新闻语篇中的隐性评价与动态读者定位
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摘要
新闻语篇为了保持其“客观性”和“公正性”的准则,常常将修辞手段和意识形态隐藏起来,形成一种隐性的、动态的评价模式,巧妙地引导读者接受作者的价值定位,即所谓的“狗哨”策略。本研究的出发点是新闻语篇是一种价值负载的,由意识形态决定的,并潜在影响读者世界观和信仰的语篇。而在读者的价值和信仰系统“自然化”过程中起重要作用的修辞手段是评价。
根据刘(2007)的观点,语言具有两种基本功能:描写功能和评价功能。评价功能是语言的一个重要特征,是作者或说话者表达态度的重要手段。综观评价的研究领域,不同学者从不同的视角对评价进行了探讨。他们分别从叙事结构、哲学角度、语用学、语法、系统功能、基于语料库等方面对评价做了大量的研究,提出了同评价相关的概念或术语。但这些研究都是趋于静态的,且都不是针对特定的机构语篇和考虑语境的。
本文的研究目的是为了更好地理解英语新闻的特性,提出关于当代英语“硬新闻”中评价资源的分析框架,并应用到具体的语篇分析。分析框架主要建立在评价理论(Appraisal Theory)的基础上,突出评价的语篇语境,包括局部词汇一语法语境、局部摘引语境和整体语篇语境的相互作用。分析从话语发生和动态的角度出发,重点放在对语篇的整体“评价渠”的建构。语篇语境和评价的构成条件可以揭示动态读者定位。
新闻报道的“客观性”准则需要新闻作者隐性地表达自己的观点。隐性评价策略通常是依赖语境的,需要分析者采取动态的观点。本文提出的分析框架从微观到宏观层面上对语境中的评价进行分析。在微观层面,主要分析在局部词汇语法和语义语境以及摘引语境中的评价手段和评价的韵律性特征。首先,评价可以大体分为三个基本层面:评价种类,评价模式和评价负载。评价种类依据评价理论框架(Appraisal Framework)分为三类:情感,判断和鉴别。评价模式涉及的是外显价值(inscribed values)和诱发价值(evoked values),即态度外显(attitudinalinscriptions)和态度标记(attitudinal tokens);其中态度标记又可以细分为唤起(evocation)和激发(provocation)。评价负载指的是评价价值可以是肯定的或否定的,高兴的或不高兴的,满意的或不满意的等等这种对比。在英语新闻语篇中,新闻作者常借助局部词汇语法语境中的态度标记即唤起和激发等评价手段来表达自己的态度和观点。这些评价手段具体细分为:通过信息内容唤起评价;通过类比或比喻激发评价;通过反预期激发评价;强化;通过所指激发评价;通过认知情态化激发评价;态度联想;主格和受格。这些隐性的评价手段常常是依赖语境的,在语境中动态地引导读者理解语篇中间接的评价意义。总之,微观层面的分析突出了评价的词汇—语法语境,探讨了语境和评价之间的互相作用。
局部摘引语境中的评价属于分析框架中微观层面的另一个组成部分。声音价值作为新闻作者的评价策略可以从两个层面来分析:评价负载和评价方式。评价负载指新闻作者对价值定位的依附与偏离。评价方式涉及摘引评价的种类,评价的直接性与评价责任的关系。Sinclair(1986)区分了自言和摘引,指出摘引行为即是评价行为。摘引由三个部分组成:声音来源,摘引表达和被引内容。新闻语篇中摘引通常行使三种隐性评价功能:作者认同、作者疏远和言据信誉。这三种评价功能分别通过摘引的三个组成部分的相互作用表现出来。在评价方式层面,评价可根据不同的摘引语境区分为直接评价话语和报告性评价话语,其中报告性评价话语又可以分为不同的子类型,这些子类型区分了不同的评价来源和评价目标,反映了新闻作者的隐性评价策略,表明评价责任从作者向读者的逐渐转移。
对评价采取动态的观点需要从话语发生的角度进行分析。对评价策略在整体语篇语境中的分析构成本框架的宏观层面。这一层面的分析从整体语篇语境出发,从阶段(phase)和进程(stage)入手,分析新闻语篇的“评价渠”(evaluativegroove)和语篇价值(text'S axiology),探讨评价手段是怎样在语篇语境的影响下,建构间接的评价意义和动态地定位读者。
总体来说,本文的理论基础为系统功能语言学(SFL)中的评价理论(AppraisalTheory),并吸取了关于互文性研究,Macken-Horirak(2003)语境中的评价理论模式,White(2006)关于新闻语篇中评价手段研究和Wortham and Locher(1996)提出的“腹语手段”的精髓。
本文所选语料来自the Times,the Daily Telegraph,the Guardian等大幅报纸的新闻专页和CBS、CNN等在线网上新闻。语境中的动态评价模式为新闻报道中的评价提供了更全面、更系统化的理论阐释,使读者对新闻语篇的“客观性”得到更深刻的理解。分析框架蕴含了对评价分析观点的转变:需要动态的观点。传统的批评性语篇分析忽视动态读者定位的研究,语境中的评价模式可以更好地揭示意识形态定位的动态性过程。
In order to preserve the professional norm of "objectivity",news writers often employ the implicit evaluative strategies in the news text,which position the readers in a subtle and dynamic way.This is the so-called "dog-whistle" politics.The starting point for this dissertation is the view that,contrary to any claims to 'objectivity' on the part of the media industry,news reporting is a mode of rhetoric in the broadest sense of the word.It is a value-laden,ideologically determined discourse with a clear potential to influence the media audience's assumptions and beliefs about the way the world is and the way it ought to be.A key aspect of this rhetorical and ultimately ideological functionality is evaluation.
