知识的问题与《亨利·亚当斯的教育》
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摘要
论文选取亨利·亚当斯的代表作《亨利·亚当斯的教育》(以下简称《教育》)为文本分析对象,借助马克思·韦伯、马克思·霍克海默、西奥多·阿多诺的现代性批判思想,结合卡尔·马克思的“异化”概念,阐明亚当斯作品中体现的理性知识异化问题及其对亚当斯主体认知的影响。论文将亚当斯的作品放置在十九世纪后期美国现代化发展的宏观历史背景中进行考察,着眼于亚当斯追寻自我认知的微观个体经验,分析了理性精神走向极端后带来的知识异化问题,探讨现代人在社会工业化进程中的困惑与焦虑,揭示个人为摆脱理性知识桎梏所迸发出的智慧之光。
《教育》已经成为美国文化记忆中的重要元素,融入到美国精神的内涵中。而亨利·亚当斯本人随之也被视为现代“美国自我”的原型。但是,亚当斯在回顾自己的过去时,常常慨叹自己的人生充满了“失败”。他的这种在深刻领悟人生真理之后的悲观失落情绪在评论界引起了广泛关注。本文试图以理性知识的异化为契机对亚当斯的“失败”心理做富有学理性的解释。美国内战之后,理性知识的异化成为美国文化领域中日趋显著的一个趋向。笔者在系统回顾了学界对亚当斯的评论状况后,指出正是这种趋向带来了亚当斯的“失败”心理。在现代化的过程中,理性日益受到推崇,感性遭到摒弃。人性的原始冲动受到压抑。理性知识随之逐渐摆脱人文关怀,异化为控制人们思想的工具和枷锁。通过细读文本,我们发现在《教育》悲观的论调背后始终有一个积极的声音,它在为现代化过程中的知识异化问题寻找解决的方案。
在第一章中,论文指出理性知识的异化造成了亚当斯自我认知的困惑。理性知识对人们主观情感和道德的压制导致了亚当斯悲观的自我否定;同时,感性知识对工具理性的反抗帮助亚当斯重建自我肯定的信心。在接下来的四章中,笔者分别从政治、科学、宗教与历史这四个方面具体分析了美国内战后的知识异化问题,讨论了理性知识与感性知识的不平衡发展对亚当斯的内心世界带来的影响。在最后一章中,我们分析了亚当斯对自然、艺术和中世纪的美学想象,指出亚当斯思想中对感性知识的强调整合了文本中分裂的叙述声音,重建了感性与理性知识的平衡。
In this study we focus on the textual and thematic features of Henry Adams’s work The Education of Henry Adams (hereafter abbreviated as Education) and try to analyze its critique to the alienation of the rationalistic knowledge with the help of the critical thinking of Karl Marx, Max Weber, Max Horkheimer, and Theodore Adorno. We situate the book in the macroscopic historical background of the second half of the nineteenth century when the United States accelerated its development of modernization and we highlight the microcosmic individual experience of Henry Adams’s self-recognition in the age of great turbulence. We discuss in depth the modern man’s anxiety and bewilderment as a result of the deification of the rationalistic knowledge and reveal the individual’s wisdom to shatter the confines of the instrumental rationality.
Education has become an important part of the cultural memory and Henry Adams is regarded as a prototype of the modern“American self.”But Education impresses most readers with its tone of futility and frustration and Henry Adams frequently referred to himself as a“failure”in the book. In this dissertation we ascribe Adams’s self-alleged“failure”to the problem of knowledge in the postbellum era of the United States. The problem, as we analyze, was the result of the deification of rationality and the suppression of sensitivity in the process of modernization. Rationality was gradually alienated from its humanistic basis and became a dominating force to control people’s minds.
