后殖民生态批评视角下的当代美国印第安英语小说研究
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摘要
20世纪70年代以来，许多研究者运用后殖民理论或生态批评理论研究当代美国印第安英语文学，成果斐然。但总的来说，大多数研究主要以人类为中心，探讨内部殖民主义对于印第安社会的毁灭性影响，或印第安生态意识对于西方人精神和被毁坏世界环境的救赎功能，而忽视殖民主义实践及殖民书写中经济发展、环境和动物所扮演的角色，同样无法认识印第安文学中发展、环境和动物在强化反殖民意识和解构殖民话语中的积极作用。
在美国内部殖民主义的整个物质和话语实践活动中，（新/旧）殖民主义与发展、环境和动物都存在着密切联系。主流社会以发展之名抢夺印第安土地上最后的资源，危害当地环境，动物也因丧失栖息地而濒临灭绝。同样，在殖民书写中，资本主义全球化被宣扬为人类社会发展的标志，同时动物保护法也与印第安人的文化权力形成冲突。这种殖民书写中暗含的殖民主义意识形态为政治征服奠定心理和物质基础，实现文化渗透和文化控制，迎合主流社会的白人中心主义意识。实际上，发展可能被利用而成为殖民主义的新形式，环境保护与原住民权力间的冲突关系成为有待探讨的灰色地带，这是本文提出当代英语印第安文学后殖民生态批评的重要前提。殖民主义既毁坏原住民社会，也破坏原住民的环境并危害当地动物，既可呈现为社会实践，也可呈现为话语实践。殖民话语中欧裔美国人对应于印第安人、环境和动物之间的二元对立是殖民主义实践和话语体系的基本范式。
反思被殖民的历史，审视被殖民经历带来的深刻影响以及在当代的表征，从而实现思想的去殖民化，这是包括印第安社会和其它包括曾经被殖民社会在内的国家面对全球化潮流，争取生存机会过程中面临的重要挑战。基于殖民主义与发展、环境和动物的系统性联系，要真正实现思维的去殖民化、对抗（新/旧）殖民意识和殖民话语，必须从多角度消解殖民主义关于发展、环境和动物的相关意识形态和话语。当代印第安作家是颠覆殖民意识和话语的重要力量。本研究主要涉及路易斯·欧文斯的《狼歌》（1991）、托马斯·金恩的《青草，流水》（1993）、莱斯丽·玛蒙·西尔科的《沙丘花园》（1999）和琳达·霍根的《灵力》（1998）四部当代印第安作家的代表作，认为这四部作品以发展与环境，环境保护与印第安文化权力的关系为主题，并使之成为思想去殖民化的手段，认识到在世纪之交他们对殖民主义与生态之间关系的思考以及在探索对抗殖民意识的策略方面做出了尝试，客观上反映了对殖民主义思想和话语的解构。本研究主要采用后殖民生态批评视角，探究殖民主义与发展、环境和动物的体系性联系，并分别以荒野、水坝、花园和动物四个意象为切入点，通过透视小说中的意象以及这些意象与人的关系所映射出的殖民心态和权力话语，探究作家的反殖意识和小说叙述中呈现的对殖民话语的多样性反抗。本论文研究的当代印第安小说表明作家们针对内部殖民主义的不同表征，采用了不同的反抗形式颠覆殖民话语。
本论文由六个部分组成。
绪论部分回顾了印第安文学发展的三个阶段和印第安文学后殖民和生态批评研究的历史和现状，简要介绍了本选题的理论支撑，即后殖民生态批评理论，并提出本选题的目的、意义和方法。主体部分包括四章，运用后殖民生态批评的主要观点，并依据新殖民主义的不同呈现方式和相应的反抗形式而构建。
第一章主要参照殖民主义夺取印第安土地和资源的历史，反观《狼歌》中主流社会的荒野话语和由此对印第安身份造成的毁灭性影响，主人公对新殖民主义进行了回应并进行了个体极端式反抗。本章首先结合被他者化的荒野概念的历史演化，探究被征服的荒野、被保护的荒野和被开发的荒野所反映的殖民主义与土地占有和资源掠夺的结构性联系，接下来结合具体的文本分析，揭示与荒野话语相对应的印第安身份偏见，包括“野蛮印第安人”、“生态印第安人”和“消失的印第安人”，说明荒野话语和印第安身份偏见所暗含的白人对应于土地和印第安人的二元对立范式，使一些印第安人陷入无主、无根和无话语权状态，并在一定程度上接纳白人主流文化，但小说主人公通过牢记祖先故事，进入荒野重构地域归属感，以暴力抗争手段重建身份。
第二章集中探究在后殖民语境下，印第安文学中的水意象在重写、消解和颠覆作为环境种族主义偶像的水坝中的重要作用，以及印第安人以集体生态破坏幻想抵抗殖民主义。本章首先展现传统印第安视阈中水的特征，包括水的创生性、神圣性和环形运动特征等，继而揭露水坝对原族生存环境的破坏性后果，如破坏原族的生活方式、迫使原族迁移和毁坏原族文化，但在水的双重力量作用下，印第安神话人物和现实中人物结合自然的力量合力摧毁水坝，实现暴力抵抗的目的，原族部落实现再生，原族个体人物在水的作用下也获得人生新开端。
