论路易斯·格吕克对古典神话的颠覆性改写
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摘要
作为美国后现代主义诗歌的重要组成部分,后自白抒情诗在继承和创新的过程中不断向多元化方向发展,取得了瞩目成就。曾获普利策奖等众多诗歌奖项的著名诗人、2003至2004年度美国桂冠诗人路易斯·格吕克(Louise ElisabethGlück,1948-)就是其中的杰出代表之一。由于从小就受到家庭熏陶,格吕克谙熟西方古典文学作品,如圣经故事和古希腊罗马神话。在她的诗歌里,她创新性地把神话中的故事和原型人物与具有强烈自传性内容及当代社会生活融为一体,把神话故事和其中的人物嫁接在当代语境和现实之中,并对神话进行颠覆式改写,首创了“组诗体”诗集(book-length poetic sequence)这一独特的诗集形式。她的诗集《阿勒山》(Ararat,1990)及其之后的作品《野蝴蝶花》(The WildIris,1992)、《绿茵场》(Meadowlands,1996)、《新生》(Vita Nova,1999)、《人生七阶》(The Seven Ages,2001)和《阿弗诺湖》(Averno,2006)都沿用并不断完善了这一形式。这一创新形式的运用使她的诗既具有自白诗和后自白诗的自传色彩,又具有史诗般的厚重和气势;既具有个人抒情诗的亲切感,又有现代主义诗歌的客观距离感;既严肃深刻,又不乏后现代主义幽默和讽刺。本论文试图通过分析格吕克在其诗歌中经常引用和改写的圣经和古典神话故事以及这些神话在其诗歌中的作用,进而探讨和研究诗人对神话进行改写过程中的颠覆性、其颠覆性的主要表现形式、以及诗人对神话改写的价值和意义。
全文由引言、主体和结语三部分构成。
引言部分从路易斯·格吕克的诗歌显著特点和独特风格为切入点,结合国内外对其诗歌的研究状况,点明本文的研究目的和方法。作为当代美国诗歌主流的重要代表人物之一,格吕克已经是英美众多评论家评论的焦点诗人之一。许多有关其作品的论文和评论频现于诸如《美国诗歌评论》和《诗刊》等著名杂志。已经出版的相关专著有《路易斯·格吕克:改变你之所见》(Louise Glück:ChangeWhat You See,2005)和《路易斯·格吕克诗歌主题评介》(The Poetry of Louise Glück:A Thematic Introduction,2006)。前者收集的是评论家有关格吕克诗歌的评论文集;后者以研究格吕克的诗歌主题为重心。遗憾的是,两书主要涉及到的是格吕克的前期作品,对诗人的近期作品《新生》和《阿弗诺湖》只是偶有提及,或是随笔带过,缺乏更深入的研究。迄今为止,国外学者还没有就格吕克对神话的运用及其颠覆性改写进行过专题研究。在国内,对格吕克的研究,除了像《二十世纪美国诗歌史》(张子清,1995)和《新编美国文学史》(王守仁,2002)等专著中需要更新的作者简介外,几乎是一片空白。本论文试图从共时和历时的角度,一方面通过对格吕克的诗歌文本与其中涉及的古典神话原型之间的对比研究,另一方面,通过对格吕克与美国诗歌传统、特别是与后自白诗领域的对比研究,强调她在创作过程中对古典神话改写的创新性和颠覆性、其颠覆性的表现形式、此种改写的社会意义及其对后自白诗歌发展的重要贡献和价值。
本文的主体部分分为三个章节。第一章首先从格吕克诗歌风格的发展变化入手,指出:把古典神话与自传成分巧妙结合为一体是格吕克诗歌的最显著特点,体现了她在诗歌领域的继承和突破;她对神话的运用不只是简单地作为典故加以引用或进行类比或暗示,而是一种颠覆性改写。由于受到自白派诗人洛厄尔、普拉斯和后自白派诗人斯坦利·库涅茨等人的影响,她的第一部诗集《长女》(Firstborn,1968)具有明显的自白诗的特点。第二部诗集《沼泽地上的房屋》(The House on Marshland,1975)中虽然自传色彩浓烈,但她在运用古典神话和圣经典故方面的才华已经初露端倪。该诗集所涉及和改写的古典神话故事和人物包括《圣经》中的耶稣诞生、希腊爱神阿佛洛狄特、童话故事人物汉斯和历史人物圣女贞德等。接下来的作品中,不仅是诗集的内容,而且所有诗集标题都具有浓重的神话色彩。《下落的影子》(Descending Figure,1980)中的标题既蕴含生命的陨落,也暗示伊甸园的失落。该诗集中的长诗《花园》改写了圣经中的伊甸园神话;《阿佛洛狄特》改写了希腊爱神的传统形象。最值得一提的是《哀歌》(Lamentations)一诗。该诗戏仿《圣经》中的《耶利米哀歌》,把《圣经》中有关人类的堕落神话视为创造,认为上帝把人类分成了三部分:“男人、女人和女人的身体”。这一点可谓是格吕克审视家庭和社会的出发点和立足点,对理解和研究格吕克的诗歌至关重要。诗集《阿喀硫斯的胜利》(The Triumph ofAchilles,1987)中的标题就表明了它与希腊神话人物阿喀硫斯的关联。其中涉及到的神话还有希腊神话中的仙女达佛涅与太阳神阿波罗之间的故事、风信子的传说、马拉松战役、以及西西弗斯的故事等。以上作品中对古典神话的运用,虽然显得有些支离破碎,但是它们为诗人的后期巅峰之作打下了坚实基础。格吕克的首部“组诗体”诗集《阿勒山》融神话与自传于一体。诗中的阿勒山既指格吕克姐姐和父亲的墓地所在——一个名为“阿勒山”的犹太人墓地,也指《圣经》中诺亚在洪水中停靠方舟的阿勒山。该诗集中还包括该隐和阿贝尔、索罗门国王断子案等著名的圣经故事。《野蝴蝶花》回到了伊甸园神话,为格吕克赢得了普利策奖。在《绿茵场》里,诗人以荷马史诗《奥德赛》为原型,把主人公奥德修斯与其妻帕涅罗珀之间的爱情故事与一桩面临解体的现代婚姻交织一体;《新生》的标题使人联想到著名意大利诗人但丁的《新生》,其中又有两则经典神话故事贯穿始终:一是古罗马诗人维吉尔代表作《埃涅伊特》中有关迦太基国女王狄多与特洛伊战争英雄埃涅阿斯之间的爱情故事,一是希腊神话中俄耳甫斯与欧律狄刻的爱情神话;《人生七阶》的标题暗示了它与莎士比亚的剧作《皆大欢喜》中雅克所作的著名的人生七阶论的关联。《阿弗诺湖》以古希腊神话中有关阿弗诺湖的传说和冥后珀尔塞福涅的神话故事为原型。通过对格吕克诗歌中所涉及的神话故事和人物的分析,不难看出:格吕克对童话故事和古希腊史诗中的故事的处理已不仅仅是作为典故而借用或者暗指,而是一种颠覆性改写。
第二章从分析神话故事和人物在格吕克诗歌中的主要作用开始,论述古典神话在格吕克诗歌中所起的主要功能和她对古典神话的颠覆性改写。本文认为,神话在格吕克的诗歌中主要有三大功能:第一,神话被用作一种疏远手段、一种掩饰自传内容的面具,使作者在自传与神话、亲近与疏离、主观与客观之间寻求到了一种平衡,克服了自白诗和后自白诗歌中自传色彩过浓、过于自我的弊端。这一手段的运用赋予了自传色彩的内容更加普遍的意义。第二,神话起到了背景衬托和主题构架的作用。格吕克所采用的神话故事都为西方读者耳熟能详的经典神话,这些神话为读者与作者之间、历史与现实之间建立了一个对话和交流的公共平台,也为作者对神话的颠覆性改写提供了前提条件。由于格吕克在她的诗集中、特别是在《阿勒山》及其之后的“组诗体”诗集中所选择的神话的主题与整部诗集的主题吻合,因此,这些神话故事在实际中起到了构建诗集骨架的作用。神话在诗集《阿勒山》、《野蝴蝶花》、《绿茵场》、《新生》和《阿弗诺湖》都发挥了这一功能。第三,神话为格吕克的诗歌增添了戏剧效果和喜剧色彩。格吕克的自传体抒情诗的主题和基调一贯深沉灰暗,多涉及心灵创伤、爱情挫折、夫妻间的矛盾、生存与死亡等严肃主题,神话元素的介入避免了一味的个人情感倾诉,为自传体抒情诗增添了戏剧效果。作者对神话故事和神话人物的巧妙处理,尤其是对其颠覆性的改写,使得每部诗集都具有喜剧成分,不乏后现代讽刺与幽默。
