湖南部分工矿区水稻田As污染现状及其化学萃取修复研究
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摘要
As是一种剧毒、致癌元素。因为灌溉水的原因，土壤As污染往往更多地发生在水田中。湖南是“有色金属之乡”，一些工矿区附近的稻田存在不同程度的As污染。稻田As污染降低水稻的产量，还通过食物链影响人体健康。水稻是湖南的主要粮食作物，稻田As污染危害大而又难于治理，因此对其修复措施的探讨有着非常重要的理论和现实意义。本研究通过采样分析对湖南一些被广泛关注的工矿区稻田的As污染状况做了一个初步的调查和评价，探讨了As污染稻田土壤化学萃取修复的效果及其机理。研究的主要结论如下：
1．对土壤作出的污染状况评价表明，13个被调查地区中，9个地区的稻田土壤受到了As污染，其中有4个地区属于As和重金属的复合污染。这4个受As和重金属的复合污染的地区中，2个地区的主要污染因子是As，一个地区的主要污染因子是Zn、Cd，另外一个地区的主要污染因子是Zn。岳阳平江县三阳乡、株州石峰区新桥村、衡阳常宁县松柏镇这3个地区稻田土壤的As污染是最严重的。株州石峰区新桥村和衡阳松柏镇这2个地区受As和重金属的复合污染是最严重的。糙米污染状况评价表明，所有调查地区稻田出产的糙米都不同程度地受到了相邻工矿区的影响。岳阳临湘市忠防镇、岳阳平江县三阳乡、益阳邓石桥乡、株州石峰区新桥村、衡阳常宁松柏镇出产的糙米受到了较严重的As污染。但仅有益阳邓石桥乡邓石桥村2#和衡阳常宁松柏镇2#这2个采样点糙米样品的As含量超过了食品卫生标准(0.7 mg╱kg)。
水稻各部分As含量的大小顺序是根系＞秸秆＞谷壳＞糙米，且都与土壤As含量存在极显著的线性关系。在As污染土壤中，不同品种的水稻糙米对土壤As的累积能力表现出了一定的差异，“两优培九”这个超级稻品种的糙米对As的富集系数较高。尽管所调查的这些工矿区有一部分属于As和重金属的复合污染，但水稻产量主要取决于土壤的As污染程度。用反映土壤环境质量的综合污染指数P_综来评价和估计土壤As和重金属的污染对水稻产量的影响没有单项污染指数P_(As)好。
2．萃取剂的筛选试验表明，在所采用的酸液、碱液和盐溶液中，H_3PO_4、KOH、KH_2PO_4对土壤As的去除有较好的效果。动力学研究表明，H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH去除土壤中的As需要的平衡时间分别为360、360、720 min。在描述As去除的4个动力学模型中，Elovich模型和一级动力学模型分别是最佳和最差的模型，说明As从土壤中的去除可能并不是一个简单的一级反应，而是包含了土粒膨胀、吸附位活化、表面扩散等诸多因素的复杂过程。
3．2种稻田土壤的化学萃取试验表明，H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH对土壤中As的去除有明显的效果，并且对金水村土壤效果要好于邓家塘村土壤。200 mmol／L的H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH对邓家塘土壤As的去除率分别为22.85％、20.21％、27.35％，对金水村土壤As的去除率分别为39.82％、14.33％、36.84％。3种萃取剂对不同形态As的去除存在明显的选择性，主要去除了一些对作物有效性较高的形态的As。在邓家塘土壤中，H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4去除大部分的Ca结合态As；而在金水村土壤中，H_3PO_4去除了大部分的Fe结合态As和Ca结合态As，KH_2PO_4主要去除Fe结合态As。在这2种土壤中，KOH都去除了大部分的Al结合态As和Fe结合态As。此外，萃取剂的重复萃取以及不同萃取剂的组合使用能明显提高土壤As的去除率，使土壤As含量接近甚至基本达到土壤环境质量3级标准。因此，化学萃取治理As污染的稻田土壤是有效的。
KH_2PO_4对As的去除机理是PO_4~(3-)置换了土壤中粘土矿物和水合氧化物吸附的As，H_3PO_4去除As是PO_4~(3-)对As的置换和作为酸来溶解土壤中与As结合的组分这2种机理协同作用的结果，KOH对As的去除机理是OH置换出了土壤吸附的As。而PO_4~(3-)和OH~-置换土壤中的As可能存在2种机制：第一，2个配位平衡的竞争；第二，沉淀平衡和配位平衡之间的竞争。
4．化学萃取也给土壤带来了一些负面影响，主要表现为，改变了土壤的pH值，造成了Ca、Mg、Fe、Al、Si这些土壤组分的溶出。H_3PO_4和KOH分别降低了和提高了土壤的pH值，KH_2PO_4对土壤pH值影响较小。较高浓度的H_3PO_4导致了2种土壤大量Ca、较多的Mg和si的溶出，还导致了金水村土壤较多的Fe、Al的溶出。KH_2PO_4和KOH造成土壤组分的溶出相对较少。动力学的实验表明，3种萃取剂对土壤pH的影响、导致的Ca的溶出以及H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4导致的Mg的溶出都能在很短的时间内达到了平衡，而As去除达到平衡需要的时间稍长一些。如果要最大限度地去除土壤中的As，就不可避免地影响土壤的pH值，导致一些土壤组分(尤其是Ca、Mg)的溶出。
5．因为供试土壤的As污染并不是非常严重，化学萃取对土壤中水稻的萌发和幼苗生长产生的影响更多地表现为抑制作用，对As毒害的缓解作用没有得到明显的体现。H_3PO_4和KOH萃取抑制了土壤中水稻种子的萌发，但仅在浓度为200 mmol／L时水稻的发芽率才有显著降低；而KH_2PO_4萃取对土壤中水稻种子的萌发无显著影响。H_3PO_4和KOH萃取降低了苗高、根长和鲜重，但在浓度较低时影响不大。KH_2PO_4对水稻幼苗生长的抑制作用较小，并且100 mmol／L的KH_2PO_4对幼苗的生长，尤其是对鲜重有显著的促进作用。相对而言，KH_2PO_4是一种有效而且对环境友好的萃取剂。