第三章主要分析以印第安古花园的物质成果和文化内涵为手段对殖民主义进行的非暴力反抗。本章首先探究以人与土地互惠为花园伦理并开展自给自足经济活动的印第安古花园，但古花园遭受殖民者的浩劫，以土地为基础的印第安宗教仪式“鬼舞”祈望土地回归，然后分析白人的现代维多利亚花园反映的对于自然和印第安人的双重征服，说明基督教为殖民主义提供宗教话语支持，殖民主义渗透于国际资本主义植物贸易之中。但作家并不赞同白人文化与印第安文化的二元对立，欧洲花园体现的古欧洲“伟大女神”神话和以土地为基础的早期基督教反写基督教教义对于女性、黑色和蛇的贬低，作家以印第安文化与古欧洲文化形成的跨大西洋本土化轴心颠覆了殖民主义的二元对立范式。
第四章重点研究在国际环境保护语境下，美国动物保护法与印第安文化权力间的复杂关系和矛盾冲突，以及动物与人的栖息地问题。作家提倡印第安人对殖民话语采用矛盾式反抗策略，印白之间进行基于土地的跨物种间合作。本章首先说明作家对环境正义主题的关注，叙述了与小说情节相对应的现实中猎杀濒危动物事件，说明猎豹与当地印第安人面临类似的生存危机，而小说人物举行再生仪式对抗灭绝命运，继而追溯了主流社会对野生动物从猎杀到保护的历史及其所反映的白人中心主义立场，说明动物濒危的真正原因是资本主义工业化威胁动物的栖息地，最后指出作家探索主流社会动物保护法与印第安文化权力间关系的灰色地带，关注围绕动物保护论题所反映的复杂矛盾和文化冲突，这种矛盾和冲突在本质上是对侵占动物和印第安人栖息地的新殖民主义的矛盾式反抗。作家倡导印白双方基于土地，而不是民族进行合作。
本论文在结论部分指出，从后殖民生态批评的视角研究当代美国印第安英语文学，可以发现当代印第安社会难以回避现代性、全球化和由此导致的具有毁灭性经济发展。这种建立在西方文化霸权和经济增长双重原则基础上的“赶超式”发展模式没有可持续性，实际上是打着发展的幌子对人与环境的滥用。内部殖民主义导致印第安社会的不均衡发展，由此造成印第安物质环境的不均衡发展。由于家乡的风景地貌已经被改变，当代印第安人难以通过回归家园实现疗伤和获得文化身份。除了发展造成了印第安环境的恶化之外，第一世界的环保主义对于自然资源的保护与其说是保护自然环境，不如说是掠夺贫困国家和社会最后资源的战争。环境问题威胁印第安人的生存，解决印第安人问题的方法与生态相关，但传统的生态法则是否能适应当代美国印第安社会仍存在疑问。为反抗对印第安人和自然的共同压迫，印第安作家质疑关于能动作用的定义的正确性，指出印第安人和自然中的事物，如荒野、河流和动物等是具有能动作用的行动者，不仅能够发声，而且能展开行动反抗对于印第安人和自然的殖民。作家们通过反写基督教赋予蛇、黑色和女神的象征含义，颠覆了殖民话语的宗教根基，也发掘出早期欧洲基督教的生态之根。小说中的印第安人对主流社会从个体极端生态破坏反抗、集体生态破坏幻想、非暴力抵抗直到矛盾式反抗的演化，表明印第安社会与主流社会的关系从对立到协调的转变，体现了当代印第安作家试图超越印白二元对立模式的愿望。当代印第安社会面临的发展、环境和动物保护之间的矛盾关系表明，应该将全球化发展与当地的经济状况相协调，提倡一种更加包容的和跨文化的环保主义，以便与其它社会运动结合，创造一个更加易于人和非人物种居住的更有生命力的世界。
Since the1970s, researchers have been exploring American Indian literature from theperspective of postcolonialism or ecocriticism. Much has been achieved in these fields.Most research emphasizes the destructive effects of inner colonialism on American Indiansociety, or regards American Indian ecological consciousness as a remedy for thedestruction inflicted by European settlers/colonizers. However they neglect the roleseconomic development, environment and animals play in colonial practice and discourse.They also fail to discern the vital role that these elements play in the construction ofanticolonial consciousness and the decolonization of the mind in the inner colonial context.