格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写主要表现在两个方面:一是对神话中传统叙事模式和叙述视角的颠覆;另一个是对一些根深蒂固的传统观念的颠覆。格吕克在运用神话的过程中,一改传统神话中以男性主人公为中心的全知全能叙事模式,赋予女性人物优先话语权。在格吕克笔下,神话中的原型英雄人物如奥德修斯、埃涅阿斯、厄尔普斯等退居幕后,他们都失去了原有的伟大和神圣的光环,如同当代普通人一样被欲望、家庭和事业等问题所困扰,就连传统意义上的上帝也经过了去神圣化处理。与之相反,原神话中的女性角色如帕涅罗珀、喀尔刻、狄多、欧律狄刻、珀尔塞福涅以及次要角色如奥德修斯的儿子忒勒马科斯走到了前台,从独特视角看待周围世界并表达自己独到的见解并抒发各自的独特感受。
格吕克在改写神话过程中对传统观念的颠覆首先是对上帝造物神话的颠覆。格吕克相信神灵的存在,但是她反对神话故事中关于上帝创造人类这一观念,认为,是人类创造了神话中的上帝,而非是上帝创造了人类。其次,格吕克在改写神话过程中颠覆了父权文化社会里男尊女卑的思想。根据伊甸园神话,上帝首先创造了亚当,为消除他的寂寞和孤独,取其一根肋骨又创造了夏娃,后因为夏娃未能抵制住诱惑而偷食禁果,导致了人类的堕落,人类从此被逐出伊甸园。长期以来,把女性视为男性的附属品、把人类的堕落归咎于女性这一传统观念一直主导和影响着人们的意识和行为。为了颠覆这一理念,格吕克改写了有关伊甸园的神话。在她的诗歌里,上帝,更确切地说是当今社会,把人类分为“男性、女性和女性的身体”。这一颠覆具有重要现实意义。它不仅具有嘲讽意味,讽刺当今社会把女性的内在和外表割裂开来的评判标准,同时也表达了格吕克对女性与生俱来的生理弱势的无奈和对女性自主、独立和平等的诉求和愿望。其次,格吕克对女性所遭受压迫的根源具有独到的见解。她认为,女性遭受压迫的根源不仅在于以男性为主导的父权文化,女性也是共谋。此外,格吕克通过诗歌中的人物还对爱情、生存与死亡等主题表达了深刻的见解,具有丰富的哲理。
基于前两章对格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写的探讨,本论文的第三章主要分析和研究格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写的意义和价值。其意义和价值主要体现在两个方面:其一、格吕克对神话的运用和改写是对后自白诗歌发展的重要贡献,代表了后自白诗歌发展的一个新方向。她对神话的巧妙运用改变了多数自白诗人和后自白诗人过多的表白和倾诉所带来的过于主观的印象。不同诗歌人物间的对话,再加上诗人对神话的戏剧化处理,使后自白抒情诗拥有了更丰富的形式和更深刻的内涵。其二、格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写体现了她对当代美国文化和社会的批评,具有深远的现实意义。正如她在《回忆录》一诗中所言,她的诗不仅是为了“汲养”和“生存”,而且是为了“抨击”。格吕克以一位女性作家的敏锐和胆识,一方面抨击了父权文化对女性的压迫,另一方面,也批评了女性对男性的过度依赖性,同时,她对道德沦丧和暴力等社会问题表现出了强烈关注,表达了一名艺术家对世界未来的悲观和无奈。
通过研究和探索格吕克在其诗歌中对神话的改写及其改写的价值和意义,本文试图得出以下结论:一、格吕克在其诗歌中对古典神话的改写极具创新性和颠覆性。通过赋予传统神话中次要人物、特别是女性角色以独立的话语权和独特视野,把神话人物置于当代生活和社会背景之中,格吕克对古典神话的改写挑战和颠覆了人们心目中对古典神话故事和神话人物形象的传统认识,从而以新的视角审视当代文化问题、家庭危机、以及人类的生存危机等。二、通过对古典神话的改写和对自传素材与当代生活素材的嫁接,格吕克不仅展现给了读者一曲“自我之歌,”而且诉说了一个时代的历史。她极具自传性质的诗歌一方面是一位当代社会女性艺术家的生活写照,另一方面,她所经历的失落和孤独、挫折和痛苦,如同狄多、珀尔塞福涅一样,具有普遍性和社会性。她对人类未来命运的悲观态度既体现了艺术家们对战争和暴力的痛恨,也表达了众多艺术家们的无奈和绝望。三、格吕克对神话故事的创新性运用是对后自白抒情诗的一大贡献,给个人抒情诗带来了新的活力,具有不可磨灭的影响力。其中,最值得一提的是她首创的“组诗体”诗集形式。她在诗歌方面的创新表明了诗歌创作的无限潜力和可能。
As an integral part of postmodernist poetry in the United States, postconfessional lyric is moving towards new and varied directions and has made remarkable achievements and gained wide acclaim. Louise Elisabeth Gluck (1948—), a dominant figure in American poetry for more than three decades, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and virtually every other major poetry award and the U. S. poet laureate for 2003-2004, represents one of the new directions. Influenced by confessional and postconfessional poets and well acquainted with classical myths since her childhood, Gluck is adept at fusing intimate autobiographical details with mythic stories, and in so doing, she has invented an entirely new poetic form—the book-length poetic sequence. Her most important collections of poetry—Ararat (1990), The Wild Iris (1992), Meadowlands (1996), Vita Nova (1999), The Seven Ages (2001), and Averno (2006) are all book-length poetic sequences. One of the most distinctive features of these sequences is her subversive revisions of those classical myths. Her deft juxtaposition of mythical stories with autobiographical material has successfully infused into her personal poetry an epic scope, achieving a desired balance between intimacy and impersonality, between the personal and the universal, between the serious and the playful. This dissertation, through a close investigation into the myths Gluck draws on in her major works and through an analysis of the functions of the myths in her poetry, attempts to explore the subversive nature of Gluck's revisions of classical myths, the way she revises the myths, and the value of her revisions.
