困,对浙江农村居民相对贫困的演变趋势、结构、影响因素和动态性等内容进行了具体的研究和探讨。主要内容和结论如下:
     第1章导论,主要介绍研究背景和意义,明确研究对象和研究方法,提出研究假设,理清研究思路,并指出研究可能达到的创新及存在的不足。
     第2章关于贫困研究的理论演进与相对贫困。主要循着贫困研究的演进路径,对经典贫困理论、贫困研究视角和测度体系等方面的内容和研究成果进行简要回顾和述评,并进一步介绍了贫困研究的拓展和变迁以及国内农村相对贫困研究的必然性。
     第3—5章主要介绍了浙江农村相对贫困的整体状况、结构和影响因素及其演变。其中第3章浙江农村相对贫困的状况及其演变,主要运用基尼系数和FGT指数等对居民收入不平等和相对贫困的整体状况和演变趋势进行了考察和分析,结果发现,居民收入不平等、收入贫困和消费贫困,尽管具体状况和演变轨迹存在差异,但均在高位波动中呈现上升趋势,特别是贫困者之间差距的扩大更为严重。第四章浙江农村相对贫困的结构及其演变,主要通过对贫困剖析形成的多维度贫困结构及其演变的分析,研究不同群体贫困发生率、贫困深度和强度的差异及其变迁,并通过对特定群体相对贫困风险的考察,比较研究其陷入贫困概率的差异及其演变,结果发现居住在丘陵地区、以农业经营和就业为主、劳动力和主劳动力文化水平较低而年龄较高、缺乏技术职称和职教培训、没有党员和干部以及人均耕地面积中等的家庭,始终面临相对较高的贫困风险,贫困问题较为严重。第五章浙江农村相对贫困的影响因素分析,主要基于Shalpey值法对贫困的分解,考察了经济增长与收入分配以及不同收入来源对贫困的影响及其演变,并运用Logit模型研究了典型年份不同微观因素对家庭贫困的影响及其差异,在此基础上预测了典型家庭的贫困概率。结果表明,经济增长、家庭经营收入和工资性收入一直是降低贫困的主要力量,但经济增长和家庭经营收入的作用在减弱,而工资性收入的作用在逐渐增强;而平原地区相对优越的自然条件、人均耕地和人均非生产性固定资产以及人均金融资产高的拥有量、非农产业和非农就业相对较高的劳动收益率、劳动力以及主劳动力的人力资本优势、核心家庭的适度人口规模优势和低的抚养比以及党员和干部等社会政治资本均会降低家庭的贫困概率。
     第6章浙江农村相对贫困的动态性研究,主要在概述贫困动态性研究进展和成果的基础上,从贫困期限和贫困进入—退出两种角度考察了长期贫困、短期贫困、从不贫困和贫困进入—退出以及保持的基本状况,并运用Probit模型对不同贫困期限和贫困进入—退出—保持的影响因素及其边际影响进行了研究。结果发现,大多数家庭总是处于贫困进入与退出的运动过程中,但不同家庭经历从不贫困和长期贫困的比例存在很大差异,其中无耕地、非农主业和就业家庭以及主劳动力和劳动力平均受教育年限最高的家庭从不贫困比例较高,而长期贫困比例较低;丘陵地区、农业主业和就业家庭、主劳动力和劳动力平均受教育年限为0年以及人均耕地1—2亩的家庭长期贫困占比高于其从不贫困占比。同时,纯农占比的提高会显著提高家庭进入和处于长期贫困的概率,而降低从不贫困和贫困退出的概率;主劳动力文化水平提高会显著提高家庭从不贫困概率而降低短期贫困概率;耕地的增多会显著降低家庭从不贫困概率而提高长期贫困和贫困进入退出的概率;非生产性固定资产的增加会显著提高家庭从不贫困概率而降低短期和长期贫困以及贫困进入退出和保持的概率;家庭类型层级的提高会显著降低家庭短期贫困概率而提高贫困保持和长期贫困概率,等等。
     第七章基于非经济贫困视角的浙江农村相对贫困探讨,主要在对非经济贫困内涵和外延以及研究成果简要概述的基础上,对浙江农村居民的教育贫困、就业贫困和健康贫困状况及其演变趋势进行了研究,并对非经济贫困内部以及与经济贫困之间的关系进行了考察。结果发现,虽然教育贫困、就业贫困和健康贫困的状况都得到了一定改善,但就业贫困和健康贫困家庭内部差距却呈现扩大趋势。同时,非经济贫困内部以及与经济贫困之间均存在既相互区别又相互联系的辨证关系,一旦陷入某方面贫困,就会增加处于现有贫困和陷入其他方面贫困的可能性。
     第八章结论及启示,主要在总结全文的基础上,结合浙江农村实际,提出了对待相对贫困的理念和政策。即基于人人共享和社会公正的理念,促进经济增长与加大收入分配调节力度并重;加速农村工业化进程,促进农村非农产业发展;促进农村土地流转,加快现代农业建设;尽快建立和完善农村社会保障制度体系;提高人力资本存量,增强发展能力,等等。
     本文研究在以下方面可能做出了创新:一是采用相对贫困视角研究浙江农村的贫困问题,不仅突破了以往农村贫困研究只聚焦于绝对贫困的局限,而且与发达地区农村经济社会发展和贫困问题的转换相一致;二是对贫困动态性和非经济贫困进行了实证研究,做到了静态贫困与动态贫困、经济贫困与非经济贫困的有机结合,从而突破了以往静态经济贫困研究的不足;三是对多维度贫困结构及其特定群体的相对贫困风险进行了研究,从而深化了贫困内在机理的比较研究,克服了以往整体贫困研究缺乏针对性的特点;四是综合运用了FGT、Shapley、Probit和Logit模型对贫困状况、贫困结构、贫困影响因素以及贫困进入—退出的影响因素及其边际影响等内容进行了研究,从而实现了计量研究方法综合运用的创新。
It is well known that poverty and wealth go hand in hand in human history. But with the development of social productivity and people's ability in creating physical materials, general absolute poverty will be gradually replaced by relative poverty of a fraction of people. The developed country's poverty practice has already proved this. As a country being in a period of transition, there still exists