In the first chapter, we propose that the problem of knowledge led to the inner fissure of Adams’s subjectivity. The imbalance between reason and sense resulted in Adams’s simultaneous self-negation and self-affirmation, which were revealed by the duality of voices in Education. In the following four chapters, we elaborate on how the problematic knowledge had led to Henry Adams’s troubled personal identity and how Adams contested the desiccated and stupefying rationality by resorting to the power of the subjective spontaneity and activity. Each chapter deals with one area of knowledge, discussing the problems of the political, scientific, religious, and historical discourses respectively. And the last chapter is dedicated to discuss the therapeutic function of Adams’s aesthetic imagination, which united the splitting narrative voices in the text and recuperated the author’s fissured subjectivity. The problematic knowledge that had been discussed in Education is ever present in the history of the United Sates and Adams’s thinking about politics, science, religion, and history challenged the totalizing grand discourses. Therefore, we believe that Henry Adams is never a“failure,”but a success in the history of the United Sates.
《教育》已经成为美国文化记忆中的重要元素,融入到美国精神的内涵中。而亨利·亚当斯本人随之也被视为现代“美国自我”的原型。但是,亚当斯在回顾自己的过去时,常常慨叹自己的人生充满了“失败”。他的这种在深刻领悟人生真理之后的悲观失落情绪在评论界引起了广泛关注。本文试图以理性知识的异化为契机对亚当斯的“失败”心理做富有学理性的解释。美国内战之后,理性知识的异化成为美国文化领域中日趋显著的一个趋向。笔者在系统回顾了学界对亚当斯的评论状况后,指出正是这种趋向带来了亚当斯的“失败”心理。在现代化的过程中,理性日益受到推崇,感性遭到摒弃。人性的原始冲动受到压抑。理性知识随之逐渐摆脱人文关怀,异化为控制人们思想的工具和枷锁。通过细读文本,我们发现在《教育》悲观的论调背后始终有一个积极的声音,它在为现代化过程中的知识异化问题寻找解决的方案。
在第一章中,论文指出理性知识的异化造成了亚当斯自我认知的困惑。理性知识对人们主观情感和道德的压制导致了亚当斯悲观的自我否定;同时,感性知识对工具理性的反抗帮助亚当斯重建自我肯定的信心。在接下来的四章中,笔者分别从政治、科学、宗教与历史这四个方面具体分析了美国内战后的知识异化问题,讨论了理性知识与感性知识的不平衡发展对亚当斯的内心世界带来的影响。在最后一章中,我们分析了亚当斯对自然、艺术和中世纪的美学想象,指出亚当斯思想中对感性知识的强调整合了文本中分裂的叙述声音,重建了感性与理性知识的平衡。
In this study we focus on the textual and thematic features of Henry Adams’s work The Education of Henry Adams (hereafter abbreviated as Education) and try to analyze its critique to the alienation of the rationalistic knowledge with the help of the critical thinking of Karl Marx, Max Weber, Max Horkheimer, and Theodore Adorno. We situate the book in the macroscopic historical background of the second half of the nineteenth century when the United States accelerated its development of modernization and we highlight the microcosmic individual experience of Henry Adams’s self-recognition in the age of great turbulence. We discuss in depth the modern man’s anxiety and bewilderment as a result of the deification of the rationalistic knowledge and reveal the individual’s wisdom to shatter the confines of the instrumental rationality.
Education has become an important part of the cultural memory and Henry Adams is regarded as a prototype of the modern“American self.”But Education impresses most readers with its tone of futility and frustration and Henry Adams frequently referred to himself as a“failure”in the book. In this dissertation we ascribe Adams’s self-alleged“failure”to the problem of knowledge in the postbellum era of the United States. The problem, as we analyze, was the result of the deification of rationality and the suppression of sensitivity in the process of modernization. Rationality was gradually alienated from its humanistic basis and became a dominating force to control people’s minds.
In the first chapter, we propose that the problem of knowledge led to the inner fissure of Adams’s subjectivity. The imbalance between reason and sense resulted in Adams’s simultaneous self-negation and self-affirmation, which were revealed by the duality of voices in Education. In the following four chapters, we elaborate on how the problematic knowledge had led to Henry Adams’s troubled personal identity and how Adams contested the desiccated and stupefying rationality by resorting to the power of the subjective spontaneity and activity. Each chapter deals with one area of knowledge, discussing the problems of the political, scientific, religious, and historical discourses respectively. And the last chapter is dedicated to discuss the therapeutic function of Adams’s aesthetic imagination, which united the splitting narrative voices in the text and recuperated the author’s fissured subjectivity. The problematic knowledge that had been discussed in Education is ever present in the history of the United Sates and Adams’s thinking about politics, science, religion, and history challenged the totalizing grand discourses. Therefore, we believe that Henry Adams is never a“failure,”but a success in the history of the United Sates.