This dissertation is composed of three parts: the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
The introduction provides brief background information on Gluck's works and achievement, makes an overview of researches ever done into Gluck's poetry, and then points out the purpose of this dissertation, and the approaches to be adopted in this study. As a major voice in contemporary American poetry, Gluck's works have been well received, and widely reviewed and studied by critics and readers as well. The most notable books devoted to the study of Gluck's poetry are Louise Gluck: Change What You See (2001) and The Poetry of Louise Gluck: A Thematic Introduction (2006). The former is a collection of essays on Gluck's poems and the latter an intensive study of the major themes in Gluck's works, mainly in Ararat, Meadowlands, and The Wild Iris. Regretfully, and also understandably, neither book gives much space and coverage to Gluck's latest sequences. Through a comparative and contrastive study of the Gluck's revisions of myths and the archetypal myths, and by putting Gluck's poetry in the context of postconfessional lyric tradition, this dissertation is intended to explore the subversive nature of Gluck's revisions and their value.
The body part of this dissertation consists of three chapters, each dealing with Gluck's revisions of classical myths from a different angle. Chapter One, "Revising Classical Myths—a Hallmark in Gluck's Poetry", addresses first the development and formation of Gluck's poetic style in order to show the important role that mythical elements play in her poetry and then shifts the focus to the major myths Gluck draws on in her poetry and points out that Gluck's turn to myths is not merely references or allusions, but they serve different functions and have significant aesthetic value.
Chapter Two is devoted to the study of the principal functions that myths serve in Gluck's poetry, the way Gluck subverts the myths, and the nature of her revisions. By studying her poetry itself and by putting it in relation to the works of other postconfessional poets, this chapter sums up three main functions of myths in Gluck's poetry: Firstly, myths serve as a distancing device, a mask of autobiographical content, which contributes to strike a balance between intimacy and detachment, between the personal and the impersonal, between contemporary life and mythical stories, thus avoiding being overtly confessional or narrowly self-centered and, at the same time, making the personal achieve universal significance. Secondly, myths are used as the backdrops and thematic frames of the poetic sequences. The myths in her poetry, which are already familiar to western readers, serve as a common ground for the reader and the poet to have exchanges of dialogues with each other, and a starting point for the poet to begin her exploration. As the major themes of her poetic sequences are often consistent with, or related to, those of the old myths, the myths serve as the framework of her sequences. The myth of the Garden of Eden, the myth of Odyssey, the myth of Aeneas and Dido, the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, and the myth of Persephone have all been used to achieve this purpose. Lastly, the turn to myths and Gluck's postmodern approaches to them have insinuated dramatic and comic elements into her poetry. The playfulness in her revisions of myths add drama and humor to the dark themes—trauma, recovery from divorce, survival and mortality.
The subversive nature of Gluck's revisions of the classical myths is shown in the way she rewrites the myths. First, she has subverted the conventional pattern of narration and narrators used in classical myths. Instead of using a male character as the hero who narrates the story from an omnipresent point of view, Gluck endows the once silenced female characters and minor male characters with their own voices and perceptions. In her poetry, those archetypal heroes—Odysseus, Aeneas, Orpheus—have been put in the background, and have lost their glory and grandeur they have in old myths, even the image of the archetypal God has been revised, his existence questioned, whereas the minor characters such as Penelope, Telemachus, Circe, Dido, Eurydice and Persephone have become the principal figures, looking into the world around them with challenging perceptions.
Another important aspect of Gluck's subversion of the myths is her reversal of the conventional assumptions in western culture. One of the major assumptions Gluck reverses is the myth of creation. According to the Bible, God created man. But in Gluck's understanding, the reverse is true: Man created god. Another assumption that Gluck attacks is the deep-rooted notion that men are superior to women. According to the myth of the Garden of Eden, Eve was created out of one of Adam's ribs to ease his loneliness, and she could not resist the serpent's temptation and ate the Forbidden Fruit, thus causing the Fall of Man. This myth, as Gluck puts it, "shapes, ever afterward, human character and the human vision of human destiny." In Gluck's version of the creation myth, God divided human beings as "the man, the woman and the woman's body." This revision is not only an irony at the conventional standard to judge women by their looks, to regard women as incomplete individuals; it also demonstrates women's strong desire for autonomy, independence and equality. Another insightful view Gluck expresses in her poetry is about the root of women's oppression. In her opinion, not only the patriarchal culture, but women themselves, working together with men, cause their oppression. Besides, Gluck's poetry is full of new ideas and insights on such issues as love, survival and mortality.
Based on the study in the first two chapters, Chapter Three concentrates on the study of the significance and the value of Gluck's revisions of myths in relation to postconfessional lyric and to American society. The value of Gluck's revisions of the myths first lies in her breakthrough and contribution to autobiographical lyric. Her deft use of myths in her poetry, combined with her dramatic and comic treatment of the mythic figures and mythic stories, brings freshness and vitality to postconfessional lyric, promising new possibilities of personal lyric. The value of her revisions also lies in her perception and her criticism of the patriarchal culture and American society. Just as what she says in her poem "Memoir" about the functions of her poetry, Gluck writes poetry in order to "nourish," "sustain" and "attack." With a woman artist's sensibility and intelligence, Gluck attacks the male-dominated culture for the oppression of women, but also accuses women themselves of their over-dependence on males and their complicity in their oppression. At the same time, she has shown her great concern about such issues as moral collapse and violence in the world, and has expressed an artist's tragic view about the world's future and her helplessness.
From the analysis and study of the myths Gluck has revised in her poetry, the functions of myths, her subversive revisions and their value in the tradition of personal lyric and in its critique of contemporary American society, this dissertation attempts to draw the following conclusions: firstly, Gluck's revisions of classical and biblical myths are innovative and subversive and are a commentary on the meanings of classical literature and contemporary life; Her version of the garden of Eden, of Odyssey, and of Persephone, set in the context of the postmodern world, has fundamentally changed people's conception of the archetypal myths and enables the reader to see the cultural issues from a new perspective. Secondly, through the juxtaposition of classical myths and autobiographical materials, Gluck has produced a large body of poetry that is not only a "song of myself but also "speaks its period"; Gluck's revision of classical myths in her work marks a continuity with, and departure from, the tradition of personal lyric. Her subversive revision of classical myths is of great significance in the development of personal lyric, and her poetry, especially the book-length volumes in the form of a poetic sequence, marks a new direction and new possibility of personal lyric in this postmodern age.