absolute poverty in such special areas as central and western regions and minority areas of China, but its poverty incidence is very low. Meanwhile, the relative poverty also becomes more and more prominent problem accompanied by not only the increase of income per capita, but the aggravating of income inequality, which are being paid more attention by the social people. For example, Zhejiang province, as the first province entering moderating developed level, the fastest economy increment and the highest per capita income level for rural residents, has basically ended the absolute poverty. At the same time it also brings expanding disparity between the rural residents in income and the opposite development between poverty and wealth in rural areas. All of these factors mentioned above not only have negative effects on social economic running, but also influence the building of harmonious society and new countryside. Therefore, if we study relative poverty in rural Zhejiang, we can get the grip of its external expression, probe its internal mechanism and rules. And this kind of work can not only provide us certain theory and practice foundation for effectively controlling the relative poverty, but provide us certain referential value for predicting and averting undeveloped area's relative poverty problems so as to further promote our economy and society's sound and sustainable development.
     By using fixed observation spot longitudinal data from 1993 to 2006 in rural Zhejiang, this dissertation study evolution trends, structure, influence factors and dynamic traits of relative poverty in rural Zhejiang with the instrument of DAD software, Logit and Probit model. The basic thread of thought about the whole work is focused on "how relative poverty change? How relative poverty develop from monetary poverty to non-monetary poverty". The main contents and results are as follows:
     Chapter 1 is an introduction. First we describe backgrounds, meaningfulness, objectives, hypotheses, methods, theoretical framework of the research as well. And then we point out the innovation work and the inadequate which may be conquered in future research.
     Chapter 2 focuses on theory evolution and relative poverty in poverty research history. By following evolution path of poverty research, this part of study reviews the contents and achievements in regard to classic poverty theory, research direction and the scaling system in poverty. Based on above information we discuss the expending and changing in poverty research and the necessity of relative poverty research in rural China.
