摘要
穆斯林和欧洲有着悠久的历史渊源,而欧洲当前的穆斯林群体大规模出现源自20世纪60年代,时至今日,关于这一群体的关注和争议迅速增多,随着穆斯林人口数量的增长和社会环境的变化,欧洲的穆斯林问题将成为越来越重要的学术研究课题。本文在对穆斯林与欧洲历史的交往脉络进行梳理和回顾的基础上,着重对英国、法国、德国这三个比较典型的欧洲国家的穆斯林问题进行梳理,着眼于当前欧洲穆斯林的社会经济状况、政治、宗教等方面的现实问题及其长远影响,力图通过对穆斯林这一作为欧洲社会中少数派的图景的全面展示,动态的运用社会学、政治学、历史学等分析框架和理论工具,对欧洲穆斯林的身份、伊斯兰教与欧洲民主社会、欧洲穆斯林与欧洲社会的文明交往等理论问题做出相应的回答。
本文认为,从20世纪60年代以来,伴随着欧洲的穆斯林移民在欧洲国家的定居和繁衍生息,穆斯林群体以及欧洲国家开始同时在社会、经济、宗教等各个方面面临重大的困境,这种困境是对于穆斯林和欧洲的双重困境,这种困境是伊斯兰教与基督教社会在漫长的历史长河中交往的延续,在诸多的困境面前,欧洲的穆斯林内部和欧洲社会通过各种方式产生了回应,这种困境与回应构成了欧洲与穆斯林丰富而立体的文明交往图景。
第一章“英法德三国穆斯林概述”追溯了伊斯兰教创建之后与欧洲的早期交往,以及此后奥斯曼帝国时期以至欧洲殖民统治时期穆斯林与欧洲国家的交往,对英国、法国、德国3国穆斯林少数群体的人口状况、居住模式,教育状况、就业状况、健康状况等等进行了基础性的叙述,分析了其基本的特点。对于西欧迅猛发展的清真经济进行了论述,阐述了清真经济是穆斯林与西欧社会的经济交往最为重要的方面。
第二章“西欧穆斯林的人口与融合”专题分析了欧洲社会的人口状况,对穆斯林群体较高的人口出生率以及未来其人口规模在西欧国家人口结构中的比例关系进行了分析和预测,论述了英、法、德三国穆斯林融合所面临的政策环境,并对其异同进行了对比。
第三章“西欧穆斯林中的女性群体”主要研究了英、法、德三国的穆斯林女性群体。认为,西欧的穆斯林女性面临着来自家庭和社会的双重歧视,这不仅和传统的穆斯林家庭传统有关,同时,因为女性在西欧社会中往往因其外表(如穆斯林头巾、罩袍)而成为代表穆斯林的可见的宗教符号,因此,在很多情况下,穆斯林女性成为欧洲社会首当其冲的争议和歧视对象。但与此同时,在欧洲的社会背景下,其穆斯林女性也开始通过新的方式来展示其风采,这体现在女性社会团体的出现、壮大和成熟,以及女性在政治、经济、文化等领域的话语权的增加等方面。
第四章“西欧的穆斯林组织及其特征和影响”主要论述了西欧穆斯的组织,主要内容包括对于英、法、德三国的穆斯林组织进行了详细的梳理和介绍,对其主要特点,即由于种族、语言、民族、地域等的差异性而导致的各个组织的分歧和差别进行了总结和分析,并对西欧穆斯林组织分散化、多元化的组织形态所产生的影响进行了辩证的分析,认为,从消极的方面看,这种组织形态性特征影响了穆斯林群体的动员能力,从积极的方面看,这种特征间接的让穆斯林群体进发出更大的活力成为可能。
第五章“西欧政治进程中的穆斯林”主要聚焦于穆斯林在西欧的政治舞台上的表现及其特征和原因等问题的分析。本章认为,20世纪60年代以来,穆斯林已经成为西欧社会不容忽视的现实存在,但是在政治参与方面穆斯林远未能有效参与西欧各国的政治进程。穆斯林人口在种族、经济地位等方面的多样性是其有效参与政治的内在障碍。穆斯林对公民权、政治精英、参政渠道等政治资源的占有不足加之欧洲殖民心理遗产的影响、欧洲的世俗化政策、伊斯兰恐惧症、外部穆斯林世界的影响等多种因素共同构成了影响穆斯林广泛参与西欧政治生活的重要原因,但是穆斯林群体在参与政治决策方面的努力已经有了初步的成效。
第六章“宗教领域的西欧穆斯林”对伊斯兰教在西欧的发展趋势进行了分析,对伊斯兰教中关于穆斯林在非穆斯林领土上生活的相关原则和规定进行了探析,从呈现伊斯兰教在西欧社会迅速发展的现状出发,引申出伊斯兰教在西欧所面临的问题,此外,对外部伊斯兰世界对于西欧的伊斯兰教所产生的影响等问题进行了探析。
第七章“极端主义与伊斯兰恐惧症”认为,穆斯林在历史上与欧洲的冲撞和以战争为主要形式的交往以及近代欧洲国家与穆斯林国家殖民地与宗主国的关系致使欧洲社会对于穆斯林认知消极的影响。欧洲等地发生的恐怖事件引发了西欧社会对伊斯兰极端主义持续而强烈的关注,伊斯兰极端主义一方而是伊斯兰原教旨主义者思想的继承,另一方面和穆斯林在欧洲的总体社会经济地位有关,由于失业、受歧视等导致的弱势地位是极端主义产生的重要因素,可以说,欧洲的右翼势力和伊斯兰原教旨主义者是伊斯兰极端主义两个最重要的推动力量,阿富汗和伊拉克的战争助推了伊斯兰极端势力增长,将伊斯兰与极端主义、恐怖主义混为一谈是极为错误的。在伊斯兰极端主义的演进中,欧洲出现了所谓“伊斯兰恐惧症”,“伊斯兰恐惧症”是对伊斯兰、穆斯林或伊斯兰文化的恐惧或仇恨,在欧洲的话语体系中,通过对媒体议程的影响和安排,对穆斯林认识形成了负而和消极的形象。在英法两国,穆斯林恐惧症有着不同的背景环境、表现形式和互动实践。