全文由引言、主体和结语三部分构成。
引言部分从路易斯·格吕克的诗歌显著特点和独特风格为切入点,结合国内外对其诗歌的研究状况,点明本文的研究目的和方法。作为当代美国诗歌主流的重要代表人物之一,格吕克已经是英美众多评论家评论的焦点诗人之一。许多有关其作品的论文和评论频现于诸如《美国诗歌评论》和《诗刊》等著名杂志。已经出版的相关专著有《路易斯·格吕克:改变你之所见》(Louise Glück:ChangeWhat You See,2005)和《路易斯·格吕克诗歌主题评介》(The Poetry of Louise Glück:A Thematic Introduction,2006)。前者收集的是评论家有关格吕克诗歌的评论文集;后者以研究格吕克的诗歌主题为重心。遗憾的是,两书主要涉及到的是格吕克的前期作品,对诗人的近期作品《新生》和《阿弗诺湖》只是偶有提及,或是随笔带过,缺乏更深入的研究。迄今为止,国外学者还没有就格吕克对神话的运用及其颠覆性改写进行过专题研究。在国内,对格吕克的研究,除了像《二十世纪美国诗歌史》(张子清,1995)和《新编美国文学史》(王守仁,2002)等专著中需要更新的作者简介外,几乎是一片空白。本论文试图从共时和历时的角度,一方面通过对格吕克的诗歌文本与其中涉及的古典神话原型之间的对比研究,另一方面,通过对格吕克与美国诗歌传统、特别是与后自白诗领域的对比研究,强调她在创作过程中对古典神话改写的创新性和颠覆性、其颠覆性的表现形式、此种改写的社会意义及其对后自白诗歌发展的重要贡献和价值。
本文的主体部分分为三个章节。第一章首先从格吕克诗歌风格的发展变化入手,指出:把古典神话与自传成分巧妙结合为一体是格吕克诗歌的最显著特点,体现了她在诗歌领域的继承和突破;她对神话的运用不只是简单地作为典故加以引用或进行类比或暗示,而是一种颠覆性改写。由于受到自白派诗人洛厄尔、普拉斯和后自白派诗人斯坦利·库涅茨等人的影响,她的第一部诗集《长女》(Firstborn,1968)具有明显的自白诗的特点。第二部诗集《沼泽地上的房屋》(The House on Marshland,1975)中虽然自传色彩浓烈,但她在运用古典神话和圣经典故方面的才华已经初露端倪。该诗集所涉及和改写的古典神话故事和人物包括《圣经》中的耶稣诞生、希腊爱神阿佛洛狄特、童话故事人物汉斯和历史人物圣女贞德等。接下来的作品中,不仅是诗集的内容,而且所有诗集标题都具有浓重的神话色彩。《下落的影子》(Descending Figure,1980)中的标题既蕴含生命的陨落,也暗示伊甸园的失落。该诗集中的长诗《花园》改写了圣经中的伊甸园神话;《阿佛洛狄特》改写了希腊爱神的传统形象。最值得一提的是《哀歌》(Lamentations)一诗。该诗戏仿《圣经》中的《耶利米哀歌》,把《圣经》中有关人类的堕落神话视为创造,认为上帝把人类分成了三部分:“男人、女人和女人的身体”。这一点可谓是格吕克审视家庭和社会的出发点和立足点,对理解和研究格吕克的诗歌至关重要。诗集《阿喀硫斯的胜利》(The Triumph ofAchilles,1987)中的标题就表明了它与希腊神话人物阿喀硫斯的关联。其中涉及到的神话还有希腊神话中的仙女达佛涅与太阳神阿波罗之间的故事、风信子的传说、马拉松战役、以及西西弗斯的故事等。以上作品中对古典神话的运用,虽然显得有些支离破碎,但是它们为诗人的后期巅峰之作打下了坚实基础。格吕克的首部“组诗体”诗集《阿勒山》融神话与自传于一体。诗中的阿勒山既指格吕克姐姐和父亲的墓地所在——一个名为“阿勒山”的犹太人墓地,也指《圣经》中诺亚在洪水中停靠方舟的阿勒山。该诗集中还包括该隐和阿贝尔、索罗门国王断子案等著名的圣经故事。《野蝴蝶花》回到了伊甸园神话,为格吕克赢得了普利策奖。在《绿茵场》里,诗人以荷马史诗《奥德赛》为原型,把主人公奥德修斯与其妻帕涅罗珀之间的爱情故事与一桩面临解体的现代婚姻交织一体;《新生》的标题使人联想到著名意大利诗人但丁的《新生》,其中又有两则经典神话故事贯穿始终:一是古罗马诗人维吉尔代表作《埃涅伊特》中有关迦太基国女王狄多与特洛伊战争英雄埃涅阿斯之间的爱情故事,一是希腊神话中俄耳甫斯与欧律狄刻的爱情神话;《人生七阶》的标题暗示了它与莎士比亚的剧作《皆大欢喜》中雅克所作的著名的人生七阶论的关联。《阿弗诺湖》以古希腊神话中有关阿弗诺湖的传说和冥后珀尔塞福涅的神话故事为原型。通过对格吕克诗歌中所涉及的神话故事和人物的分析,不难看出:格吕克对童话故事和古希腊史诗中的故事的处理已不仅仅是作为典故而借用或者暗指,而是一种颠覆性改写。
第二章从分析神话故事和人物在格吕克诗歌中的主要作用开始,论述古典神话在格吕克诗歌中所起的主要功能和她对古典神话的颠覆性改写。本文认为,神话在格吕克的诗歌中主要有三大功能:第一,神话被用作一种疏远手段、一种掩饰自传内容的面具,使作者在自传与神话、亲近与疏离、主观与客观之间寻求到了一种平衡,克服了自白诗和后自白诗歌中自传色彩过浓、过于自我的弊端。这一手段的运用赋予了自传色彩的内容更加普遍的意义。第二,神话起到了背景衬托和主题构架的作用。格吕克所采用的神话故事都为西方读者耳熟能详的经典神话,这些神话为读者与作者之间、历史与现实之间建立了一个对话和交流的公共平台,也为作者对神话的颠覆性改写提供了前提条件。由于格吕克在她的诗集中、特别是在《阿勒山》及其之后的“组诗体”诗集中所选择的神话的主题与整部诗集的主题吻合,因此,这些神话故事在实际中起到了构建诗集骨架的作用。神话在诗集《阿勒山》、《野蝴蝶花》、《绿茵场》、《新生》和《阿弗诺湖》都发挥了这一功能。第三,神话为格吕克的诗歌增添了戏剧效果和喜剧色彩。格吕克的自传体抒情诗的主题和基调一贯深沉灰暗,多涉及心灵创伤、爱情挫折、夫妻间的矛盾、生存与死亡等严肃主题,神话元素的介入避免了一味的个人情感倾诉,为自传体抒情诗增添了戏剧效果。作者对神话故事和神话人物的巧妙处理,尤其是对其颠覆性的改写,使得每部诗集都具有喜剧成分,不乏后现代讽刺与幽默。
格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写主要表现在两个方面:一是对神话中传统叙事模式和叙述视角的颠覆;另一个是对一些根深蒂固的传统观念的颠覆。格吕克在运用神话的过程中,一改传统神话中以男性主人公为中心的全知全能叙事模式,赋予女性人物优先话语权。在格吕克笔下,神话中的原型英雄人物如奥德修斯、埃涅阿斯、厄尔普斯等退居幕后,他们都失去了原有的伟大和神圣的光环,如同当代普通人一样被欲望、家庭和事业等问题所困扰,就连传统意义上的上帝也经过了去神圣化处理。与之相反,原神话中的女性角色如帕涅罗珀、喀尔刻、狄多、欧律狄刻、珀尔塞福涅以及次要角色如奥德修斯的儿子忒勒马科斯走到了前台,从独特视角看待周围世界并表达自己独到的见解并抒发各自的独特感受。
格吕克在改写神话过程中对传统观念的颠覆首先是对上帝造物神话的颠覆。格吕克相信神灵的存在,但是她反对神话故事中关于上帝创造人类这一观念,认为,是人类创造了神话中的上帝,而非是上帝创造了人类。其次,格吕克在改写神话过程中颠覆了父权文化社会里男尊女卑的思想。根据伊甸园神话,上帝首先创造了亚当,为消除他的寂寞和孤独,取其一根肋骨又创造了夏娃,后因为夏娃未能抵制住诱惑而偷食禁果,导致了人类的堕落,人类从此被逐出伊甸园。长期以来,把女性视为男性的附属品、把人类的堕落归咎于女性这一传统观念一直主导和影响着人们的意识和行为。为了颠覆这一理念,格吕克改写了有关伊甸园的神话。在她的诗歌里,上帝,更确切地说是当今社会,把人类分为“男性、女性和女性的身体”。这一颠覆具有重要现实意义。它不仅具有嘲讽意味,讽刺当今社会把女性的内在和外表割裂开来的评判标准,同时也表达了格吕克对女性与生俱来的生理弱势的无奈和对女性自主、独立和平等的诉求和愿望。其次,格吕克对女性所遭受压迫的根源具有独到的见解。她认为,女性遭受压迫的根源不仅在于以男性为主导的父权文化,女性也是共谋。此外,格吕克通过诗歌中的人物还对爱情、生存与死亡等主题表达了深刻的见解,具有丰富的哲理。
基于前两章对格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写的探讨,本论文的第三章主要分析和研究格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写的意义和价值。其意义和价值主要体现在两个方面:其一、格吕克对神话的运用和改写是对后自白诗歌发展的重要贡献,代表了后自白诗歌发展的一个新方向。她对神话的巧妙运用改变了多数自白诗人和后自白诗人过多的表白和倾诉所带来的过于主观的印象。不同诗歌人物间的对话,再加上诗人对神话的戏剧化处理,使后自白抒情诗拥有了更丰富的形式和更深刻的内涵。其二、格吕克对神话的颠覆性改写体现了她对当代美国文化和社会的批评,具有深远的现实意义。正如她在《回忆录》一诗中所言,她的诗不仅是为了“汲养”和“生存”,而且是为了“抨击”。格吕克以一位女性作家的敏锐和胆识,一方面抨击了父权文化对女性的压迫,另一方面,也批评了女性对男性的过度依赖性,同时,她对道德沦丧和暴力等社会问题表现出了强烈关注,表达了一名艺术家对世界未来的悲观和无奈。
通过研究和探索格吕克在其诗歌中对神话的改写及其改写的价值和意义,本文试图得出以下结论:一、格吕克在其诗歌中对古典神话的改写极具创新性和颠覆性。通过赋予传统神话中次要人物、特别是女性角色以独立的话语权和独特视野,把神话人物置于当代生活和社会背景之中,格吕克对古典神话的改写挑战和颠覆了人们心目中对古典神话故事和神话人物形象的传统认识,从而以新的视角审视当代文化问题、家庭危机、以及人类的生存危机等。二、通过对古典神话的改写和对自传素材与当代生活素材的嫁接,格吕克不仅展现给了读者一曲“自我之歌,”而且诉说了一个时代的历史。她极具自传性质的诗歌一方面是一位当代社会女性艺术家的生活写照,另一方面,她所经历的失落和孤独、挫折和痛苦,如同狄多、珀尔塞福涅一样,具有普遍性和社会性。她对人类未来命运的悲观态度既体现了艺术家们对战争和暴力的痛恨,也表达了众多艺术家们的无奈和绝望。三、格吕克对神话故事的创新性运用是对后自白抒情诗的一大贡献,给个人抒情诗带来了新的活力,具有不可磨灭的影响力。其中,最值得一提的是她首创的“组诗体”诗集形式。她在诗歌方面的创新表明了诗歌创作的无限潜力和可能。
As an integral part of postmodernist poetry in the United States, postconfessional lyric is moving towards new and varied directions and has made remarkable achievements and gained wide acclaim. Louise Elisabeth Gluck (1948—), a dominant figure in American poetry for more than three decades, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry and virtually every other major poetry award and the U. S. poet laureate for 2003-2004, represents one of the new directions. Influenced by confessional and postconfessional poets and well acquainted with classical myths since her childhood, Gluck is adept at fusing intimate autobiographical details with mythic stories, and in so doing, she has invented an entirely new poetic form—the book-length poetic sequence. Her most important collections of poetry—Ararat (1990), The Wild Iris (1992), Meadowlands (1996), Vita Nova (1999), The Seven Ages (2001), and Averno (2006) are all book-length poetic sequences. One of the most distinctive features of these sequences is her subversive revisions of those classical myths. Her deft juxtaposition of mythical stories with autobiographical material has successfully infused into her personal poetry an epic scope, achieving a desired balance between intimacy and impersonality, between the personal and the universal, between the serious and the playful. This dissertation, through a close investigation into the myths Gluck draws on in her major works and through an analysis of the functions of the myths in her poetry, attempts to explore the subversive nature of Gluck's revisions of classical myths, the way she revises the myths, and the value of her revisions.
This dissertation is composed of three parts: the introduction, the body and the conclusion.
The introduction provides brief background information on Gluck's works and achievement, makes an overview of researches ever done into Gluck's poetry, and then points out the purpose of this dissertation, and the approaches to be adopted in this study. As a major voice in contemporary American poetry, Gluck's works have been well received, and widely reviewed and studied by critics and readers as well. The most notable books devoted to the study of Gluck's poetry are Louise Gluck: Change What You See (2001) and The Poetry of Louise Gluck: A Thematic Introduction (2006). The former is a collection of essays on Gluck's poems and the latter an intensive study of the major themes in Gluck's works, mainly in Ararat, Meadowlands, and The Wild Iris. Regretfully, and also understandably, neither book gives much space and coverage to Gluck's latest sequences. Through a comparative and contrastive study of the Gluck's revisions of myths and the archetypal myths, and by putting Gluck's poetry in the context of postconfessional lyric tradition, this dissertation is intended to explore the subversive nature of Gluck's revisions and their value.
The body part of this dissertation consists of three chapters, each dealing with Gluck's revisions of classical myths from a different angle. Chapter One, "Revising Classical Myths—a Hallmark in Gluck's Poetry", addresses first the development and formation of Gluck's poetic style in order to show the important role that mythical elements play in her poetry and then shifts the focus to the major myths Gluck draws on in her poetry and points out that Gluck's turn to myths is not merely references or allusions, but they serve different functions and have significant aesthetic value.
Chapter Two is devoted to the study of the principal functions that myths serve in Gluck's poetry, the way Gluck subverts the myths, and the nature of her revisions. By studying her poetry itself and by putting it in relation to the works of other postconfessional poets, this chapter sums up three main functions of myths in Gluck's poetry: Firstly, myths serve as a distancing device, a mask of autobiographical content, which contributes to strike a balance between intimacy and detachment, between the personal and the impersonal, between contemporary life and mythical stories, thus avoiding being overtly confessional or narrowly self-centered and, at the same time, making the personal achieve universal significance. Secondly, myths are used as the backdrops and thematic frames of the poetic sequences. The myths in her poetry, which are already familiar to western readers, serve as a common ground for the reader and the poet to have exchanges of dialogues with each other, and a starting point for the poet to begin her exploration. As the major themes of her poetic sequences are often consistent with, or related to, those of the old myths, the myths serve as the framework of her sequences. The myth of the Garden of Eden, the myth of Odyssey, the myth of Aeneas and Dido, the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, and the myth of Persephone have all been used to achieve this purpose. Lastly, the turn to myths and Gluck's postmodern approaches to them have insinuated dramatic and comic elements into her poetry. The playfulness in her revisions of myths add drama and humor to the dark themes—trauma, recovery from divorce, survival and mortality.
The subversive nature of Gluck's revisions of the classical myths is shown in the way she rewrites the myths. First, she has subverted the conventional pattern of narration and narrators used in classical myths. Instead of using a male character as the hero who narrates the story from an omnipresent point of view, Gluck endows the once silenced female characters and minor male characters with their own voices and perceptions. In her poetry, those archetypal heroes—Odysseus, Aeneas, Orpheus—have been put in the background, and have lost their glory and grandeur they have in old myths, even the image of the archetypal God has been revised, his existence questioned, whereas the minor characters such as Penelope, Telemachus, Circe, Dido, Eurydice and Persephone have become the principal figures, looking into the world around them with challenging perceptions.