Whether as a material practice or discursive practice, American inner colonialism isclosely linked with development, environment and animals. Mainstream society scrabblesfor the last resources on American Indian land on the pretext of development. Theenvironment faces the threat of degeneration, and animals lose their dwelling place and goextinct. In colonial discourse, globalization is propagandized as a mark of development. Atthe same time, the law for the protection of animals are in conflict with American Indiancultural rights promised by the treaty between the white and the Indian. Colonialconsciousness psychologically justifies political conquest by the colonist so that thecolonist can accomplish cultural penetration and domination and to make colonialconsciousness cater for white-centered consciousness. In fact, development may become aform of neocolonialism, and the association between the protection of animals and thecultural rights of the native may constitute a gray area that needs to be studied, which arethe crucial presuppositions for the study of contemporary Indian novels from theperspective of postcolonial ecocriticism. Inner colonialism has destroyed the society and environment of American Indian and the dwelling place of the animals. The binaryopposition between European American, environment, animals and American Indian is thefundamental discursive paradigm of inner colonialism.
American Indian society and the once-colonized countries, in their struggle to survivein this age of globalization, find it a challenge to rethink the history and reality of innercolonialism, study the legacy and the representation of colonial experience in modern age.Because of the systematic association between colonialism and development, environmentand animals, complete decolonization and resistance against neocolonial consciousness anddiscourse require the dismantling of neocolonial consciousness and discourse ondevelopment, environment and animals. Contemporary American Indian writers are thepivotal intellectuals who attempt to subvert the colonial discourse. From the perspective ofpostcolonial ecocriticism, this research aims to investigate American inner colonialism andits association with development, environment and the dwelling place of the animal asreflected in contemporary American Indian novels. In addition, it studies four differentmodes of resisting the colonial discourse by examining the cultural implication of theimagery of the wilderness, the dam, the garden and the animal and the relation between theimagery and human beings in the following masterpieces of four American Indian novelists:Louis Owens’ Wolfsong (1991), Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water (1993),Lesley Marmon Silko’s Gardens in the Dunes (1999) and Linda Hogan’s Power (1998).With imagery as an avenue of exploring colonial psychology and power discourse, theseAmerican Indian writers have attempted to make their own explorations into theassociation between colonialism, ecology and various means of decolonizing the mind.
This dissertation falls into six parts.
The “Introduction” centers on the three stages of American Indian literature, the statusquo of the postcolonial and ecocritical study of American Indian literature at home andabroad and points out the problems with the critics’ neglect of colonialism and itsassociation with development, environment and animals. This dissertation seeks to exposethe damaging effect of economic development on both the environment of American Indian and the dwelling place of animals, as well as indicate the conflict between the lawof animal protection and the culture right of American Indian.
Chapter one investigates the history of colonial dispossession of American Indian landand resources, probes the concept of wilderness and its destructive effect on the identity ofthe American Indian and illustrates the protagonist takes an extreme form of individualeco-sabotage against neocolonialism. This chapter firstly investigates the discourse aboutthe so called wilderness, such as the conquest of wilderness, the protection of wildernessand the development of wilderness, and its systematic association with the dispossession ofland and the deploration of resources by the colonist. In accordance with the ideas ofwilderness, the mainstream society holds prejudices of American Indian, including theimages of savage Indian, ecological Indian and vanishing Indian. Within this wildernessdiscourse lies the binary oppositions of the white and American Indian, civilization andland, which has led American Indian into the abyss of rootlessness and speechlessness, andtherefore, to some degree, accept American cultural assimilation. The protagonist, however,retains the stories of his ancestor and wrecks individual eco-sabotage to countercolonialism, reestablishing his identity by entering the wilderness to reconstruct his senseof place and identity.
Chapter two focuses on the function of water in rewriting and subverting the idol ofenvironmental racism represented by a dam and the significance of water in the collectiveeco-sabotage as a method to counter neocolonialism. This chapter shows the meaning ofwater in traditional American Indian culture, namely, the quality of creativity, sacrednessand circular movement, then reveals the harmful effect of the dam on the American Indian,such as the damage of their lifestyle, forced displacement and uprooting of their culture.The double power of water gives American Indian individuals a new beginning in life, andAmerican Indian mythological characters and people in reality combine their power withthat of water, demolish the dam in a way of collective eco-sabotage illusion.