6．综合评价，尽管应用H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH的化学萃取修复技术对土壤产生了一些负面效应，但是化学萃取能迅速、有效地降低稻田土壤的As含量，永久地减轻甚至消除As对作物的毒害、对人体健康的威胁。同时，化学萃取还具有操作简单方便的优点。而且，可以通过控制萃取剂浓度，选择对环境相对友好的萃取剂等措施来减少和消除化学萃取对土壤产生的负面效应。显然，化学萃取修复技术有诸多优点，有希望应用于大面积As污染较严重的稻田的治理。
Arsenic (As) is known to be a very toxic element and carcinogen to humans.Owing to polluted irrigation water, paddy fields are prone to be contaminated with As.Non-ferrous metal abounds in Hunan province, and some paddy fields round someindustry and mine zones have been contaminated with As. Arsenic contamination ofpaddy fields can reduce rice yield and cause damage to human health through foodchain, and, at the same time, remediation of As contaminated paddy field is verydifficult. Therefore studies of remediation of As contaminated paddy field are ofimportance. Paddy soils and rice plants were sampled and analyzed to investigate andevaluate As contamination of paddy fields round some industry and mine zones inHunan province, and laboratory batch experiments were conducted to studyremediation of As contaminated paddy field by chemical extraction. The main resultswere summarized as follow:
1. Evaluation of soil As contamination showed that 9 zones had beencontaminated with As, among which 4 zones had been contaminated with both As andheavy metals. The main pollutants were As for 2 zones, Zn and Cd for another zone,and Zn for the other zone. Arsenic contaminations of paddy soils were the mostserious in Sanyang town of Pingjiang county (Yueyang city), Xinqiao village ofShifeng county (Zhuzhou city), and Songbai town of Changning county (Hengyangcity), and complex contaminations of As and heavy metal were the most serious inXinqiao village of Shifeng county (Zhuzhou city), and Songbai town of Changningcounty (Hengyang city). Evaluation of brown rice As contamination indicated thatbrown rice produced from all sites had been contaminated with As by nearby industryand mine zones. Arsenic contaminations of brown rice were the most serious inZhongfang town of Linxiang city (Yueyang city), Sanyang town of Pingjiang county(Yueyang city), Dengshiqiao town of Heshan county (Yiyang city), Xinqiao village of Shifeng county (Zhuzhou city), and Songbai town of Changning county (Hengyangcity). However there were only 2 sample sites, 2# sampling site in Dengshiqiao townof Heshan county (Yiyang city) and 2# sampling site in Songbai town of Changningcounty (Hengyang city), failing to meet tolerance limit in grain (0.7 mg/kg).