Another important aspect of Gluck's subversion of the myths is her reversal of the conventional assumptions in western culture. One of the major assumptions Gluck reverses is the myth of creation. According to the Bible, God created man. But in Gluck's understanding, the reverse is true: Man created god. Another assumption that Gluck attacks is the deep-rooted notion that men are superior to women. According to the myth of the Garden of Eden, Eve was created out of one of Adam's ribs to ease his loneliness, and she could not resist the serpent's temptation and ate the Forbidden Fruit, thus causing the Fall of Man. This myth, as Gluck puts it, "shapes, ever afterward, human character and the human vision of human destiny." In Gluck's version of the creation myth, God divided human beings as "the man, the woman and the woman's body." This revision is not only an irony at the conventional standard to judge women by their looks, to regard women as incomplete individuals; it also demonstrates women's strong desire for autonomy, independence and equality. Another insightful view Gluck expresses in her poetry is about the root of women's oppression. In her opinion, not only the patriarchal culture, but women themselves, working together with men, cause their oppression. Besides, Gluck's poetry is full of new ideas and insights on such issues as love, survival and mortality.
Based on the study in the first two chapters, Chapter Three concentrates on the study of the significance and the value of Gluck's revisions of myths in relation to postconfessional lyric and to American society. The value of Gluck's revisions of the myths first lies in her breakthrough and contribution to autobiographical lyric. Her deft use of myths in her poetry, combined with her dramatic and comic treatment of the mythic figures and mythic stories, brings freshness and vitality to postconfessional lyric, promising new possibilities of personal lyric. The value of her revisions also lies in her perception and her criticism of the patriarchal culture and American society. Just as what she says in her poem "Memoir" about the functions of her poetry, Gluck writes poetry in order to "nourish," "sustain" and "attack." With a woman artist's sensibility and intelligence, Gluck attacks the male-dominated culture for the oppression of women, but also accuses women themselves of their over-dependence on males and their complicity in their oppression. At the same time, she has shown her great concern about such issues as moral collapse and violence in the world, and has expressed an artist's tragic view about the world's future and her helplessness.
From the analysis and study of the myths Gluck has revised in her poetry, the functions of myths, her subversive revisions and their value in the tradition of personal lyric and in its critique of contemporary American society, this dissertation attempts to draw the following conclusions: firstly, Gluck's revisions of classical and biblical myths are innovative and subversive and are a commentary on the meanings of classical literature and contemporary life; Her version of the garden of Eden, of Odyssey, and of Persephone, set in the context of the postmodern world, has fundamentally changed people's conception of the archetypal myths and enables the reader to see the cultural issues from a new perspective. Secondly, through the juxtaposition of classical myths and autobiographical materials, Gluck has produced a large body of poetry that is not only a "song of myself but also "speaks its period"; Gluck's revision of classical myths in her work marks a continuity with, and departure from, the tradition of personal lyric. Her subversive revision of classical myths is of great significance in the development of personal lyric, and her poetry, especially the book-length volumes in the form of a poetic sequence, marks a new direction and new possibility of personal lyric in this postmodern age.
引文
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Ararat.New York:The Ecco Press,1990.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Averno.New York:Farar,Straus and Giroux,2006.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.The First Four Books of Poems:Firstborn,The House on Marshland,Descending Figure,The Triumph of Achilles.New York:The Ecco Press,1999.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Meadowlands.New York:The Ecco Press,1997.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Proofs and Theories:Essays on Poetry.New York:The Ecco Press,1994.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.The Seven Ages.New York:HarperCollins,2001
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.The Wild Iris.New York:The Ecco Press,1992.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Vita Nova.New York:The Ecco Press,2001.
Abrams,M.H.A Glossary of Literary Terms,7~(th) ed.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2004.
Abrams,M.H.,ed.The Norton Anthology of English Literature,6th ed.New York and London:W.W.Norton & Company,1993.
Ashton,Jennifer.From Modernism to Postmodernism:American Poetry and Theory in the Twentieth Century.Cambridge:Cambridge Press,2005
Aycock,Wendell M.& Theododre M.Klein.Classical Mythology in Twentieth-century Thought and Literature.Lubbock,Texas:Texas Tech Press,1980.
Baym,Nina.The Norton Anthology of American Literature,5~(th) edition,Volume 2,New York and London:W.W.Norton & Company,1998.
Beach,Christopher.The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003.
Becker,Robin."The Poetic Sequence." Women's Review of Books,Mar/Apr2007,Vol.24Issue 2,p20-21.
Berg,Stephen.Singular Voices:American Poetry Today.New York:Avon Publisher of Bard,Camelot,Disus and Flare Books,1985.
Bigsby,Christopher.The Cambridge Companion to Modern American Culture.Cambridge University Press,2006.
Bonnycastle,Stephen.In Search of Authority:An Introductory Guide to Literary Theory,2~(nd) ed.Peterborough:Broadview Press,1996.
Bressler,Charles E.Literary Criticism:An Introduction to Theory and Practice,2~(nd) ed.New Jersey:Prentice Hall,1999.
Brooks,Cleanth,and Robert Penn Warren.Understanding Poetry.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,
Brunel,Pierre,ed.Companion to Literary Myths,Heroes and Archetypes.London and New York:Routledge,1992.
Bryan,Sharon,ed.Where We Stand:Women Poets on Literary Tradition.New York and London:W.W.Norton & Company,1993. Burt, Stephen. Stephen Burt reviews Averno by Louise Gliick..
Cavalieri, Grace. Interview with Louise Gliick, 2000..
Chapman, George, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 2003.
Christopher, Nicholas. Art of Darkness, March 12, 2006.
Clark, Tom. "Subversive Histories." American Poetry Review, Sep/Oct99, Vol. 28 Issue 5,pp.7-10.
Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.
Dadoff, Ira. "Louise Gliick and the Last Stage of Romanticism." New England Review, Fall 2001, Vol.22, Issue 4; pp.81-92.
Daly, Kathleen N. Greek and Roman Mythology A To Z. New York and Oxford:FactsOnFile, 1992.
Diehl, Joanne Feit, ed. On Louise Gliick: Change What You See, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2005.
Dodd, Elizabeth. The Veiled Mirror and the Woman Poet: H. D., Louise Bogan, Elizabeth Bishop, and Louise Gliick. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992.
Ellman, Richard, and Robert O'Clair, ed. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, 2~(nd) ed.,New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1988.
Finch, Zack. "Averno(Book Review)." Boston Review, Mar/Apr2007, Vol. 32, Issue 2, p47.
Fredman, Stephen, ed. A Concise Companion to Twentieth-century American Poetry.Maldon, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
Fry, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1973.
Garner, Dwight. "Online Interviews with Sharon Olds." American Poetry Review,.
Gary, Richard, ed. American Poetry of the Twentieth Century. London, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
George, E. Laurie. "The 'harsher figure' of Descending Figure: Louise Gluck's 'Dive into the Wreck'." Women's Studies, Vol. 17,1990, pp.235-247.
Gilbert, Sandra M. "Making It New." Women's Review of Books, July 1999, Vol. 16 Issue 10/11,p43.
Gluck, Louise. "Savage Facts." American Poet, March 2006, Vol. 30, pp.24-25.