Chapter three concentrates on a non-violent means of resistance against colonialismwhich is based on the material production and cultural implication of gardens. This chapter delves into the garden ethics of the mutual benefit for the land and the human beings in anancient Indian garden, which is cultivated in subsistence economy. The ecological thinkingembedded in the stories keeps the harmony of the garden. In contrast to the indigenousgarden, the nature of a modern Victorian garden is the conquest of the American Indian andtheir land. Also, Christianity provides religious support for colonialism, which pervades theinternational plant trade. But the writer does not advocate binary opposition. The culturalcollection and the blank flower in the Ancient European gardens reflect the mythology ofancient European Great Goddess and the earth-based early European Christianity, whichrewrite the negative Christian symbol of the female, the black color and the snake. Thetrans-Atlantic axis of nativism subverts the discursive paradigm of the binary oppositionbetween white culture and native culture.
Chapter four elaborates on the issue of environment of both animals and AmericanIndian, and the complexity and conflicted relationship between animal protection and thecultural rights of the American Indian in the context of international environmentalism.Linda Hogan suggests a contradictory way of resistance and cooperation of the white andAmerican Indian for the future of the land. This chapter explains the environmental justicetheme of Hogan’s works, connects the hunting of a panther in reality and the plot ofpanther killing of the novel, and explores the similar survival crisis faced both by theAmerican Indian and the native animals. The characters hold a ceremony of regeneration toresist their doomed destiny. Then this chapter traces the history of the relation of the whiteand animals from the slaughtering of wild animals to the protection of endangered animals,and illustrates that the true cause of the extinction of animals is the threat to the dwellingplace by capitalist industrialization. To transcend the binary oppositions of white andIndian, white and animals, Hogan explores the conflicts in the gray area between animalprotection and the cultural rights of the American Indian. She suggests cooperation of thewhite and America Indian, which is based on the earth rather than nation. This is amanifestation of a contradictory modality of resistance.
The conclusion of the dissertation points out that the study of contemporary American Indian novels from the perspective of postcolonial ecocriticism indicates that modernAmerican Indian society cannot avoid modernity, globalization and destructivedevelopment.“Catch-up” development, which is based on the double principles ofWestern cultural hegemony and economic advancement, is unsustainable. It is in essencethe misuse of humans and natural resources in the name of development. Innercolonialism has resulted in the unbalanced development of the society and environment ofthe American Indian world. Since the landscape of American Indian world has changed, itis difficult for the contemporary American Indian to return home to be healed andconstruct their cultural identity. In addition to the negative influence of development onenvironment, environmentalism of the first world, rather than protection of theenvironment, is a war to scrabble for the last resources of poor countries and societies.Environmental problems threaten the survival of the American Indian. The solution to theproblem is related to ecology. But it is doubtful whether traditional American Indianecological rules can be applied in modern American Indian society. To protest against thesuppression upon nature and native people by the colonist, American Indian novelistsquestion the definition of agency and state that wilderness, rivers and animals are agentsthat can speak and take action to resist the colonization of the oppressed. The novelistsexpose the religious roots of colonialism, and rediscover the ecological base of earlyChristianity. The change from the means of individual eco-sabotage resistance, collectiveeco-sabotage illusion, to non-violent modality of resistance and contradictory way ofresistance, and even earth-based cooperation that transcends the boundary betweendifferent species and societies, serves to deconstruct the binary oppositions. Thecomplicated relationship between development, environment, animals and the AmericanIndian illustrates that global development should be aligned with local economicconditions. An inclusive and intercultural environmentalism, united with other socialmovements will benefit the co-existence of both humans and non-humans in the world.