Arsenic contents in various tissues of rice plants were in the order of roots＞straw＞husk＞brown rice, and there existed extremely significant linear relationships betweenAs contents in various tissues and soil As contents. In As contaminated paddy soils,there were differences of ability of As uptake among various rice plants. Althoughsome zones were contaminated with both As and heavy metals, rice yield mainlyrelated to soil As contamination. The single pollution index of As was moreappropriate for evaluating effects of complex pollution on rice yield than the generalpollution index.
2. In all extractants applied in batch experiments, phosphoric acid (H_3PO_4),potassium hydroxide (KOH), and potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH_2PO_4) provedto be effective in removing As from soils. Arsenic removal could reach equilibriumwithin 360, 360, 720 min for H_3PO_4, KOH, and KH_2PO_4, respectively. Elovich modeland first-order model proved to best and worst fit the kinetic data of As removal,respectively, among four models used in kinetic study, indicating that As removalshould not be a simple process.
3. Batch experiments of 2 paddy soils showed that H_3PO_4, KH_2PO_4, and KOHwere effective in removing As from the soils, and removal efficiencies from Jinshuisoil were more than those from Dengjiatang soil. In Dengjiatang soil, As removalefficiency of 22.85%, 20.21%, and 27.35% was attained and, in Jinshui soil, removalefficiency of 39.82%, 14.33%, and 36.84% was attained due to using H_3PO_4, KH_2PO_4,and KOH of 200 mmol/L, respectively. Three extractants mainly removed those Asspecies which availabilities were high. Both H_3PO_4 and KH_2PO_4 removed the greatmass of As of Ca-bound from Dengjiatang soil, H_3PO_4 and KH_2PO_4 removed thegreat mass of As of Fe- and Ca-bound and many As of Fe-bound from Jinshui soil,respectively, and KOH removed the great mass of As of Al-and Fe-bound from 2soils. In addition, As removal efficiency could be greatly promoted by twice extractions and combined application of two extractants. Hence chemical extractionwas effective in remedying As contaminated soil.
The mechanism of As removal by KH_2PO_4 was that absorbed As was displacedby phosphate ions (PO_4~(3-)). The mechanism of As removal by KOH was displacementreaction of hydroxyl ions (OH~-) with As. The effectiveness of H_3PO_4 could beattributed to the synergetic function as a donor of PO_4~(3-) which displace As and as anacid to dissolve metallic components of the soil with which As was associated. PO_4~(3-)and OH~- displaced As through 2 mechanisms, which were a competition between 2coordination reactions and a competition between precipitation reaction andcoordination reaction.
4. Three extractants resulted in change of soil pH values and dissolution of soilcomponents (calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and silicon (Si)). H_3PO_4 decreased soilpH values, KOH increased soil pH values, but KH_2PO_4 hardly led to change of soilpH values. At high concentrations, H_3PO_4 resulted in dissolution of a great deal of Caand some Si and Mg from 2 soils, and dissolution of some A1 and Fe from Jinshui soil.While dissolution of soil components due to using KH_2PO_4 or KOH was much lessthan H_3PO_4. Kinetic study showed that both changes of soil pH values and dissolutionof Ca and Mg due to using 3 extractants were more rapid than As removal from soil.Therefore effects of extractants on soil properties would be inevitable if As wasfurthest removed.
5. Chemical extraction inhibited germination and seedling growth of rice plants.H_3PO_4 and KOH decreased germination ratios of rice, seedling heights, root lengthsand fresh weights. At lower concentration (100 mmol/L), however, H_3PO_4 and KOHdid not result in decrease in germination ratios and had only slight effects on seedlingheights, root lengths and fresh weights. KH_2PO_4 proved not to have remarkableeffects on germination ratios, and promoted growth of seedling at the concentration of100 mmol/L. Among these three extractants, KH_2PO_4 proved to be not only effectivein removing As from soil but also environment-friendly.