According to Liu(2007),there are two levels of meaning functioning in discourse:descriptive and evaluative,and evaluation is an important feature of language.A literature review of evaluation reveals that some related notions to evaluation have been conducted from different perspectives such as narratological approach,philosophical approach,pragmatic approach,grammatical approach, systemic-functional approach etc.But these approaches are rather static and none of them is institution-specific and context sensitive.The purpose of the thesis is to provide a descriptive framework of evaluation in hard news reports and sets about the applications of the framework to discourse analysis in order to develop new insights into the nature of the contemporary,English-language 'broadsheets'.The framework is based on Appraisal Theory and puts the textual context into the foreground.It focuses on the interplaying of the evaluative devices with the local lexico-grammatical context,the attributing context and the global textual context.The analysis is taken from the logogenetic and the dynamic perspective,with the focus on the cumulative build-up of the evaluative meanings which creates a global evaluative groove.The considerations of the textual context and the conditioning environments of the evaluation are significant in illuminating the dynamic reader positioning.
The 'trope' of objectivity of news reports requires the journalistic author's implicit point of view.Implicit evaluative devices employed by the writer are usually text dependent,the analysis of which requires a dynamic perspective from the analysts.The analytical framework proposed by the thesis conducts the analysis from the micro-to-macro level.At the micro-analytical level,the analysis focuses on the evaluative mechanisms in local lexico-grammatical context and attributing context which realize the prosodic evaluative meanings.Evaluation can be conducted on three dimensions:the category of attitude,the mode of evaluation and the loading of evaluation.The category of attitude includes affect,judgement and appreciation;the mode of evaluation is a distinction between inscribed values and evoked values or attitudinal inscriptions and attitudinal tokens;the loading of evaluation is construed by the positive or negative evaluative values including happy or unhappy,satisfied or unsatisfied,etc.In journalistic discourse,a significant part of the evaluative loading is carried out by indirect mechanisms(including evocations and provocations)in local lexico-grammatical context which serve to guide,prime and condition readers to respond to the depicted events in positive or negative terms.They include evocation via informational content,provocation via analogy or metaphor,provocation via counter-expectancy,intensification,provocation via reference and predication, provocation via epistemic modalization,attitudinal associations,and affectedness and agency,etc.In the analysis,the local textual environment of the implicit evaluative strategies is put into foreground and the interplaying of attitudinal markers in local context is explored.