     Chapter 3 to Chapter 5 describe the whole status, structure, influence factors of relative poverty and their evolution in rural Zhejiang. Chapter 3 is about the status and its evolution of the relative poverty in rural Zhejiang. In which we examine the status and evolution of the relative poverty with the Gini coefficient and FGT index. The result of data analysis demonstrate that, although there exist differences in specific status and evolution trends, resident's income inequality, income poverty and consume poverty show rising trend in high-level fluctuating. And also we find these kinds of situation are more serious among the poor. Chapter 4 is about the structure and its evolution of the relative poverty in rural Zhejiang. In which after anatomizing the multidimensional poverty structure and its evolution we analyze the difference consisting in poverty incidence, poverty depth and poverty intensity among different groups. Further, after examining the relative poverty risk of specific groups we comparatively study the difference in probability falling into poverty of specific groups and their evolution. We find out families ,which residing in downland, engaging mainly in agriculture, being short of education of the main labor with old age, having moderate cultivated land per capita and lacking technical titles, vocational training, communist and cadre, always have relatively higher poverty probability and more serious poverty problems. Chapter 5 is the analysis of the influence factors of relative poverty in rural Zhejiang. In which through decomposing poverty with Shapley value approach, we analyze such factors as economy growth, income distribution and different income sources, and their effects to poverty and their evolution. Different micro factors affecting family poverty and poverty diversity in typical years are explored by using Logit model, In addition, to predict the typical family poverty probability we deeply dig out the data we have. As a result the findings indicate: economy growth, income from household business and wage income are always the important power for decreasing poverty, but compared to the later factor's role gradually strengthen, the two former factors' role gradually weaken. While factors, such as relatively superiority natural condition in plain, more cultivated land, nonproductive fixed assets and per capita financial assets, relatively higher yield of non-agriculture industries and non-agriculture employment, human capital's advantage in labor and main force, optimum population sizes in core family, low dependency ratio and social political capital, can bring down poverty probability.Chapter 6 is the study of relative poverty dynamics in rural Zhejiang. Based upon the new development in poverty dynamics theory, we test the basic status of chronic poverty, temporary poverty, never poverty, poverty enter-exit-stay from two angles of poverty term and poverty-in-and-out. Influential factors and the marginal effects on different poverty term and poverty enter-exit-stay are probed by using Probit model. The results show that most families are always in the movement of poverty-in-and-out, although different families have large diversity in proportion on suffering from never poverty to chronic poverty. Among them families that belong to without cultivated land, non-agriculture main business and employing, having highest average educated time of labor and main force have the higher ratio of never poverty and the lower ratio of chronic poverty; while families that belong to downland, agriculture main business and employing, non-educated experience of labor and main force and cultivated land per capita from 1 to 2 mu, have the higher ratio of chronic poverty and the lower ratio of never poverty. Meanwhile the increase of pure agriculture force ratio can significantly enhance slipping and staying chronic poverty probability, but decrease the probability of never poverty and poverty-out; The improvement of education of main labor force can significantly raise probability of never poverty and lower temporary poverty's; Similarly the increase of cultivated land can extremely decrease never poverty's probability and enhance chronic poverty and poverty in-and out's probability; And the increase of nonproductive fixed assets can remarkably advance never poverty probability and decrease chronic poverty, temporary poverty and poverty in-and-out probability; The increase of family type hierarchy can remarkably decrease temporary poverty probability but enhance chronic poverty and poverty maintaining probability.
     Chapter 7 reveals the relative poverty based upon non-monetary aspect in rural Zhejiang. According to previous results in non-monetary poverty and its connotation and denotation, we explore the status and evolution trends of education poverty, employment poverty, health poverty, the relationship within non-monetary poverty and between non-monetary poverty and monetary poverty of rural residents in Zhejiang. And we get following results: to a certain extent the situations in education poverty, employment poverty and health poverty are improved, while the internal distance in employment poverty and health poverty's families appear expanding trend. Moreover, non-monetary poverty interior and its connection with monetary poverty have dialectic relationship. Once plunging into certain poverty, the probability of staying current poverty and running into other poverty will increase.
     Chapter 8 gives some conclusions and revelations. Based on summarizing the paper and combining the actual situation of rural Zhejiang, we put forward some ideas and policies to cope with relative poverty. That is, with the idea of a society for all and social justice, we should pay equal attention to advancing economy growth and adjusting income distribution, accelerate rural industrialization and promote non-agriculture development, facilitate lands transfer and speed modern agriculture construct, establish and improve rural social security system, improve human capital and enhance development capability, etc.