6. Although chemical extraction of As from soils resulted in negative effects onsoil to a certain degree, chemical extraction could rapidly and effectively remove As from soils and permanently alleviate or eliminate As toxicity to crops and damage tohuman health, and was easy to operate. In addition, negative effects of chemicalextraction could be minimized through adoption of some countermeasures, such asapplication of environment-friendly extractants and choice of proper concentrations ofextractants. In a word, chemical extraction could be applied to large-scale paddyfields with serious As contamination due to its effectiveness, rapid kinetics, andoperational easiness.
1．对土壤作出的污染状况评价表明，13个被调查地区中，9个地区的稻田土壤受到了As污染，其中有4个地区属于As和重金属的复合污染。这4个受As和重金属的复合污染的地区中，2个地区的主要污染因子是As，一个地区的主要污染因子是Zn、Cd，另外一个地区的主要污染因子是Zn。岳阳平江县三阳乡、株州石峰区新桥村、衡阳常宁县松柏镇这3个地区稻田土壤的As污染是最严重的。株州石峰区新桥村和衡阳松柏镇这2个地区受As和重金属的复合污染是最严重的。糙米污染状况评价表明，所有调查地区稻田出产的糙米都不同程度地受到了相邻工矿区的影响。岳阳临湘市忠防镇、岳阳平江县三阳乡、益阳邓石桥乡、株州石峰区新桥村、衡阳常宁松柏镇出产的糙米受到了较严重的As污染。但仅有益阳邓石桥乡邓石桥村2#和衡阳常宁松柏镇2#这2个采样点糙米样品的As含量超过了食品卫生标准(0.7 mg╱kg)。
水稻各部分As含量的大小顺序是根系＞秸秆＞谷壳＞糙米，且都与土壤As含量存在极显著的线性关系。在As污染土壤中，不同品种的水稻糙米对土壤As的累积能力表现出了一定的差异，“两优培九”这个超级稻品种的糙米对As的富集系数较高。尽管所调查的这些工矿区有一部分属于As和重金属的复合污染，但水稻产量主要取决于土壤的As污染程度。用反映土壤环境质量的综合污染指数P_综来评价和估计土壤As和重金属的污染对水稻产量的影响没有单项污染指数P_(As)好。
2．萃取剂的筛选试验表明，在所采用的酸液、碱液和盐溶液中，H_3PO_4、KOH、KH_2PO_4对土壤As的去除有较好的效果。动力学研究表明，H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH去除土壤中的As需要的平衡时间分别为360、360、720 min。在描述As去除的4个动力学模型中，Elovich模型和一级动力学模型分别是最佳和最差的模型，说明As从土壤中的去除可能并不是一个简单的一级反应，而是包含了土粒膨胀、吸附位活化、表面扩散等诸多因素的复杂过程。
3．2种稻田土壤的化学萃取试验表明，H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH对土壤中As的去除有明显的效果，并且对金水村土壤效果要好于邓家塘村土壤。200 mmol／L的H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH对邓家塘土壤As的去除率分别为22.85％、20.21％、27.35％，对金水村土壤As的去除率分别为39.82％、14.33％、36.84％。3种萃取剂对不同形态As的去除存在明显的选择性，主要去除了一些对作物有效性较高的形态的As。在邓家塘土壤中，H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4去除大部分的Ca结合态As；而在金水村土壤中，H_3PO_4去除了大部分的Fe结合态As和Ca结合态As，KH_2PO_4主要去除Fe结合态As。在这2种土壤中，KOH都去除了大部分的Al结合态As和Fe结合态As。此外，萃取剂的重复萃取以及不同萃取剂的组合使用能明显提高土壤As的去除率，使土壤As含量接近甚至基本达到土壤环境质量3级标准。因此，化学萃取治理As污染的稻田土壤是有效的。
KH_2PO_4对As的去除机理是PO_4~(3-)置换了土壤中粘土矿物和水合氧化物吸附的As，H_3PO_4去除As是PO_4~(3-)对As的置换和作为酸来溶解土壤中与As结合的组分这2种机理协同作用的结果，KOH对As的去除机理是OH置换出了土壤吸附的As。而PO_4~(3-)和OH~-置换土壤中的As可能存在2种机制：第一，2个配位平衡的竞争；第二，沉淀平衡和配位平衡之间的竞争。
4．化学萃取也给土壤带来了一些负面影响，主要表现为，改变了土壤的pH值，造成了Ca、Mg、Fe、Al、Si这些土壤组分的溶出。H_3PO_4和KOH分别降低了和提高了土壤的pH值，KH_2PO_4对土壤pH值影响较小。较高浓度的H_3PO_4导致了2种土壤大量Ca、较多的Mg和si的溶出，还导致了金水村土壤较多的Fe、Al的溶出。KH_2PO_4和KOH造成土壤组分的溶出相对较少。动力学的实验表明，3种萃取剂对土壤pH的影响、导致的Ca的溶出以及H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4导致的Mg的溶出都能在很短的时间内达到了平衡，而As去除达到平衡需要的时间稍长一些。如果要最大限度地去除土壤中的As，就不可避免地影响土壤的pH值，导致一些土壤组分(尤其是Ca、Mg)的溶出。