The local attributing context constitutes the other part of the micro-level analytical framework.Two dimensions are distinguished in analysis of the voicing values as evaluative strategies by the news reporter:the loading of evaluation and the mode of evaluation.On the dimension of the loading of evaluation,positive or negative evaluations are reflected in terms of the alignment or disalignment of the news reporter to the reported value position.On the dimension of the mode of evaluation,it is indicated that a clear relationship exists between types of evaluative utterances,kinds of quotations,and their evaluative function in media discourse. Sinclair(1986)distinguishes averral and attribution and points out the evaluative nature of attribution.Attribution consists of three parts:the source of voice,the attributing expressions and the attributed proposition.They often combine together and interact with one another to perform the implicit evaluative functions of authorial endorsement,authorial distancing and evidential standing.On the dimension of the mode of evaluation,attribution can be divided into Direct Evaluative Utterances (DEU)and Reported Evaluative Utterances(REU)according to the different attributing contexts.The Reported Evaluative Utterances can also be divided into different sub-types according to different evaluative sources and targets.This division and classification reflects the shifting of the responsibility of evaluation and displays a dynamic reader positioning.
The dynamic perspective requires a logogenetic and more global view of the operation of evaluative mechanisms,which constitutes the macro-analytical-level.At this level,attending to the global context,the thesis explores the meta-relations of phases and stages which are set up within the local context(both lexico-grammatical and attributing)by which the instantial text's axiology or the evaluative groove is construed and the reader is positioned dynamically by a relational reading.
The framework is based on the Appraisal Theory which is developed broadly within the theoretical framework of SFL and draws inspirations from the study of intertextuality,Macken-Horirak's(2003)model of contextual Appraisal,White's (2006)framework of evaluative semantics in media discourse and Wortham and Locher's(1996)"ventriloquating techniques".The texts are types which frequently occur in the news coverage(as opposed to the commentaries,columns and editorial) of the so-called 'broadsheet' or 'highbrow' media.The tiles are the Times,the Guardian,the Daily Telegraph and CBS,CNN online news.The main contributions of the dissertation are firstly to set up a descriptive framework which provides fuller and more theoretically principled accounts of the evaluative aspect of news reporting.It adjusts our view towards the so-called 'objective' hard news or the discourse of reporter-voice.The framework also implies the perspectival shifts in reading appraisal: coding of an item is itself a fragile process and it needs a more dynamic or synoptic perspective.It reveals the dynamic reader positioning which is neglected in the area of CDA.
根据刘(2007)的观点,语言具有两种基本功能:描写功能和评价功能。评价功能是语言的一个重要特征,是作者或说话者表达态度的重要手段。综观评价的研究领域,不同学者从不同的视角对评价进行了探讨。他们分别从叙事结构、哲学角度、语用学、语法、系统功能、基于语料库等方面对评价做了大量的研究,提出了同评价相关的概念或术语。但这些研究都是趋于静态的,且都不是针对特定的机构语篇和考虑语境的。
本文的研究目的是为了更好地理解英语新闻的特性,提出关于当代英语“硬新闻”中评价资源的分析框架,并应用到具体的语篇分析。分析框架主要建立在评价理论(Appraisal Theory)的基础上,突出评价的语篇语境,包括局部词汇一语法语境、局部摘引语境和整体语篇语境的相互作用。分析从话语发生和动态的角度出发,重点放在对语篇的整体“评价渠”的建构。语篇语境和评价的构成条件可以揭示动态读者定位。