在美国内部殖民主义的整个物质和话语实践活动中，（新/旧）殖民主义与发展、环境和动物都存在着密切联系。主流社会以发展之名抢夺印第安土地上最后的资源，危害当地环境，动物也因丧失栖息地而濒临灭绝。同样，在殖民书写中，资本主义全球化被宣扬为人类社会发展的标志，同时动物保护法也与印第安人的文化权力形成冲突。这种殖民书写中暗含的殖民主义意识形态为政治征服奠定心理和物质基础，实现文化渗透和文化控制，迎合主流社会的白人中心主义意识。实际上，发展可能被利用而成为殖民主义的新形式，环境保护与原住民权力间的冲突关系成为有待探讨的灰色地带，这是本文提出当代英语印第安文学后殖民生态批评的重要前提。殖民主义既毁坏原住民社会，也破坏原住民的环境并危害当地动物，既可呈现为社会实践，也可呈现为话语实践。殖民话语中欧裔美国人对应于印第安人、环境和动物之间的二元对立是殖民主义实践和话语体系的基本范式。
反思被殖民的历史，审视被殖民经历带来的深刻影响以及在当代的表征，从而实现思想的去殖民化，这是包括印第安社会和其它包括曾经被殖民社会在内的国家面对全球化潮流，争取生存机会过程中面临的重要挑战。基于殖民主义与发展、环境和动物的系统性联系，要真正实现思维的去殖民化、对抗（新/旧）殖民意识和殖民话语，必须从多角度消解殖民主义关于发展、环境和动物的相关意识形态和话语。当代印第安作家是颠覆殖民意识和话语的重要力量。本研究主要涉及路易斯·欧文斯的《狼歌》（1991）、托马斯·金恩的《青草，流水》（1993）、莱斯丽·玛蒙·西尔科的《沙丘花园》（1999）和琳达·霍根的《灵力》（1998）四部当代印第安作家的代表作，认为这四部作品以发展与环境，环境保护与印第安文化权力的关系为主题，并使之成为思想去殖民化的手段，认识到在世纪之交他们对殖民主义与生态之间关系的思考以及在探索对抗殖民意识的策略方面做出了尝试，客观上反映了对殖民主义思想和话语的解构。本研究主要采用后殖民生态批评视角，探究殖民主义与发展、环境和动物的体系性联系，并分别以荒野、水坝、花园和动物四个意象为切入点，通过透视小说中的意象以及这些意象与人的关系所映射出的殖民心态和权力话语，探究作家的反殖意识和小说叙述中呈现的对殖民话语的多样性反抗。本论文研究的当代印第安小说表明作家们针对内部殖民主义的不同表征，采用了不同的反抗形式颠覆殖民话语。
本论文由六个部分组成。
绪论部分回顾了印第安文学发展的三个阶段和印第安文学后殖民和生态批评研究的历史和现状，简要介绍了本选题的理论支撑，即后殖民生态批评理论，并提出本选题的目的、意义和方法。主体部分包括四章，运用后殖民生态批评的主要观点，并依据新殖民主义的不同呈现方式和相应的反抗形式而构建。
第一章主要参照殖民主义夺取印第安土地和资源的历史，反观《狼歌》中主流社会的荒野话语和由此对印第安身份造成的毁灭性影响，主人公对新殖民主义进行了回应并进行了个体极端式反抗。本章首先结合被他者化的荒野概念的历史演化，探究被征服的荒野、被保护的荒野和被开发的荒野所反映的殖民主义与土地占有和资源掠夺的结构性联系，接下来结合具体的文本分析，揭示与荒野话语相对应的印第安身份偏见，包括“野蛮印第安人”、“生态印第安人”和“消失的印第安人”，说明荒野话语和印第安身份偏见所暗含的白人对应于土地和印第安人的二元对立范式，使一些印第安人陷入无主、无根和无话语权状态，并在一定程度上接纳白人主流文化，但小说主人公通过牢记祖先故事，进入荒野重构地域归属感，以暴力抗争手段重建身份。
第二章集中探究在后殖民语境下，印第安文学中的水意象在重写、消解和颠覆作为环境种族主义偶像的水坝中的重要作用，以及印第安人以集体生态破坏幻想抵抗殖民主义。本章首先展现传统印第安视阈中水的特征，包括水的创生性、神圣性和环形运动特征等，继而揭露水坝对原族生存环境的破坏性后果，如破坏原族的生活方式、迫使原族迁移和毁坏原族文化，但在水的双重力量作用下，印第安神话人物和现实中人物结合自然的力量合力摧毁水坝，实现暴力抵抗的目的，原族部落实现再生，原族个体人物在水的作用下也获得人生新开端。
第三章主要分析以印第安古花园的物质成果和文化内涵为手段对殖民主义进行的非暴力反抗。本章首先探究以人与土地互惠为花园伦理并开展自给自足经济活动的印第安古花园，但古花园遭受殖民者的浩劫，以土地为基础的印第安宗教仪式“鬼舞”祈望土地回归，然后分析白人的现代维多利亚花园反映的对于自然和印第安人的双重征服，说明基督教为殖民主义提供宗教话语支持，殖民主义渗透于国际资本主义植物贸易之中。但作家并不赞同白人文化与印第安文化的二元对立，欧洲花园体现的古欧洲“伟大女神”神话和以土地为基础的早期基督教反写基督教教义对于女性、黑色和蛇的贬低，作家以印第安文化与古欧洲文化形成的跨大西洋本土化轴心颠覆了殖民主义的二元对立范式。
第四章重点研究在国际环境保护语境下，美国动物保护法与印第安文化权力间的复杂关系和矛盾冲突，以及动物与人的栖息地问题。作家提倡印第安人对殖民话语采用矛盾式反抗策略，印白之间进行基于土地的跨物种间合作。本章首先说明作家对环境正义主题的关注，叙述了与小说情节相对应的现实中猎杀濒危动物事件，说明猎豹与当地印第安人面临类似的生存危机，而小说人物举行再生仪式对抗灭绝命运，继而追溯了主流社会对野生动物从猎杀到保护的历史及其所反映的白人中心主义立场，说明动物濒危的真正原因是资本主义工业化威胁动物的栖息地，最后指出作家探索主流社会动物保护法与印第安文化权力间关系的灰色地带，关注围绕动物保护论题所反映的复杂矛盾和文化冲突，这种矛盾和冲突在本质上是对侵占动物和印第安人栖息地的新殖民主义的矛盾式反抗。作家倡导印白双方基于土地，而不是民族进行合作。