5．因为供试土壤的As污染并不是非常严重，化学萃取对土壤中水稻的萌发和幼苗生长产生的影响更多地表现为抑制作用，对As毒害的缓解作用没有得到明显的体现。H_3PO_4和KOH萃取抑制了土壤中水稻种子的萌发，但仅在浓度为200 mmol／L时水稻的发芽率才有显著降低；而KH_2PO_4萃取对土壤中水稻种子的萌发无显著影响。H_3PO_4和KOH萃取降低了苗高、根长和鲜重，但在浓度较低时影响不大。KH_2PO_4对水稻幼苗生长的抑制作用较小，并且100 mmol／L的KH_2PO_4对幼苗的生长，尤其是对鲜重有显著的促进作用。相对而言，KH_2PO_4是一种有效而且对环境友好的萃取剂。
6．综合评价，尽管应用H_3PO_4、KH_2PO_4、KOH的化学萃取修复技术对土壤产生了一些负面效应，但是化学萃取能迅速、有效地降低稻田土壤的As含量，永久地减轻甚至消除As对作物的毒害、对人体健康的威胁。同时，化学萃取还具有操作简单方便的优点。而且，可以通过控制萃取剂浓度，选择对环境相对友好的萃取剂等措施来减少和消除化学萃取对土壤产生的负面效应。显然，化学萃取修复技术有诸多优点，有希望应用于大面积As污染较严重的稻田的治理。
Arsenic (As) is known to be a very toxic element and carcinogen to humans.Owing to polluted irrigation water, paddy fields are prone to be contaminated with As.Non-ferrous metal abounds in Hunan province, and some paddy fields round someindustry and mine zones have been contaminated with As. Arsenic contamination ofpaddy fields can reduce rice yield and cause damage to human health through foodchain, and, at the same time, remediation of As contaminated paddy field is verydifficult. Therefore studies of remediation of As contaminated paddy field are ofimportance. Paddy soils and rice plants were sampled and analyzed to investigate andevaluate As contamination of paddy fields round some industry and mine zones inHunan province, and laboratory batch experiments were conducted to studyremediation of As contaminated paddy field by chemical extraction. The main resultswere summarized as follow:
1. Evaluation of soil As contamination showed that 9 zones had beencontaminated with As, among which 4 zones had been contaminated with both As andheavy metals. The main pollutants were As for 2 zones, Zn and Cd for another zone,and Zn for the other zone. Arsenic contaminations of paddy soils were the mostserious in Sanyang town of Pingjiang county (Yueyang city), Xinqiao village ofShifeng county (Zhuzhou city), and Songbai town of Changning county (Hengyangcity), and complex contaminations of As and heavy metal were the most serious inXinqiao village of Shifeng county (Zhuzhou city), and Songbai town of Changningcounty (Hengyang city). Evaluation of brown rice As contamination indicated thatbrown rice produced from all sites had been contaminated with As by nearby industryand mine zones. Arsenic contaminations of brown rice were the most serious inZhongfang town of Linxiang city (Yueyang city), Sanyang town of Pingjiang county(Yueyang city), Dengshiqiao town of Heshan county (Yiyang city), Xinqiao village of Shifeng county (Zhuzhou city), and Songbai town of Changning county (Hengyangcity). However there were only 2 sample sites, 2# sampling site in Dengshiqiao townof Heshan county (Yiyang city) and 2# sampling site in Songbai town of Changningcounty (Hengyang city), failing to meet tolerance limit in grain (0.7 mg/kg).