引文
Adams, Henry.“Captain John smith.”North American Review 104 Jan. (1867): 1-30.
______. Degradation of the Democratic Dogma. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1919.
______. Democracy, Esther, Mont Saint Michel and Chartres, The Education of Henry Adams. Eds. Ernest Samuels and Jayne M. Samuels. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 1983.
______. Henry Adams and His Friends: A Collection of His Unpublished Letters. Ed. Harold Dean Cater. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947.
______. The History of the United States of America during the Administrations of James Madison. 1889-1891. New York: Library of America, 1986.
______. The History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson. 1889-1891. New York: Library of America, 1986.
______. The Letters of Henry Adams. Eds. J. C. Levenson, Ernest Samuels, Charles Vandersee, and Viola Hopkins Winner. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1982-88. 6 vols.
______. Letters of Henry Adams. Ed. Worthington C. Ford. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930-1938.
______. The Life of Albert Gallatin. Boston: J.B. Lippincott, 1879.
______.“Primitive Rights of Women.”Historical Essays. New York: Scribner's, 1891. 1-41.
Adams, James Truslow. Henry Adams. New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1933.
Adams, John. A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America. Philadelphia: Budd and Bartram, 1797.
Augustine. Confessions. Trans. Henry Chadwick. New York: Oxford UP, 1992.
Baym, Max I. The French Education of Henry Adams. New York: Columbia UP, 1951.
Beard, Charles A. The Industrial Revolution. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1901.
Becker, Carl.“The Education of Henry Adams.”American Historical Review 24 (April 1919): 422-34.
Blackmur, R. P. Henry Adams. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.
Blair, Walter, et al., eds. The Literature of the United States. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1957. 2vols.
Brooks, Cleanth, et al., eds. American Literature: The Makers and the Making. New York: St. Martin, 1974.
Brooks, Van Wyck. New England: Indian Summer, 1865-1915. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1942.
Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus. 1832. New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1846.
Chalfant, Edward. Both Sides of the Ocean: A Biography of Henry Adams. His First Life: 1838-1862. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1982.
Conder, John. A Formula of His Own: Henry Adams’s Literary Experiment. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1970.
Darwin, Charles. Origin of Species. 1859. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998.
Diggins, John Patrick. The Promise of Pragmatism: Modernism and the Crisis of Knowledge and Authority. Chicago and London: Chicago UP, 1994.
Dusinberre, William. Henry Adams: The Myth of Failure. Charlottesville: Virginia UP, 1980.
Eakin, Paul John, ed. American Autobiography: Retrospect and Prospect. Madison: Wisconsin UP, 1991.
Eliot, T. S.“A Sceptical Patrician.”The Athenaeum 4647 (May 1919): 361-62.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Representative Men. 1857. New York: Hurst, 1982.
Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography. 1818. Montreal: Cosimo, Inc., 2007.
Hicks, Granville. The Great Tradition. New York: Macmillan, 1935.
Hochfield, George. Henry Adams: An Introduction and Interpretation. Littlefield: Barnes & Noble, 1962.
Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor W. Adorno. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Trans. Edmund Jephcott. 1944. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2002.
Horwitz, Howard.“The Education and the Salvation of History.”New Essays on The Education of Henry Adams. Ed. John Carlos Rowe. New York: Cambridge UP, 1996. 115-56.
Hume, Robert A. Runaway Star: An Appreciation of Henry Adams. Ithaca: Cornell UP,1951.
Husserl, Edmund. The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1970.
Irigaray, Luce. This Sex Which is Not One. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985.
James, Henry. The Letters of Henry Adams. Ed. Percy Lubbock. London: Macmillan, 1920.