本论文在结论部分指出，从后殖民生态批评的视角研究当代美国印第安英语文学，可以发现当代印第安社会难以回避现代性、全球化和由此导致的具有毁灭性经济发展。这种建立在西方文化霸权和经济增长双重原则基础上的“赶超式”发展模式没有可持续性，实际上是打着发展的幌子对人与环境的滥用。内部殖民主义导致印第安社会的不均衡发展，由此造成印第安物质环境的不均衡发展。由于家乡的风景地貌已经被改变，当代印第安人难以通过回归家园实现疗伤和获得文化身份。除了发展造成了印第安环境的恶化之外，第一世界的环保主义对于自然资源的保护与其说是保护自然环境，不如说是掠夺贫困国家和社会最后资源的战争。环境问题威胁印第安人的生存，解决印第安人问题的方法与生态相关，但传统的生态法则是否能适应当代美国印第安社会仍存在疑问。为反抗对印第安人和自然的共同压迫，印第安作家质疑关于能动作用的定义的正确性，指出印第安人和自然中的事物，如荒野、河流和动物等是具有能动作用的行动者，不仅能够发声，而且能展开行动反抗对于印第安人和自然的殖民。作家们通过反写基督教赋予蛇、黑色和女神的象征含义，颠覆了殖民话语的宗教根基，也发掘出早期欧洲基督教的生态之根。小说中的印第安人对主流社会从个体极端生态破坏反抗、集体生态破坏幻想、非暴力抵抗直到矛盾式反抗的演化，表明印第安社会与主流社会的关系从对立到协调的转变，体现了当代印第安作家试图超越印白二元对立模式的愿望。当代印第安社会面临的发展、环境和动物保护之间的矛盾关系表明，应该将全球化发展与当地的经济状况相协调，提倡一种更加包容的和跨文化的环保主义，以便与其它社会运动结合，创造一个更加易于人和非人物种居住的更有生命力的世界。
Since the1970s, researchers have been exploring American Indian literature from theperspective of postcolonialism or ecocriticism. Much has been achieved in these fields.Most research emphasizes the destructive effects of inner colonialism on American Indiansociety, or regards American Indian ecological consciousness as a remedy for thedestruction inflicted by European settlers/colonizers. However they neglect the roleseconomic development, environment and animals play in colonial practice and discourse.They also fail to discern the vital role that these elements play in the construction ofanticolonial consciousness and the decolonization of the mind in the inner colonial context.
Whether as a material practice or discursive practice, American inner colonialism isclosely linked with development, environment and animals. Mainstream society scrabblesfor the last resources on American Indian land on the pretext of development. Theenvironment faces the threat of degeneration, and animals lose their dwelling place and goextinct. In colonial discourse, globalization is propagandized as a mark of development. Atthe same time, the law for the protection of animals are in conflict with American Indiancultural rights promised by the treaty between the white and the Indian. Colonialconsciousness psychologically justifies political conquest by the colonist so that thecolonist can accomplish cultural penetration and domination and to make colonialconsciousness cater for white-centered consciousness. In fact, development may become aform of neocolonialism, and the association between the protection of animals and thecultural rights of the native may constitute a gray area that needs to be studied, which arethe crucial presuppositions for the study of contemporary Indian novels from theperspective of postcolonial ecocriticism. Inner colonialism has destroyed the society and environment of American Indian and the dwelling place of the animals. The binaryopposition between European American, environment, animals and American Indian is thefundamental discursive paradigm of inner colonialism.