     This paper makes out some innovations to the following aspects. Firstly, studying poverty in rural Zhejiang with relative poverty perspective, we not only break through the limit of previous research focused on absolute poverty, but keep in line with the socioeconomic development and the changing of poverty in developed rural area. Secondly, carrying empirical research on poverty dynamics and non-monetary poverty, we achieve organic integration of static poverty and dynamic poverty, monetary poverty and non-monetary poverty. Thereby, we overcome the shortcoming of previous research on static and absolute poverty. Thirdly, exploring the multidimensional poverty structures and relative poverty risk of particular groups, we deepen comparative study on immanent mechanism of poverty, and surmount the lack of pertinence of previous holistic approach of poverty. Fourthly, combining with a variety of approaches such as FGT, Shapley value ,Probit and Logit model, we study poverty status, poverty structure, influence factors of poverty and poverty-in-and-out, consequently, realize the innovation of integration use on econometric research method.
引文
1 此类观点的文献还可参见Perotti,R.1992,1993,1994,1996;Galor,O.& Zeira,J.1993;Alesina,A.& Rodrik,D.1994;等等。
    1 蔡昉(2006)指出,如果人们感到自己的状况与其他人之间拉大了距离,就意味着相对贫困或收入不平等的严重性,就会孕育社会不和谐。
    2 在贫困问题的研究中,许多学者倾向于运用贫困的二阶段理论。这一理论有两层含义:一是指贫困研究的二阶段性;二是指贫困发展的二阶段性。贫困发展的二阶段性是指随着社会经济的发展,社会贫困的内涵将发生变化,就其本质特征而言,这一变化被划分为两个阶段,第一个阶段是绝对贫困阶段,第二个阶段是相对贫困阶段。有的学者认为,按照这一理论划分中国的贫困问题,如果以中国“不把贫困(绝对贫困)带入21世纪”的宏伟目标为理论依据,那么2000年就应当然地成为贫困二阶段的时间分界线:在2000年以前,中国的贫困主要表现为绝对贫困问题,属于第一阶段;2000年以后,则主要表现为相对贫困问题,属于第二阶段。详见尹世洪.当前中国贫困问题[M].南昌:江西人民出版社,1998:19。
    1 马克思恩格斯全集(第23卷)[M].北京:人民出版社,1972:692。转引自刘建华.贫困问题的社会制度分析[J].当代经济研究,2005(10):14—17。
    1 冈纳·缪尔达尔著.赛思·金缩写.方前福译.亚洲的戏剧—南亚国家贫困问题研究[M].北京:首都经济贸易大学出版社,2001:21-22。
    2 卢现祥(2003,P.225)指出,发展中国家与发达国家的差异主要是制度上的差异,发展中国家在制度上落后于发达国家。制度瓶颈使发展中国家的各种要素难以通过市场机制有效地配置,因而导致其贫穷和落后。
    3 世界银行2000/2001世界发展报告认为,目前贫困的主要特征就是穷人缺乏资产或机会、缺乏权力、缺乏安全,而导致贫困的主要原因是制度安排和机制运行的不合理使穷人无法从经济增长中分享成果或获得机会。
    1 舒尔茨(1964)曾尖锐地指出,在发展中国家里低估人类投资的情况更为严重,人力投资更加受到人们的忽视。
    2 森指出,由于人力资本通常主要按照间接的价值定义为可以在生产中作为“资本”来运用的人类素质,在这个意义上,人力资本分析方法这一狭隘的视角可被包含在人类可行能力分析方法这一更广阔的视角之内(2002,P.292)。
    1 关于贫困研究视角的具体内容请参见:Ruggeri Laderchi,C.,Saith R.&Stewart F.,2003。