______. A Small Boy and Others. New York: Scribner’s, 1913.
James, William. Letters of Williams James. Ed. Henry James. Boson: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1920.
Jordy, William H. Henry Adams: Scientific Historian. New Haven: Yale UP, 1952.
Keledin, Eugenia. The Education of Mrs. Henry Adams. Amherst: Massachusetts UP, 1994.
Lears, T. J. Jackson. No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920. New York: Pantheon Books, 1981.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Theodicy: Essays on the Goddness of God, the Freedom of Man, and the Origin of Evil. Trans. E. M. Huggard. Chicago: Open Court, 1985.
Lesser, Wayne.“Criticism, Literary History, and the Paradigm: The Education of Henry Adams.”PMLA 97 (May 1982): 378-94.
Levenson, J. C. The Mind and Art of Henry Adams. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957.
Lyotard, Jean-Fran?ois. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Trans. Geoff BEnnington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: Minnesota UP, 1984.
MacLean, Kenneth.“Window and Cross in Henry Adams’s Education.”University of Toronto Quarterly 4 (July 1959): 332-44.
Marx, Karl. Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844. New York: International Publishers, 1964.
Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. 1848. Kila: Kessinger Publishing, 2004.
Moreland, Kim. The Medievalist Impulse in American Literature: Twain, Adams, Fitzgerald, and Hemingway. Charlottesville: Virginia UP, 1996.
Morrison, Margaret. Unifying Scientific Theories: Physical Concepts and Mathematical Structures. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000.
Mumford, Lewis. The Golden Day: A Study in American Expression and Culture. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1926.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. 1883-1885. New York: Viking Press, 1966.
Parrington, Vernon Louis. Main Currents in American Thought. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1930. 3vols.
Porter, Carolyn. Seeing and Being: The Plight of the Participant Observer in Emerson, James, Adams, and Faulkner. Middletown: Wesleyan UP, 1981.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Confessions. Trans. Angela Scholar. 1782. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000.
Rowe, John Carlos. Henry Adams and Henry James: The Emergence of a Modern Consciousness. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1976.
______, ed. New Essays on The Education of Henry Adams. New York: Cambridge UP. 1996.
Samuels, Ernest. The Young Henry Adams. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1948.
______. Henry Adams: The Middle Years. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1958.
______. Henry Adams: The Major Phase. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1964.
______. Henry Adams. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1989.
______, and Jayne Samuels, eds. Novels, Mont-Saint-Michel, The Education of Henry Adams, Poems. New York: Literary of America, 1983.
Saveth, Edward N., ed. and abridged with introductions. Henry Adams: The Education of Henry Adams and Other Selected Writings. New York: Washington Square Press, Inc. 1963.
Seligman, Edwin R. A. The Economic Interpretation of History. New York: Macmillan, 1902.
Smith, Bradford. Captain John Smith: His Life and Legend. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1953.
Spengler, Oswald, and Charles Francis Atkinson. The Decline of the West. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1934.
Spiller, Robert E.“Henry Adams.”Literary History of the United States. Ed. Robert E. Spiller et al. New York: Macmillan, 1948.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady.“Has Christianity Benefitted Women?”North American Review 140 (1885): 389-90.
Stein, Gertrude. The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas. New York: Harcourt Brace andcompany, 1933.
Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. A Study of History. London: Oxford UP, 1934.
Twain, Mark, and Charles Warner. The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today. 1873. New York: Penguin Classics, 2001.
Wagner, Vern. The Suspension of Henry Adams: A Study of Manner and Matter. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1969.
Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. 1904. Los Angeles: Roxbury Company, 2002.
______. Economy and society. Eds. and trans. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittick. 1921. New York: Bedminster Press, 1968.
White, Hayden. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1973.
Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America. New York: Houghton Mifflin company, 2005.
Wilson, Woodrow. A History of the American People. New York: Harper, 1902. 5 vols.
Winters, Yvor.“Henry Adams, or the Creation of Confusion.”Defense of Reason. New York: Swallow Press, 1947. 374- 430.
Young, James P. Henry Adams: The Historian as Political Theorist. Lawrence: UP of Kansas, 2001. 2vols.