第八章“身份、文明交往与西欧穆斯林”提出,穆斯林在欧洲社会生活各个领域的永久性存在以及持续增长,在欧洲国家中产生了“欧洲身份”这一问题的思考和回应,欧洲民族国家的观念开始受到反思,而穆斯林也开始认真的考虑永久生活在欧洲对其身份带来的影响。虽然“伊斯兰的欧洲化”和“欧洲的伊斯兰化”都只是危言耸听的表述,但是不可否认,无论是西欧社会还是穆斯林群体在面对彼此时,都自觉不自觉的对自身进行某种程度的调适,伊斯兰在欧洲的制度化和个人化,女性宗教人士的出现等等都是穆斯林进行自我调适的表现。既是穆斯林,又是欧洲的合格公民,是欧洲穆斯林中的主流声音。同时,穆斯林在不遗余力的保持其作为穆斯林的身份,通过教育等方式加强对其穆斯林身份。在欧洲年轻的穆斯林群体中,出现了与其父辈和祖辈明显的代际差异,其身份出现了分化,一部分是社会经济状况良好,能够比较好的融入欧洲主流社会中的群体,另一部分是受教育程度低,社会经济地位不高的群体,他们因被排挤和孤立的感觉而不断强化自身的伊斯兰身份,疏远欧洲的主流身份。
同时,该章提出,欧洲穆斯林问题的实质不是纯粹的宗教问题,也不单纯是文化问题,而是带有经济、社会和文化性质的综合性问题。但是,毕竟,穆斯林在欧洲的永久性居住还是一个相对比较新的课题,穆斯林少数群体与欧洲社会正位于建立一个长久的社会关系的开始阶段,在诸多的困境面前,欧洲的穆斯林内部和欧洲社会通过各种方式产生了回应,欧洲社会应该摒弃对穆斯林的偏见、歧视和敌意的态度,从社会经济、政策法律等层面,切实采取积极的融和政策,穆斯林社会也要积极走出封闭,主动探求自身独特的身份,在保留伊斯兰特色的同时,融入欧洲社会。而从未来看,伊斯兰教将更深地植根于欧盟社会,从而在政治、经济及文化等各个层面上,对整个西欧乃至国际社会产生更加深远的影响。
Muslims and Europe has a long history, the current Muslim population in Europe emerged from the 1960's, on this group of rapidly growing concern and controversy, as the Muslim population growth and the social environment changes in Europe's Muslim problem will become an increasingly important research topic. In this paper, the history of Muslim relations with the European context to sort out and review the basis, focusing on Britain, France, Germany, the three typical Muslims in European countries to sort out the issue, focusing on the current socio-economic conditions of Muslims in Europe, the reality of religion in its long-term effects of this as an attempt by the Muslim minority in European society in the overall picture shows, the use of dynamic sociology, political science, history and other analytical framework and theoretical tool, the European Muslim identity, Islam and democracy in Europe, European Muslims and European exchanges and other theories of social problems of civilization and make the appropriate answer.