新闻报道的“客观性”准则需要新闻作者隐性地表达自己的观点。隐性评价策略通常是依赖语境的,需要分析者采取动态的观点。本文提出的分析框架从微观到宏观层面上对语境中的评价进行分析。在微观层面,主要分析在局部词汇语法和语义语境以及摘引语境中的评价手段和评价的韵律性特征。首先,评价可以大体分为三个基本层面:评价种类,评价模式和评价负载。评价种类依据评价理论框架(Appraisal Framework)分为三类:情感,判断和鉴别。评价模式涉及的是外显价值(inscribed values)和诱发价值(evoked values),即态度外显(attitudinalinscriptions)和态度标记(attitudinal tokens);其中态度标记又可以细分为唤起(evocation)和激发(provocation)。评价负载指的是评价价值可以是肯定的或否定的,高兴的或不高兴的,满意的或不满意的等等这种对比。在英语新闻语篇中,新闻作者常借助局部词汇语法语境中的态度标记即唤起和激发等评价手段来表达自己的态度和观点。这些评价手段具体细分为:通过信息内容唤起评价;通过类比或比喻激发评价;通过反预期激发评价;强化;通过所指激发评价;通过认知情态化激发评价;态度联想;主格和受格。这些隐性的评价手段常常是依赖语境的,在语境中动态地引导读者理解语篇中间接的评价意义。总之,微观层面的分析突出了评价的词汇—语法语境,探讨了语境和评价之间的互相作用。
局部摘引语境中的评价属于分析框架中微观层面的另一个组成部分。声音价值作为新闻作者的评价策略可以从两个层面来分析:评价负载和评价方式。评价负载指新闻作者对价值定位的依附与偏离。评价方式涉及摘引评价的种类,评价的直接性与评价责任的关系。Sinclair(1986)区分了自言和摘引,指出摘引行为即是评价行为。摘引由三个部分组成:声音来源,摘引表达和被引内容。新闻语篇中摘引通常行使三种隐性评价功能:作者认同、作者疏远和言据信誉。这三种评价功能分别通过摘引的三个组成部分的相互作用表现出来。在评价方式层面,评价可根据不同的摘引语境区分为直接评价话语和报告性评价话语,其中报告性评价话语又可以分为不同的子类型,这些子类型区分了不同的评价来源和评价目标,反映了新闻作者的隐性评价策略,表明评价责任从作者向读者的逐渐转移。
对评价采取动态的观点需要从话语发生的角度进行分析。对评价策略在整体语篇语境中的分析构成本框架的宏观层面。这一层面的分析从整体语篇语境出发,从阶段(phase)和进程(stage)入手,分析新闻语篇的“评价渠”(evaluativegroove)和语篇价值(text'S axiology),探讨评价手段是怎样在语篇语境的影响下,建构间接的评价意义和动态地定位读者。
总体来说,本文的理论基础为系统功能语言学(SFL)中的评价理论(AppraisalTheory),并吸取了关于互文性研究,Macken-Horirak(2003)语境中的评价理论模式,White(2006)关于新闻语篇中评价手段研究和Wortham and Locher(1996)提出的“腹语手段”的精髓。
本文所选语料来自the Times,the Daily Telegraph,the Guardian等大幅报纸的新闻专页和CBS、CNN等在线网上新闻。语境中的动态评价模式为新闻报道中的评价提供了更全面、更系统化的理论阐释,使读者对新闻语篇的“客观性”得到更深刻的理解。分析框架蕴含了对评价分析观点的转变:需要动态的观点。传统的批评性语篇分析忽视动态读者定位的研究,语境中的评价模式可以更好地揭示意识形态定位的动态性过程。
In order to preserve the professional norm of "objectivity",news writers often employ the implicit evaluative strategies in the news text,which position the readers in a subtle and dynamic way.This is the so-called "dog-whistle" politics.The starting point for this dissertation is the view that,contrary to any claims to 'objectivity' on the part of the media industry,news reporting is a mode of rhetoric in the broadest sense of the word.It is a value-laden,ideologically determined discourse with a clear potential to influence the media audience's assumptions and beliefs about the way the world is and the way it ought to be.A key aspect of this rhetorical and ultimately ideological functionality is evaluation.
According to Liu(2007),there are two levels of meaning functioning in discourse:descriptive and evaluative,and evaluation is an important feature of language.A literature review of evaluation reveals that some related notions to evaluation have been conducted from different perspectives such as narratological approach,philosophical approach,pragmatic approach,grammatical approach, systemic-functional approach etc.But these approaches are rather static and none of them is institution-specific and context sensitive.The purpose of the thesis is to provide a descriptive framework of evaluation in hard news reports and sets about the applications of the framework to discourse analysis in order to develop new insights into the nature of the contemporary,English-language 'broadsheets'.The framework is based on Appraisal Theory and puts the textual context into the foreground.It focuses on the interplaying of the evaluative devices with the local lexico-grammatical context,the attributing context and the global textual context.The analysis is taken from the logogenetic and the dynamic perspective,with the focus on the cumulative build-up of the evaluative meanings which creates a global evaluative groove.The considerations of the textual context and the conditioning environments of the evaluation are significant in illuminating the dynamic reader positioning.