______. Degradation of the Democratic Dogma. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1919.
______. Democracy, Esther, Mont Saint Michel and Chartres, The Education of Henry Adams. Eds. Ernest Samuels and Jayne M. Samuels. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 1983.
______. Henry Adams and His Friends: A Collection of His Unpublished Letters. Ed. Harold Dean Cater. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947.
______. The History of the United States of America during the Administrations of James Madison. 1889-1891. New York: Library of America, 1986.
______. The History of the United States of America during the Administrations of Thomas Jefferson. 1889-1891. New York: Library of America, 1986.
______. The Letters of Henry Adams. Eds. J. C. Levenson, Ernest Samuels, Charles Vandersee, and Viola Hopkins Winner. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1982-88. 6 vols.
______. Letters of Henry Adams. Ed. Worthington C. Ford. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930-1938.
______. The Life of Albert Gallatin. Boston: J.B. Lippincott, 1879.
______.“Primitive Rights of Women.”Historical Essays. New York: Scribner's, 1891. 1-41.
Adams, James Truslow. Henry Adams. New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1933.
Adams, John. A Defense of the Constitutions of Government of the United States of America. Philadelphia: Budd and Bartram, 1797.
Augustine. Confessions. Trans. Henry Chadwick. New York: Oxford UP, 1992.
Baym, Max I. The French Education of Henry Adams. New York: Columbia UP, 1951.
Beard, Charles A. The Industrial Revolution. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1901.
Becker, Carl.“The Education of Henry Adams.”American Historical Review 24 (April 1919): 422-34.
Blackmur, R. P. Henry Adams. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1980.
Blair, Walter, et al., eds. The Literature of the United States. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman, 1957. 2vols.
Brooks, Cleanth, et al., eds. American Literature: The Makers and the Making. New York: St. Martin, 1974.
Brooks, Van Wyck. New England: Indian Summer, 1865-1915. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1942.
Carlyle, Thomas. Sartor Resartus. 1832. New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1846.
Chalfant, Edward. Both Sides of the Ocean: A Biography of Henry Adams. His First Life: 1838-1862. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1982.
Conder, John. A Formula of His Own: Henry Adams’s Literary Experiment. Chicago: Chicago UP, 1970.
Darwin, Charles. Origin of Species. 1859. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1998.
Diggins, John Patrick. The Promise of Pragmatism: Modernism and the Crisis of Knowledge and Authority. Chicago and London: Chicago UP, 1994.
Dusinberre, William. Henry Adams: The Myth of Failure. Charlottesville: Virginia UP, 1980.
Eakin, Paul John, ed. American Autobiography: Retrospect and Prospect. Madison: Wisconsin UP, 1991.
Eliot, T. S.“A Sceptical Patrician.”The Athenaeum 4647 (May 1919): 361-62.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. Representative Men. 1857. New York: Hurst, 1982.
Franklin, Benjamin. Autobiography. 1818. Montreal: Cosimo, Inc., 2007.
Hicks, Granville. The Great Tradition. New York: Macmillan, 1935.
Hochfield, George. Henry Adams: An Introduction and Interpretation. Littlefield: Barnes & Noble, 1962.
Horkheimer, Max, and Theodor W. Adorno. Dialectic of Enlightenment. Trans. Edmund Jephcott. 1944. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2002.
Horwitz, Howard.“The Education and the Salvation of History.”New Essays on The Education of Henry Adams. Ed. John Carlos Rowe. New York: Cambridge UP, 1996. 115-56.
Hume, Robert A. Runaway Star: An Appreciation of Henry Adams. Ithaca: Cornell UP,1951.
Husserl, Edmund. The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern UP, 1970.
Irigaray, Luce. This Sex Which is Not One. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1985.
James, Henry. The Letters of Henry Adams. Ed. Percy Lubbock. London: Macmillan, 1920.
______. A Small Boy and Others. New York: Scribner’s, 1913.
James, William. Letters of Williams James. Ed. Henry James. Boson: The Atlantic Monthly Press, 1920.
Jordy, William H. Henry Adams: Scientific Historian. New Haven: Yale UP, 1952.