This paper argues that since the 1960's, along with Europe's Muslim immigrants in European countries to live and survive, the Muslim community and the European countries started the same time in the social, economic, religious and other significant aspects of the difficulties faced by this dilemma, Islam and Christianity in this predicament is a long social history in the continuation of contacts, many of the difficulties in front of Muslims within Europe and European society had responded in various ways, such response to the plight of Muslims in Europe constitute a rich three-dimensional picture of the civilization exchanges.
The first chapter, "Britain, France and an overview of the three Muslim" traces the creation of Islam and Europe after the early exchanges, and then the Ottoman Empire and Europe during the colonial rule of the Muslim contacts with European countries, analyzes Britain, France, Germany's Muslim minority population status, settlement patterns, education, employment status, health status, and so were the foundation of the narrative, analysis of its basic characteristics. The rapid development of the Islamic economy in Western Europe were discussed to explain the Islamic economy is a Muslim and Western societies the most important aspects of economic exchange.
ChapterⅡ, "the Muslim population in Western Europe and the integration" analysis of the demographic situation in the European society of a higher birth rate in the Muslim community and the future size of their population in Western Europe in the proportion of the population structure analysis and prediction of relations, discusses the British, France and Germany faced by Muslim integration policy environment, and their similarities and differences were compared.
Chapter III "Women in Western European Muslim groups" are studied in English, French and German Muslim women groups. That Muslim women face in Western Europe from double discrimination, family and society, not only the traditional Muslim family tradition at the same time, because women are often in Western Europe because of their appearance (such as the Muslim headscarf, burqa) and to represent Muslim religious symbols can be seen, therefore, in many cases, Muslim women bear the brunt of the European social controversy and object of discrimination. At the same time, the social context in Europe, the Muslim women are now in a new way to showcase their style, as reflected in the emergence of social groups of women, growth and maturity, and the women in the political, economic, cultural and other fields increase in voice and so on.
Chapter IV "Western Europe and its characteristics and impact of Muslim organizations," mainly discussed the organization of Muslims in Western Europe, including the British, French and German Muslim organizations comb and a detailed description of its main features, namely, because of race, language, ethnicity, geographical and other differences caused by differences and differences between the various organizations were summarized and analyzed, and the Western European Muslim organizations decentralized, diversified organizational form was the impact of dialectical analysis, that from the negative side, this characteristic morphology of the Muslim community's mobilization capacity, the positive side, this feature indirectly to burst out of a larger Muslim community vitality possible.
Chapter V, "Muslims in Western Europe in the political process," mainly focused on Muslims in Western Europe's political arena and its characteristics and causes of the performance analysis of such issues. This chapter claims that the since the 1960's, Muslims in Western Europe has become the reality of social existence can not be ignored, but in terms of political participation, far from effective participation in Western Europe political process. Muslim population in race, economic status and other aspects of diversity is its inherent obstacles to effective political participation. Muslim civil rights, political elites, political participation channels for the possession of political resources, coupled with lack of psychological legacy of European colonial influence of the secularization of European policy, Islamophobia, the external impact of the Muslim world, constitute the many factors that affect the broad participation of Muslims in Western Europe important cause of political life, but the Muslim community in political decision-making efforts already have preliminary results.