    2 请参见Pyatt,F. G. & Ward,M.Identifting the poor[C].Amsterdam,Washington,DC:IOS Press,1999。
    3 贫困:城镇生活研究,Poverty:a Study of Town Life,1901年出版;另外英国学者布什(Booth)1899出版的伦敦东区人民的劳动和生活,Labor and Life ofthe People:East London,也被认为是开创性研究。
    4 Townsend,1979;雷诺兹,1993;欧洲共同体委员会,1993;国家统计局,1990;童星、林闽钢,1993;汪三贵,1994;唐平,1994;康晓光,1995;唐钧,1998;等等。
    1 关于收入和支出的数据,统计部门都较为详细,不仅可以得到汇总数据,甚至可以得到家庭和个人的原始数据。
    2 Sirovátka, T. & MareS, P. PPoverty, social exclusion and social policy in the Czech Republic[J]. Social Policy and Administration, 2006, 40(3):288-303。
    1 联合国秘书长安南这样评价森:“全世界贫穷的、被剥夺的人们在经济学家中找不到任何一个人比阿玛蒂亚·森更加言理明晰地、富有远见地捍卫他们的利益。通过阐明我们的生活质量应该不是根据我们的财富、而是根据我们的自由来衡量,他的著作已经对发展的理论的实践造成革命性的变化。联合国在自己的发展工作中极大地获益于森教授观点的明智和健全。”李成贵,2004,转引自王艳萍,2006,P.140-141。
    1 多维度贫困测度指标主要针对非经济贫困,但有些把收入贫困作为其中的一个维度。
    2 World Bank.Introduction to Poverty Analysis[DB/OL].2005-08.转引自张建华,陈立中.总量贫困测度研究述评[J].经济学(季刊),2006,5(3):665-694。
    1 Bowley,A.L.The nature and purpose of the measurement of social phenomena.London:P.S.King,1932.转引自阿玛蒂亚·森.贫困与饥荒[M].北京:商务印书馆,2001:47。
    2 World Bank.Introduction to Poverty Analysis[DB/OL].2005-08.转引自张建华,陈立中,总量贫困测度研究述评[J].经济学(季刊),2006,5(3):665-694。
    1 具体内容详见阿马蒂亚·森著.王宇,王文玉译.贫困与饥荒—论权利与剥夺[M].北京:商务印书馆,2001:232—242。
    2 瑞沃林(2005,P.61-62)指出,对H,PG,P2(SPG)的公式进行比较,明显具有一个共同的结构,这暗含了一个一般的度量形式:也就是FGT公式。如果得到的是个体或者家庭水平数据,FGT是计算P_(?)的最简单和最准确的办法。
    1 UNDP. Human Development Report1997[R]. Oxford :Oxford University Press, 1997。
    2 联合国开发计划署1998年人类发展报告[R]北京:中国财政经济出版社,2000。
    1 P_(13)、P_(23)、P_(33)、P_(43)中的下标第一位数分别指四方面的剥夺指标,第二位数3则代表工业国家的指标。
    2 Alkire,S.Valuing Freedom's:Sen's capability approach and poverty reduction[M]. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2002.转引自Ruggeri Laderchi, C., Saith R. & Stewart F. Does it matter that we do not agree on the definition of poverty? A comparison of four approaches[J]. Oxford Development Studies ,2003,31(3):243-274。
    1 秉勤、Pinel,J.G.能力、贫困、社会排斥及福利[EB/OL].社会政策网,2002—06—17。
    2 UNDP. Human Development Report1996[R]. Oxford :Oxford University Press, 1996。
    3 因推导过程复杂,本文不详细介绍,可参见原文,Majumdar, M. &Subramanian, S. Capability failure and froup disparities:Some evidence from India for the 1980s[J]. The Journal of Development Studies, 2001,37(5): 104-140。
    1 Rowntree.Poverty:a Study of Town Life,1901。转引自唐钧.社会政策的基本目标:从克服贫困到消除社会排斥[斥].江苏社会科学,2002(3):41-47。