American Indian society and the once-colonized countries, in their struggle to survivein this age of globalization, find it a challenge to rethink the history and reality of innercolonialism, study the legacy and the representation of colonial experience in modern age.Because of the systematic association between colonialism and development, environmentand animals, complete decolonization and resistance against neocolonial consciousness anddiscourse require the dismantling of neocolonial consciousness and discourse ondevelopment, environment and animals. Contemporary American Indian writers are thepivotal intellectuals who attempt to subvert the colonial discourse. From the perspective ofpostcolonial ecocriticism, this research aims to investigate American inner colonialism andits association with development, environment and the dwelling place of the animal asreflected in contemporary American Indian novels. In addition, it studies four differentmodes of resisting the colonial discourse by examining the cultural implication of theimagery of the wilderness, the dam, the garden and the animal and the relation between theimagery and human beings in the following masterpieces of four American Indian novelists:Louis Owens’ Wolfsong (1991), Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water (1993),Lesley Marmon Silko’s Gardens in the Dunes (1999) and Linda Hogan’s Power (1998).With imagery as an avenue of exploring colonial psychology and power discourse, theseAmerican Indian writers have attempted to make their own explorations into theassociation between colonialism, ecology and various means of decolonizing the mind.
This dissertation falls into six parts.
The “Introduction” centers on the three stages of American Indian literature, the statusquo of the postcolonial and ecocritical study of American Indian literature at home andabroad and points out the problems with the critics’ neglect of colonialism and itsassociation with development, environment and animals. This dissertation seeks to exposethe damaging effect of economic development on both the environment of American Indian and the dwelling place of animals, as well as indicate the conflict between the lawof animal protection and the culture right of American Indian.
Chapter one investigates the history of colonial dispossession of American Indian landand resources, probes the concept of wilderness and its destructive effect on the identity ofthe American Indian and illustrates the protagonist takes an extreme form of individualeco-sabotage against neocolonialism. This chapter firstly investigates the discourse aboutthe so called wilderness, such as the conquest of wilderness, the protection of wildernessand the development of wilderness, and its systematic association with the dispossession ofland and the deploration of resources by the colonist. In accordance with the ideas ofwilderness, the mainstream society holds prejudices of American Indian, including theimages of savage Indian, ecological Indian and vanishing Indian. Within this wildernessdiscourse lies the binary oppositions of the white and American Indian, civilization andland, which has led American Indian into the abyss of rootlessness and speechlessness, andtherefore, to some degree, accept American cultural assimilation. The protagonist, however,retains the stories of his ancestor and wrecks individual eco-sabotage to countercolonialism, reestablishing his identity by entering the wilderness to reconstruct his senseof place and identity.
Chapter two focuses on the function of water in rewriting and subverting the idol ofenvironmental racism represented by a dam and the significance of water in the collectiveeco-sabotage as a method to counter neocolonialism. This chapter shows the meaning ofwater in traditional American Indian culture, namely, the quality of creativity, sacrednessand circular movement, then reveals the harmful effect of the dam on the American Indian,such as the damage of their lifestyle, forced displacement and uprooting of their culture.The double power of water gives American Indian individuals a new beginning in life, andAmerican Indian mythological characters and people in reality combine their power withthat of water, demolish the dam in a way of collective eco-sabotage illusion.
Chapter three concentrates on a non-violent means of resistance against colonialismwhich is based on the material production and cultural implication of gardens. This chapter delves into the garden ethics of the mutual benefit for the land and the human beings in anancient Indian garden, which is cultivated in subsistence economy. The ecological thinkingembedded in the stories keeps the harmony of the garden. In contrast to the indigenousgarden, the nature of a modern Victorian garden is the conquest of the American Indian andtheir land. Also, Christianity provides religious support for colonialism, which pervades theinternational plant trade. But the writer does not advocate binary opposition. The culturalcollection and the blank flower in the Ancient European gardens reflect the mythology ofancient European Great Goddess and the earth-based early European Christianity, whichrewrite the negative Christian symbol of the female, the black color and the snake. Thetrans-Atlantic axis of nativism subverts the discursive paradigm of the binary oppositionbetween white culture and native culture.