——. "Story Tellers." American Poetry Review, Jul/Aug 1997, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp9-12.
Graham, David & Kate Sontag, ed. After Confession: Poetry as Autobiography. Saint Paul,Minnesota: Graywolf Press, 2001.
Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm Grim. "Hansel and Gretel." Grim's Fairy Tales.
Guerber, H. A. The Myths of Greece and Rome. London: Harrap, 1983.
Henry, Brian. "The Odyssey Revisited." The Virginia Quarterly Review, summer 1998,Vol.74, Issue 3; pp.571-577.
Henry, Brian. "To Speak of Woe." The Kenyon Review, Winter 2001, 23,1; p166-172.
Hoagland, Tony. "Three Tenors: Gluck, Hass, Pinsky, and the Deployment of Talent."American Poetry Review, Jul/Aug, 2003, Vol. 32 Issue 4, pp.37-42.
Johnson, Cynthia Brantley, ed. The Odyssey. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney: Pocket Books, 2005.
Johnson, Sheila Golburgh. "Louise Gl(?)ck" (Author biography). Cyclopedia of World Authors, Fourth Revised Edition, 2004.
Kaminsky, Ilya. "Averno (book review)" Library Journal, Dec.15, 2005, Vol. 130, Issue 20,p134.
Kelen, Leslie. 'Stanley Kunitz: An Interview.' in The American Poetry Review, Mar/Apr 1998, Vol. 27, Issue 2, p.54-58.
Kennedy, X. J. An Introduction to Poetry, 6th ed. Glenview, Illinois Boston and London:Scott, Foresman and Company, 1986.
Levenson, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to Modernism. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000.
Longenbach, James. "Louise Gluck's Nine Lives." Southwest Review, 1999, Vol. 84 Issue 2,pp.184-198.
Mandelbaum, Allen, trans. The Aeneid of Virgil. New York: Bantam Dell, 2004.
------, trans. The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Inferno. New York: Bantam Dell,2004.
------, trans. The Odyssey of Homer. New York: Bantam Dell, 2003.
McLane, Maureen. "Meadowlands (book review)." Chicago Review, Winter 1997, Vol. 43,Issue 1;pp120-122.
Morris, Daniel. The Poetry of Louise Gluck: A Thematic Introduction, Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 2006.
Moss, Stanley, ed. Interviews and Encounters with Stanley Kunitz. New York: Sheep Meadow Press, 1993.
Orr, Gregory. The Making of Poems. Feb 20, 2006..
Parini, Jay & Brett C. Millier. The Columbia History of American Poetry, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005.
Phillips, Robert. "Light and Dark." Hudson Review, Autumn 2004, Vol. 57 Issue 3,p519-522.
Plumly, Stanley. "Narrative Values, Lyric Imperative." The American Poetry Review,Vol.32, Issue 5, Sep/Oct, 2003, pp.33-50.
Raglan, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama. Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press, 1975.
Righter, William. Myth and Literature. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul,1975.
Rosenthal, M. L. The Modern Poets: A Critical Introduction. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.
Rudnitsky, Lexi. "Darkness Visible." The Nation, Vol. 278, Issue 21, May 31, 2004,pp29-30.
Sadoff, Ira. "Louise Gluck and the Last Stage of Romanticism." New England Review, Fall 2001; 22,4,pp.81-92.
Sewell, Lisa. '"In the End, the One Who Had Nothing Wins': Louise Gl(?)ck and the Poetics of Anorexia." in Literature Interpretation Theory, Jan-Mar 2006, Vol. 17 Issue 1,pp.49-76.
Shakespeare, William. As You Like It..
Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Bronte to Lessing. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.
Spiegelman, Willard. "Repetition and Singularity," Kenyon Review, Spring2003, Vol. 25 Issue 2,pp.149-168.
The Holy Bible, King James Version. New York: Ivy Books, 1991.
Torrens, James S. "No Return." America, Vol. 194, Issue 12, April 3, 2006, p34.
Vendler, Helen. The Poetry of Louise Gluck, in Part of Nature, Part of Us: Modern American Poets. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press,1980, pp.303-311.
Vendler, Helen. Soul Says: On Recent Poetry. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995.
Vickery, John B. ed. Myth and Literature: Theory and Practice. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966.
Waugh, Patricia, ed. Literary Theory and Criticism: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press, 2006
Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass. New York: Bantam Dell, 2004
董学文,《西方文学理论史》。北京:北京大学出版社,2005。
古斯塔夫·施瓦布著,高中甫,关惠文译,《古希腊神话传说》。北京:中国书籍出版社,2005。
荷马著,陈中梅译,《奥德赛》。南京:译林出版社,2003。
彭予,《美国自白诗探索》。北京:社会科学文献出版社,2004。
王守仁主编,《新编美国文学史》(第四卷)。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2002。
唐纳德·巴塞尔姆著,虞建华译,《白雪公主后传》。上海:上海译文出版社,2005。
虞建华主编,《美国文学词典·作家与作品》。上海:复旦大学出版社,2005。
张子清,《二十世纪美国诗歌史》。长春:吉林教育出版社,1995。
赵一凡,《从胡塞尔到德里达——西方文论讲稿》。北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,2007。
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Averno.New York:Farar,Straus and Giroux,2006.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.The First Four Books of Poems:Firstborn,The House on Marshland,Descending Figure,The Triumph of Achilles.New York:The Ecco Press,1999.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Meadowlands.New York:The Ecco Press,1997.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Proofs and Theories:Essays on Poetry.New York:The Ecco Press,1994.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.The Seven Ages.New York:HarperCollins,2001
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.The Wild Iris.New York:The Ecco Press,1992.
Gl(u|¨)ck,Louise.Vita Nova.New York:The Ecco Press,2001.
Abrams,M.H.A Glossary of Literary Terms,7~(th) ed.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2004.
Abrams,M.H.,ed.The Norton Anthology of English Literature,6th ed.New York and London:W.W.Norton & Company,1993.
Ashton,Jennifer.From Modernism to Postmodernism:American Poetry and Theory in the Twentieth Century.Cambridge:Cambridge Press,2005
Aycock,Wendell M.& Theododre M.Klein.Classical Mythology in Twentieth-century Thought and Literature.Lubbock,Texas:Texas Tech Press,1980.
Baym,Nina.The Norton Anthology of American Literature,5~(th) edition,Volume 2,New York and London:W.W.Norton & Company,1998.
Beach,Christopher.The Cambridge Introduction to Twentieth-Century American Poetry,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2003.
Becker,Robin."The Poetic Sequence." Women's Review of Books,Mar/Apr2007,Vol.24Issue 2,p20-21.
Berg,Stephen.Singular Voices:American Poetry Today.New York:Avon Publisher of Bard,Camelot,Disus and Flare Books,1985.
Bigsby,Christopher.The Cambridge Companion to Modern American Culture.Cambridge University Press,2006.
Bonnycastle,Stephen.In Search of Authority:An Introductory Guide to Literary Theory,2~(nd) ed.Peterborough:Broadview Press,1996.
Bressler,Charles E.Literary Criticism:An Introduction to Theory and Practice,2~(nd) ed.New Jersey:Prentice Hall,1999.
Brooks,Cleanth,and Robert Penn Warren.Understanding Poetry.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,
Brunel,Pierre,ed.Companion to Literary Myths,Heroes and Archetypes.London and New York:Routledge,1992.