    2 Ravallion, M.,Datt,G.& van de Walle, D.(1991)通过对36个国家的实证研究发现,贫困线随着人均消费水平的提高而提高,而且富裕国家的增长弹性要高于贫穷国家。因此,从较长的历史时期看,贫困标准都体现出一定的动态性,但在不同发展阶段中,贫困标准往往是固定的。
    3 贫困过程的动态性研究是严格意义上动态贫困的体现,也是贫困研究由静态向动态转变的主要方向,对此,本文将在贫困动态性研究一章中进行专门研究。
    1 相对贫困思想的最早表述来自于亚当·斯密。二十世纪90年代以来,随着相对贫困问题的凸现,不同专家学者和机构对相对贫困进行了阐述。一种观点是基于客观的收入(生活)水平,认为相对贫困是指某人或某家庭与本国平均收入相比(世界银行,1996,P.1),年收入低于全国全部家庭的平均数(雷诺兹,1993,P.432),或者收入只及(或少于)总体收入的三分之一的家庭和个人(国家统计局,1990)。另一种观点是基于主观的价值判断,认为相对贫困是一种较为主观的标准。欧珊斯基和霍布斯邦把相对贫困仅仅视为一种价值判断,认为相对贫困总是一定社会的准则定义,每个人站的角度和个人观点不同,个人跟中看到的相对贫困是不一样的(李嘉岩,2004,P.17)。
    2 Smith.Wealth of nations,1776,转引自阿马蒂亚·森.以自由看待发展[M].2002:61。
    3 Alcock, P. Understanding poverty[M]. London: The Macmillan Press,1993。转引自唐钧.社会政策的基本目标:从克服贫困到消除社会排斥[J].江苏社会科学,2002,3:41-47。
    1 王大超(2004)转引自Alcock.Understanding poverty[M].The MacmiIlan Press,1993:129。
    2 Townsend, P. Poverty in the Kingdom: a survey of the household resource and living standard[M]. London:Allen Lane and Penguin Books, 1979.转引自唐钧, 2002。
    1 具体内容及公式详见刘颖、谢萌和丁勇,2004。
    1 收入差距扩大的负面影响详见导论部分。当然有学者对此提出反面意见,详见Li,H.Y.& Zou,H.F. 1998; Deininger, K.& Squire,L. 1998; Forbes,K.J.2000; Barro,R.J.,2000,等。
    1 库兹涅茨“倒u型曲线”假设后来得到阿德尔曼和钱纳里等人的实证研究支持,但也受到许多学者的置疑。我国的一些学者也曾对库兹涅茨假说在中国的适应性进行了验证,验证的结果都没有对中国收入分配会沿着“倒U型曲线”的轨迹变动这一命题提供强有力的经验支持(李实、赵人伟和张平,1999,P.153)。但郭熙保(2002)把人类发展指数作为发展水平的指标,得出了库兹涅茨“倒U型曲线”,并认为库兹涅茨假说在中国也存在,中国收入分配不平等的扩大主要是由经济不平衡发展引起的。
    1 Miller, S.M.& Roby, P. Poverty changing social stratification[A]. Townsend, P. The concept of poverty[C], London:Heinemann,1971。转引自阿马蒂亚·森.贫困与饥荒,2001:23。
    2 森补充认为贫困与不平等之间的不同,一是二者的衡量方法不同,二是不平等不仅是收入分配问题,而且还是不同社会阶层之间多方面的悬殊差别问题。
    3 如果不存在不平等,也就不会形成相对贫困问题。
    4 国外贫困研究中相对贫困线的确定主要有两种方法:第一种方法是以家庭食物消费支出为基础,通过降低恩格尔系数,提高绝对贫困线水平来制定,可以称为收支对照法(王大超,2004,P.75)。第二种方法是将贫困线规定为占社会平均家庭平均收入的某个百分比。这种方法最早是由维克多·富克斯(Victor Fuchs)在1967年提出来的,此方法又称为相对收入法。当时他将相对贫困线规定为不足社会成员平均水平的50%(钟鸣、王逸,1999,P.264)。目前,许多西方国家仍以这一比例为基准,测定相对贫困线。国内贫困问题研究中,相对贫困线的确定方法使用较多的主要有三种:人头比例法、绝对值法、食品热量供给法(张问敏、魏众,1999,P.409)。其中,绝对值法与相对收入法具有一致性。
    1 资本论(第1卷),北京:人民出版社,1975。
    2 Lenski,G.E. Power and privilege: A theory of social stratification[M].New York: Mcgraw-hill, 1966,转引自周怡.贫困研究:结构解释与文化解释的对垒[J].社会学研究,2002(3):49-63。
    3 Kerbo ,H. R. Social stratification and inequality[M]. New York: Mcgraw-hill, 1996:271-276, 转引自王金虎,霍军.当代美国的贫困结构及其成因[J].河南大学学报(社会科学版),2001(5):21-26。