ChapterⅥ, "the Muslim religion in Western Europe," the development of Islam in Western Europe, trends are analyzed, of Islam on Muslims living in non-Muslim territory of the relevant principles and provisions of the analysis, from the presentation of Islam in Western Europe the current situation of rapid development, come out of Islam in Western Europe, the problems faced, in addition, outside the Islamic world of Islam for the Western Europe the impact of such issues.
ChapterⅦ, "Extremism and Islamophobia" researches that Muslims in the history of the clash with Europe and the war as the main form of communication and the modern European colonial countries and Muslim countries, the relationship with the sovereign state for the Muslims in European societies caused a negative perception impact. Europe led to the horrors of Islamic extremism in Western Europe continued and strong focus, Islamic extremism, Islamic fundamentalism one is thinking of inheritance, on the other hand, and Muslims in Europe related to the overall socio-economic status, as unemployment, discrimination as a result of the weak position is an important factor in generating extremism can be said that right-wing forces in Europe and the Islamic fundamentalists of Islamic extremism, the two most important driving force for the war in Afghanistan and Iraq, the Islamic boost growth of extremist forces, Islam and extremism, terrorism is extremely confused wrong. In the evolution of Islamic extremism in Europe appear the so-called "Islamophobia", "Islamophobia" is fear or hatred of Islam, Muslims or Islamic culture, through the influence of the media agenda and arrangements for the formation of the Muslim understanding of the negative and the negative image. In Britain and France, the Muslim phobia have different background environment, forms and interactive practice.
ChapterⅧof "identity, culture exchanges and Muslims in Western Europe," proposed that Muslims in Europe in all areas of social life, permanent existence and continued growth in European countries, created a "European identity" to think and respond to this issue, the European nation-state the idea that by reflection, and Muslims began to seriously consider permanently living in Europe the impact of their identity. Although the "European Islam" and "Islamization of Europe" are just alarmist statements, but denied that either Western Europe or the Muslim community in the face of each other, they all consciously or unconsciously some degree of adaptation itself, the institutionalization of Islam in Europe and the personal, the emergence of female religious people are Muslims, and so the performance of self-adjustment. Both Muslims and qualified citizens of Europe, is the voice of European Muslims in the mainstream. Meanwhile, the Muslim to spare no effort to maintain its identity as a Muslim, through education and other ways to strengthen their Muslim identity. Groups of young Muslims in Europe, there has been significant to their parents and grandparents intergenerational differences, their identity were divided, part of the social and economic good, to better integrate into the European mainstream society groups, the other part is subject to low levels of education, socioeconomic status, the group is not high, they having been excluded and feel isolated and continue to strengthen their Islamic identity, alienated the mainstream of European identity.
At the same time, this chapter proposed the substance of European Muslim is not a purely religious issue, not simply a cultural issue, but with the economic, social and cultural nature of the integrated problem. But, after all, Muslims living in Europe permanently, or a relatively new subject, the Muslim minority in the European community is a long established the beginning of social relations, in the face of many difficulties, among Muslims in Europe and the European Social produced by a variety of ways to respond, the European community should abandon prejudice against Muslims, the attitude of discrimination and hostility from the socio-economic, policy and legal levels, and effectively take an active integration policy, closed out the Muslim community should actively take the initiative to explore their own unique identity, while preserving the Islamic features and integrate into European society. And never view, Islam will be deeper rooted in the European community, which in the political, economic and culture at all levels, on the whole of Western Europe and the international community have a more profound impact.
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①该学派起源于英国殖民时期的伊斯兰复兴运动.既体现了反殖倾向也反映了穆斯林对印度教的抗拒，在印巴分治后，该派成了巴基斯坦激进精神领袖.在巴国第二大族群普什图族当中.占主流地位。苏联入侵阿富汗后，大批沙特志愿者进入巴阿边境，德奥班德学派开始和本·拉丹信奉的瓦哈比教派合流.保守化倾向大大加强也令巴阿两国的普什图族入进一步结成一体。
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①中新网4月20日电.据日本“共同社”网站2010年4月20日报道
① Nielsen, Jorgen. Muslims in Western Europe. Third Edition. Edinburgh University Press,2004, p.128.