Keledin, Eugenia. The Education of Mrs. Henry Adams. Amherst: Massachusetts UP, 1994.
Lears, T. J. Jackson. No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture, 1880-1920. New York: Pantheon Books, 1981.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. Theodicy: Essays on the Goddness of God, the Freedom of Man, and the Origin of Evil. Trans. E. M. Huggard. Chicago: Open Court, 1985.
Lesser, Wayne.“Criticism, Literary History, and the Paradigm: The Education of Henry Adams.”PMLA 97 (May 1982): 378-94.
Levenson, J. C. The Mind and Art of Henry Adams. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957.
Lyotard, Jean-Fran?ois. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Trans. Geoff BEnnington and Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: Minnesota UP, 1984.
MacLean, Kenneth.“Window and Cross in Henry Adams’s Education.”University of Toronto Quarterly 4 (July 1959): 332-44.
Marx, Karl. Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844. New York: International Publishers, 1964.
Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. 1848. Kila: Kessinger Publishing, 2004.
Moreland, Kim. The Medievalist Impulse in American Literature: Twain, Adams, Fitzgerald, and Hemingway. Charlottesville: Virginia UP, 1996.
Morrison, Margaret. Unifying Scientific Theories: Physical Concepts and Mathematical Structures. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000.
Mumford, Lewis. The Golden Day: A Study in American Expression and Culture. New York: Boni and Liveright, 1926.
Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Trans. Walter Kaufmann. 1883-1885. New York: Viking Press, 1966.
Parrington, Vernon Louis. Main Currents in American Thought. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1930. 3vols.
Porter, Carolyn. Seeing and Being: The Plight of the Participant Observer in Emerson, James, Adams, and Faulkner. Middletown: Wesleyan UP, 1981.
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The Confessions. Trans. Angela Scholar. 1782. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2000.
Rowe, John Carlos. Henry Adams and Henry James: The Emergence of a Modern Consciousness. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1976.
______, ed. New Essays on The Education of Henry Adams. New York: Cambridge UP. 1996.
Samuels, Ernest. The Young Henry Adams. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1948.
______. Henry Adams: The Middle Years. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1958.
______. Henry Adams: The Major Phase. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1964.
______. Henry Adams. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1989.
______, and Jayne Samuels, eds. Novels, Mont-Saint-Michel, The Education of Henry Adams, Poems. New York: Literary of America, 1983.
Saveth, Edward N., ed. and abridged with introductions. Henry Adams: The Education of Henry Adams and Other Selected Writings. New York: Washington Square Press, Inc. 1963.
Seligman, Edwin R. A. The Economic Interpretation of History. New York: Macmillan, 1902.
Smith, Bradford. Captain John Smith: His Life and Legend. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1953.
Spengler, Oswald, and Charles Francis Atkinson. The Decline of the West. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1934.
Spiller, Robert E.“Henry Adams.”Literary History of the United States. Ed. Robert E. Spiller et al. New York: Macmillan, 1948.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady.“Has Christianity Benefitted Women?”North American Review 140 (1885): 389-90.
Stein, Gertrude. The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas. New York: Harcourt Brace andcompany, 1933.
Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. A Study of History. London: Oxford UP, 1934.
Twain, Mark, and Charles Warner. The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today. 1873. New York: Penguin Classics, 2001.
Wagner, Vern. The Suspension of Henry Adams: A Study of Manner and Matter. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1969.
Weber, Max. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. 1904. Los Angeles: Roxbury Company, 2002.
______. Economy and society. Eds. and trans. Guenther Roth and Claus Wittick. 1921. New York: Bedminster Press, 1968.
White, Hayden. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 1973.
Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America. New York: Houghton Mifflin company, 2005.
Wilson, Woodrow. A History of the American People. New York: Harper, 1902. 5 vols.
Winters, Yvor.“Henry Adams, or the Creation of Confusion.”Defense of Reason. New York: Swallow Press, 1947. 374- 430.
Young, James P. Henry Adams: The Historian as Political Theorist. Lawrence: UP of Kansas, 2001. 2vols.
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