    4 Kelso, W. A. Poverty and the underclass: Changing perceptions of the poor in America, New York: New York University Press[M]. 1994:226-246, 转引自周怡, 2002。
    1具体可参见李实、古斯塔夫森,1996;阿齐兹·拉曼·卡恩,1999;张问敏、魏众,1999;梁鸿,2000:魏众、古斯塔夫森,2000:李实,2004。
    1 关于农村工业化和浙江农村工业化的研究详见黄祖辉,朱允卫.浙江农村工业化的发展与启示[J].中国经济史研究,2006(2):88—94:卫龙宝,张清霞.农村工业化进程中农村妇女社会地位的变迁[J].浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版),2005(5):1—13。
    1 参见魏众、古斯塔夫森,1998:古斯塔夫森、魏众,2002;李实,2004:Mukherjee,S.& Benson,T.,2003;Gustafsson,B.& Nivorozhkina, L.,2004; Kolev ,A.,2005;等等。
    1对于二元选择Logit模型的详细介绍参见罗伯特S.平狄克,丹尼尔L.鲁宾费尔德著.钱小军等译.计量经济模型与经济预测[M]北京:机械工业出版社,1999:190—192。
    1 依据不同贫困线的确定。
    2 转引自 Headey, B.,Marks,G& Wooden,M. The dynamics of income poverty in Australia: Evidence from the first three waves of the HILDA Survey[J]. Australian Journal of Social Issues ,2005,40 (4):541-552,
    3 许多学者对贫困动态性进行了研究。例如Gaiha,R.&Deolalikar,A.(1993)对印度的研究发现,长期贫困发生率大约为20%,而短期贫困发生率约为60%;Addabbo,T.&Baldini,M.(2000)对意大利的研究发现,长期收入贫困和消费贫困的发生率分别为3%和2%,而短期收入贫困和消费贫困的发生率分别为16%和12%;汪三贵、李文(2003)对贫困县农户的研究发现,长期贫困发生率为27.9%,短期贫困发生率为31%;Headey,B.,Marks,G&Wooden,M.(2005)对澳大利亚的研究发现,长期贫困发生率为4.2%,而短期贫困发生率达到20.1%;Clement,M.(2007)对俄罗斯的研究发现,长期贫困的发生率为12.3%,短期贫困发生率达到46.9%;等等。
    1 据对全国31个省市7100个行政村的6.8万个农村住户的抽样调查,2003年末,农村转移劳动力占农村劳动力的比重为34.9%,其中东部地区要高于全国水平(国家统计局农村社会经济调查总队,2004,P.10)。
    1马克思恩格斯选集(第一卷)[M].北京:人民出版社,1995:243。
    2邓小平文选(第三卷)[M].北京:人民出版社,1993:139。
    3常用哲学名词词典,广西人民出版社,转引自王艳萍克服经济学的哲学贫困[M].北京:中国经济出版社,2006:169。
    1 樊胜根、张林秀和张晓波(2002)通过实证研究指出,政府在农业研发、灌溉、教育和基础设施领域的投入,不仅推动了农业产出的增长,也有助于缓解农村贫困。
    2 Chinn,D.L.(1979)对台湾农村贫困问题研究发现,尽管由于农业生产率的迅速增长,但台湾农户提高收入的主要手段是分配家庭劳动力从事非农活动,并且指出,旨在只关注提高农业生产率的农村收入提高战略,即使成功了,也将证明是不足够的。Zhang,Y.&Wan,G.H.(2006)通过对经济增长、不平等和农村贫困的研究指出,依靠农业增长提高农村收入是不可持续的,考虑到土地、水资源和其他自然资源的约束,提高农业生产率(或者人均农业收入)的最终途径是实现农村劳动力从农业向工业和服务业的转移。
    3 对浙江发展现代农业、效益农业的优势、挑战以及战略的详细研究参见卫龙宝.从“一号文件”精神看浙江现代农业发展[J].浙江经济,2007(5):18—19;卫龙宝.抓住结构调整历史机遇加快浙江效益农业发展[J]浙江社会科学,2003(3):23—24。
    4 关于浙江农村土地流转的研究详见浙江大学农业现代化与农村发展研究中心,浙江省农业厅联合调查组.农村土地流转:新情况、新思考—浙江农村土地流转制度的调查[J].中国农村经济,2001(10):11—18;钱文荣.浙北传统粮区农户土地流转意愿与行为的实证研究[J].中国农村经济,2002(7):64—68。
    1 关于此方面的内容可参见张清霞.农村劳动力素质提高与职业教育发展的思考—基于浙江省部分农村的调查[J].高等农业教育,2004(11):92—95。
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