② Fetzer, Joel S. and J. Christopher Soper. Muslims and the State in Britain, France, and Germany. Cambridge University Press 2004,p.13.
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①622年伊斯兰教先知穆罕默德领导早期穆斯林由麦加迁徙麦地那的重大历史事件。阿拉伯语间译，意为“迁徙”。639年，伊斯兰教第二任哈里发欧麦尔为纪念622年希吉来这一具有重寺历史意义的事件，决定把该年定为伊斯兰教历纪元，以阿拉伯太阴年岁首(时值622年7月16日)作为元年元旦。
② Barbara Daly Metcalf. Making Muslim Space in North America and Europe. University of California Pres.1996.p.110.
③ Jocely n Cesari, European Islam:A Profile. Islam in Europe and in the United Stales, A Comparative Perspective. Center for Strategic and International Studies,2002.p.33.
Barrie Wharton. The Integration of Islam in the Europe union:Prospects and challenges. Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy.2004.p.29.
① M. Raza. Islam in Britain. Past. Present & Future, Leicester:Volcano Press,1993.p.84.
② Barrie Wharton, The Integration of Islam in the Europe union:Prospects and challenges. Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy.2004.p.33.
① Barrie Wharton, The Integration of Islam in the Europe union:Prospects and challenges. Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy.2004.p.36.
③有关西欧穆斯林和清真寺数量的统计,说法不一。本文在综合多方数据后，主要参考M.Ali.Kettani:Challenges to the Organization of Muslim Communities in Western Europe一文。
① Carolyn M. Warner. Manfred W. Wenner. Religion and the Political Organization of Muslims in Europe. Perspectives on Politics. Vol.4. No.3. September 2006.
② Fetzer, Joel S. and J. Christopher Soper. Muslims and the State in Britain. France, and Germany. Cambridge University Press 2004. p.9.
① Caeiro. Alexandre. "France " in Muslims in Western Europe after 9/11:Why the term Islamophobia is more a Predicament than a Solution. Ed. Jocelyne Cesari. Securitization and Religious Divides in Europe. GSRL-Paris and Harvard University.1 June 2000: 195-226.
② Taspinar. Omer. Europe's Muslim Street, Foreign Policy,2003.135(March-April):pp.76-77.
Sebastian Rotella, Europe s Boys of Jihad, Los Angeles Times, April 2,2005
① Davies. N. Europe:A History. Oxford:Oxford University Press.1996. P.258.
② "we stop at the muslims"
3 Islam and the Western Media.www.islamfortoday.com/media.htm
ICM Research 2002. www.icmresearch.co.uk/media-centre-polls.php?year=2002
② Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism. Al-Khoei Foundation and the Muslim College, Counter-Terrorism Power:Reconciling and Liberty in an Open Society:Discussion Paper-A Muslim Response, London, FAIR,2004. p.22.
① Christopher Allen. Jogen S. Nielsen. Summary Report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001. European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia. May,2002.
② Shahram Akarzadeh. Bianca Smith. The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media. Novenber,2005.
Barrie Wharton, The integration of Islam in the European Union:Prospects and Challenges.
①又译帝国水晶之夜、碎玻璃之夜、十一月大迫害，是指1938年11月9日至10日凌晨，希特勒青年团、盖世太保和党卫军袭击德国和奥地利的犹太人的事件。“水晶之夜”事件标志着纳粹对犹太人有组织的屠杀的开始。
2 Dr Shahram Akbarzadeh and Dr Bianca Smith,The Representation of Islam and Muslims in the Media.
① Dalia Yusuf. Covering Islam & Muslims in the Western Media 2011-01-19 http://www.islamonline.net/en/IOLYouth_C/1278407316992/1278406708816/Covering-Islam--Muslims-in-the-Western-Me dia
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