Arsenic contents in various tissues of rice plants were in the order of roots＞straw＞husk＞brown rice, and there existed extremely significant linear relationships betweenAs contents in various tissues and soil As contents. In As contaminated paddy soils,there were differences of ability of As uptake among various rice plants. Althoughsome zones were contaminated with both As and heavy metals, rice yield mainlyrelated to soil As contamination. The single pollution index of As was moreappropriate for evaluating effects of complex pollution on rice yield than the generalpollution index.
2. In all extractants applied in batch experiments, phosphoric acid (H_3PO_4),potassium hydroxide (KOH), and potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH_2PO_4) provedto be effective in removing As from soils. Arsenic removal could reach equilibriumwithin 360, 360, 720 min for H_3PO_4, KOH, and KH_2PO_4, respectively. Elovich modeland first-order model proved to best and worst fit the kinetic data of As removal,respectively, among four models used in kinetic study, indicating that As removalshould not be a simple process.
3. Batch experiments of 2 paddy soils showed that H_3PO_4, KH_2PO_4, and KOHwere effective in removing As from the soils, and removal efficiencies from Jinshuisoil were more than those from Dengjiatang soil. In Dengjiatang soil, As removalefficiency of 22.85%, 20.21%, and 27.35% was attained and, in Jinshui soil, removalefficiency of 39.82%, 14.33%, and 36.84% was attained due to using H_3PO_4, KH_2PO_4,and KOH of 200 mmol/L, respectively. Three extractants mainly removed those Asspecies which availabilities were high. Both H_3PO_4 and KH_2PO_4 removed the greatmass of As of Ca-bound from Dengjiatang soil, H_3PO_4 and KH_2PO_4 removed thegreat mass of As of Fe- and Ca-bound and many As of Fe-bound from Jinshui soil,respectively, and KOH removed the great mass of As of Al-and Fe-bound from 2soils. In addition, As removal efficiency could be greatly promoted by twice extractions and combined application of two extractants. Hence chemical extractionwas effective in remedying As contaminated soil.
The mechanism of As removal by KH_2PO_4 was that absorbed As was displacedby phosphate ions (PO_4~(3-)). The mechanism of As removal by KOH was displacementreaction of hydroxyl ions (OH~-) with As. The effectiveness of H_3PO_4 could beattributed to the synergetic function as a donor of PO_4~(3-) which displace As and as anacid to dissolve metallic components of the soil with which As was associated. PO_4~(3-)and OH~- displaced As through 2 mechanisms, which were a competition between 2coordination reactions and a competition between precipitation reaction andcoordination reaction.
4. Three extractants resulted in change of soil pH values and dissolution of soilcomponents (calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and silicon (Si)). H_3PO_4 decreased soilpH values, KOH increased soil pH values, but KH_2PO_4 hardly led to change of soilpH values. At high concentrations, H_3PO_4 resulted in dissolution of a great deal of Caand some Si and Mg from 2 soils, and dissolution of some A1 and Fe from Jinshui soil.While dissolution of soil components due to using KH_2PO_4 or KOH was much lessthan H_3PO_4. Kinetic study showed that both changes of soil pH values and dissolutionof Ca and Mg due to using 3 extractants were more rapid than As removal from soil.Therefore effects of extractants on soil properties would be inevitable if As wasfurthest removed.
5. Chemical extraction inhibited germination and seedling growth of rice plants.H_3PO_4 and KOH decreased germination ratios of rice, seedling heights, root lengthsand fresh weights. At lower concentration (100 mmol/L), however, H_3PO_4 and KOHdid not result in decrease in germination ratios and had only slight effects on seedlingheights, root lengths and fresh weights. KH_2PO_4 proved not to have remarkableeffects on germination ratios, and promoted growth of seedling at the concentration of100 mmol/L. Among these three extractants, KH_2PO_4 proved to be not only effectivein removing As from soil but also environment-friendly.
6. Although chemical extraction of As from soils resulted in negative effects onsoil to a certain degree, chemical extraction could rapidly and effectively remove As from soils and permanently alleviate or eliminate As toxicity to crops and damage tohuman health, and was easy to operate. In addition, negative effects of chemicalextraction could be minimized through adoption of some countermeasures, such asapplication of environment-friendly extractants and choice of proper concentrations ofextractants. In a word, chemical extraction could be applied to large-scale paddyfields with serious As contamination due to its effectiveness, rapid kinetics, andoperational easiness.
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