The 'trope' of objectivity of news reports requires the journalistic author's implicit point of view.Implicit evaluative devices employed by the writer are usually text dependent,the analysis of which requires a dynamic perspective from the analysts.The analytical framework proposed by the thesis conducts the analysis from the micro-to-macro level.At the micro-analytical level,the analysis focuses on the evaluative mechanisms in local lexico-grammatical context and attributing context which realize the prosodic evaluative meanings.Evaluation can be conducted on three dimensions:the category of attitude,the mode of evaluation and the loading of evaluation.The category of attitude includes affect,judgement and appreciation;the mode of evaluation is a distinction between inscribed values and evoked values or attitudinal inscriptions and attitudinal tokens;the loading of evaluation is construed by the positive or negative evaluative values including happy or unhappy,satisfied or unsatisfied,etc.In journalistic discourse,a significant part of the evaluative loading is carried out by indirect mechanisms(including evocations and provocations)in local lexico-grammatical context which serve to guide,prime and condition readers to respond to the depicted events in positive or negative terms.They include evocation via informational content,provocation via analogy or metaphor,provocation via counter-expectancy,intensification,provocation via reference and predication, provocation via epistemic modalization,attitudinal associations,and affectedness and agency,etc.In the analysis,the local textual environment of the implicit evaluative strategies is put into foreground and the interplaying of attitudinal markers in local context is explored.
The local attributing context constitutes the other part of the micro-level analytical framework.Two dimensions are distinguished in analysis of the voicing values as evaluative strategies by the news reporter:the loading of evaluation and the mode of evaluation.On the dimension of the loading of evaluation,positive or negative evaluations are reflected in terms of the alignment or disalignment of the news reporter to the reported value position.On the dimension of the mode of evaluation,it is indicated that a clear relationship exists between types of evaluative utterances,kinds of quotations,and their evaluative function in media discourse. Sinclair(1986)distinguishes averral and attribution and points out the evaluative nature of attribution.Attribution consists of three parts:the source of voice,the attributing expressions and the attributed proposition.They often combine together and interact with one another to perform the implicit evaluative functions of authorial endorsement,authorial distancing and evidential standing.On the dimension of the mode of evaluation,attribution can be divided into Direct Evaluative Utterances (DEU)and Reported Evaluative Utterances(REU)according to the different attributing contexts.The Reported Evaluative Utterances can also be divided into different sub-types according to different evaluative sources and targets.This division and classification reflects the shifting of the responsibility of evaluation and displays a dynamic reader positioning.
The dynamic perspective requires a logogenetic and more global view of the operation of evaluative mechanisms,which constitutes the macro-analytical-level.At this level,attending to the global context,the thesis explores the meta-relations of phases and stages which are set up within the local context(both lexico-grammatical and attributing)by which the instantial text's axiology or the evaluative groove is construed and the reader is positioned dynamically by a relational reading.
The framework is based on the Appraisal Theory which is developed broadly within the theoretical framework of SFL and draws inspirations from the study of intertextuality,Macken-Horirak's(2003)model of contextual Appraisal,White's (2006)framework of evaluative semantics in media discourse and Wortham and Locher's(1996)"ventriloquating techniques".The texts are types which frequently occur in the news coverage(as opposed to the commentaries,columns and editorial) of the so-called 'broadsheet' or 'highbrow' media.The tiles are the Times,the Guardian,the Daily Telegraph and CBS,CNN online news.The main contributions of the dissertation are firstly to set up a descriptive framework which provides fuller and more theoretically principled accounts of the evaluative aspect of news reporting.It adjusts our view towards the so-called 'objective' hard news or the discourse of reporter-voice.The framework also implies the perspectival shifts in reading appraisal: coding of an item is itself a fragile process and it needs a more dynamic or synoptic perspective.It reveals the dynamic reader positioning which is neglected in the area of CDA.
引文
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