Bryan,Sharon,ed.Where We Stand:Women Poets on Literary Tradition.New York and London:W.W.Norton & Company,1993. Burt, Stephen. Stephen Burt reviews Averno by Louise Gliick.
Cavalieri, Grace. Interview with Louise Gliick, 2000.
Chapman, George, trans. The Iliad of Homer. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Limited, 2003.
Christopher, Nicholas. Art of Darkness, March 12, 2006.
Clark, Tom. "Subversive Histories." American Poetry Review, Sep/Oct99, Vol. 28 Issue 5,pp.7-10.
Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.
Dadoff, Ira. "Louise Gliick and the Last Stage of Romanticism." New England Review, Fall 2001, Vol.22, Issue 4; pp.81-92.
Daly, Kathleen N. Greek and Roman Mythology A To Z. New York and Oxford:FactsOnFile, 1992.
Diehl, Joanne Feit, ed. On Louise Gliick: Change What You See, Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2005.
Dodd, Elizabeth. The Veiled Mirror and the Woman Poet: H. D., Louise Bogan, Elizabeth Bishop, and Louise Gliick. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992.
Ellman, Richard, and Robert O'Clair, ed. The Norton Anthology of Modern Poetry, 2~(nd) ed.,New York and London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1988.
Finch, Zack. "Averno(Book Review)." Boston Review, Mar/Apr2007, Vol. 32, Issue 2, p47.
Fredman, Stephen, ed. A Concise Companion to Twentieth-century American Poetry.Maldon, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2005.
Fry, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1973.
Garner, Dwight. "Online Interviews with Sharon Olds." American Poetry Review,
Gary, Richard, ed. American Poetry of the Twentieth Century. London, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1976.
George, E. Laurie. "The 'harsher figure' of Descending Figure: Louise Gluck's 'Dive into the Wreck'." Women's Studies, Vol. 17,1990, pp.235-247.
Gilbert, Sandra M. "Making It New." Women's Review of Books, July 1999, Vol. 16 Issue 10/11,p43.
Gluck, Louise. "Savage Facts." American Poet, March 2006, Vol. 30, pp.24-25.
——. "Story Tellers." American Poetry Review, Jul/Aug 1997, Vol. 26 Issue 4, pp9-12.
Graham, David & Kate Sontag, ed. After Confession: Poetry as Autobiography. Saint Paul,Minnesota: Graywolf Press, 2001.
Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm Grim. "Hansel and Gretel." Grim's Fairy Tales.
Guerber, H. A. The Myths of Greece and Rome. London: Harrap, 1983.
Henry, Brian. "The Odyssey Revisited." The Virginia Quarterly Review, summer 1998,Vol.74, Issue 3; pp.571-577.
Henry, Brian. "To Speak of Woe." The Kenyon Review, Winter 2001, 23,1; p166-172.
Hoagland, Tony. "Three Tenors: Gluck, Hass, Pinsky, and the Deployment of Talent."American Poetry Review, Jul/Aug, 2003, Vol. 32 Issue 4, pp.37-42.
Johnson, Cynthia Brantley, ed. The Odyssey. New York, London, Toronto, Sydney: Pocket Books, 2005.
Johnson, Sheila Golburgh. "Louise Gl(?)ck" (Author biography). Cyclopedia of World Authors, Fourth Revised Edition, 2004.
Kaminsky, Ilya. "Averno (book review)" Library Journal, Dec.15, 2005, Vol. 130, Issue 20,p134.
Kelen, Leslie. 'Stanley Kunitz: An Interview.' in The American Poetry Review, Mar/Apr 1998, Vol. 27, Issue 2, p.54-58.
Kennedy, X. J. An Introduction to Poetry, 6th ed. Glenview, Illinois Boston and London:Scott, Foresman and Company, 1986.
Levenson, Michael. The Cambridge Companion to Modernism. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2000.
Longenbach, James. "Louise Gluck's Nine Lives." Southwest Review, 1999, Vol. 84 Issue 2,pp.184-198.
Mandelbaum, Allen, trans. The Aeneid of Virgil. New York: Bantam Dell, 2004.
------, trans. The Divine Comedy of Dante Alighieri: Inferno. New York: Bantam Dell,2004.
------, trans. The Odyssey of Homer. New York: Bantam Dell, 2003.
McLane, Maureen. "Meadowlands (book review)." Chicago Review, Winter 1997, Vol. 43,Issue 1;pp120-122.
Morris, Daniel. The Poetry of Louise Gluck: A Thematic Introduction, Columbia and London: University of Missouri Press, 2006.
Moss, Stanley, ed. Interviews and Encounters with Stanley Kunitz. New York: Sheep Meadow Press, 1993.
Orr, Gregory. The Making of Poems. Feb 20, 2006.
Parini, Jay & Brett C. Millier. The Columbia History of American Poetry, Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2005.
Phillips, Robert. "Light and Dark." Hudson Review, Autumn 2004, Vol. 57 Issue 3,p519-522.
Plumly, Stanley. "Narrative Values, Lyric Imperative." The American Poetry Review,Vol.32, Issue 5, Sep/Oct, 2003, pp.33-50.
Raglan, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama. Westport, Connecticut:Greenwood Press, 1975.
Righter, William. Myth and Literature. London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul,1975.
Rosenthal, M. L. The Modern Poets: A Critical Introduction. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.
Rudnitsky, Lexi. "Darkness Visible." The Nation, Vol. 278, Issue 21, May 31, 2004,pp29-30.
Sadoff, Ira. "Louise Gluck and the Last Stage of Romanticism." New England Review, Fall 2001; 22,4,pp.81-92.
Sewell, Lisa. '"In the End, the One Who Had Nothing Wins': Louise Gl(?)ck and the Poetics of Anorexia." in Literature Interpretation Theory, Jan-Mar 2006, Vol. 17 Issue 1,pp.49-76.
Shakespeare, William. As You Like It.
Showalter, Elaine. A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Bronte to Lessing. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2004.
Spiegelman, Willard. "Repetition and Singularity," Kenyon Review, Spring2003, Vol. 25 Issue 2,pp.149-168.
The Holy Bible, King James Version. New York: Ivy Books, 1991.
Torrens, James S. "No Return." America, Vol. 194, Issue 12, April 3, 2006, p34.
Vendler, Helen. The Poetry of Louise Gluck, in Part of Nature, Part of Us: Modern American Poets. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press,1980, pp.303-311.
Vendler, Helen. Soul Says: On Recent Poetry. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1995.
Vickery, John B. ed. Myth and Literature: Theory and Practice. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966.
Waugh, Patricia, ed. Literary Theory and Criticism: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press, 2006
Whitman, Walt. Leaves of Grass. New York: Bantam Dell, 2004
董学文,《西方文学理论史》。北京:北京大学出版社,2005。
古斯塔夫·施瓦布著,高中甫,关惠文译,《古希腊神话传说》。北京:中国书籍出版社,2005。
荷马著,陈中梅译,《奥德赛》。南京:译林出版社,2003。
彭予,《美国自白诗探索》。北京:社会科学文献出版社,2004。
王守仁主编,《新编美国文学史》(第四卷)。上海:上海外语教育出版社,2002。
唐纳德·巴塞尔姆著,虞建华译,《白雪公主后传》。上海:上海译文出版社,2005。
虞建华主编,《美国文学词典·作家与作品》。上海:复旦大学出版社,2005。
张子清,《二十世纪美国诗歌史》。长春:吉林教育出版社,1995。
赵一凡,《从胡塞尔到德里达——西方文论讲稿》。北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,2007。
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