Chapter four elaborates on the issue of environment of both animals and AmericanIndian, and the complexity and conflicted relationship between animal protection and thecultural rights of the American Indian in the context of international environmentalism.Linda Hogan suggests a contradictory way of resistance and cooperation of the white andAmerican Indian for the future of the land. This chapter explains the environmental justicetheme of Hogan’s works, connects the hunting of a panther in reality and the plot ofpanther killing of the novel, and explores the similar survival crisis faced both by theAmerican Indian and the native animals. The characters hold a ceremony of regeneration toresist their doomed destiny. Then this chapter traces the history of the relation of the whiteand animals from the slaughtering of wild animals to the protection of endangered animals,and illustrates that the true cause of the extinction of animals is the threat to the dwellingplace by capitalist industrialization. To transcend the binary oppositions of white andIndian, white and animals, Hogan explores the conflicts in the gray area between animalprotection and the cultural rights of the American Indian. She suggests cooperation of thewhite and America Indian, which is based on the earth rather than nation. This is amanifestation of a contradictory modality of resistance.
The conclusion of the dissertation points out that the study of contemporary American Indian novels from the perspective of postcolonial ecocriticism indicates that modernAmerican Indian society cannot avoid modernity, globalization and destructivedevelopment.“Catch-up” development, which is based on the double principles ofWestern cultural hegemony and economic advancement, is unsustainable. It is in essencethe misuse of humans and natural resources in the name of development. Innercolonialism has resulted in the unbalanced development of the society and environment ofthe American Indian world. Since the landscape of American Indian world has changed, itis difficult for the contemporary American Indian to return home to be healed andconstruct their cultural identity. In addition to the negative influence of development onenvironment, environmentalism of the first world, rather than protection of theenvironment, is a war to scrabble for the last resources of poor countries and societies.Environmental problems threaten the survival of the American Indian. The solution to theproblem is related to ecology. But it is doubtful whether traditional American Indianecological rules can be applied in modern American Indian society. To protest against thesuppression upon nature and native people by the colonist, American Indian novelistsquestion the definition of agency and state that wilderness, rivers and animals are agentsthat can speak and take action to resist the colonization of the oppressed. The novelistsexpose the religious roots of colonialism, and rediscover the ecological base of earlyChristianity. The change from the means of individual eco-sabotage resistance, collectiveeco-sabotage illusion, to non-violent modality of resistance and contradictory way ofresistance, and even earth-based cooperation that transcends the boundary betweendifferent species and societies, serves to deconstruct the binary oppositions. Thecomplicated relationship between development, environment, animals and the AmericanIndian illustrates that global development should be aligned with local economicconditions. An inclusive and intercultural environmentalism, united with other socialmovements will benefit the co-existence of both humans and non-humans in the world.
引文
2印第安文艺复兴时期，即二十世纪六七十年的印第安文学时期，印第安作家把写作当作政治解放的武器,在其诗歌创作中强调对同化的抵制，表达出认同文化传统的愿望，对当代印第安文学的发展发挥着重要作用(SeeKenneth Lincoln, Native American Renaissance, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,1985, p.8;Graig S. Womack.,“A Single Decade: Book-Length Native Literary Criticism between1986and1997,” Reasoningtogether: the Native Critics Collective, ed. Craig S. Womack, Daniel Heath Justice, Christopher B. Teuton, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,2008, p.16; Patrice E. M. Hollrah, The Old Lady Trill, the Victory Yell, The Power ofWomen in Native American Lierature, New York and London: Routledge,2004, p.18)。
3邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，长春：吉林大学出版社，2008年版，第26页。
4See Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind, Berkeley:University of California Press,1988; Robert F. Berkhofer Jr., The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indianfrom Columbus to the Present, New York: Vintage,1978; Vine Deloria Jr.,“The Indians of the American Imagination,”God is Red: A Native View of Religion, Dolden: North American Press,2003,25-45; Ward Churchill,“Fantasies of theMaster Race: Categories of Stereotyping of American Indians in Film,” Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinemaand the Colonization of American Indians, Monroe ME: Common Courage,1992, pp.231-41.
6王宁：《叙述、文化定位和身份认同——霍米·巴巴的后殖民批评理论》，载《外国文学》2002年第6期,第48-55页。
7Jace Weaver, That People Might Live: Native American Literature and Native American Community, New York:Oxford University Press,1997, p.10.
8Michael Dorris, Native American Literature in an Ethnohistorical Context, College English, Vol.41, No.2,1979,pp.147-62.
9Arnold Krupat, The Turn to the Native, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,1998, p.32.
10邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，第45页。
11加拿大原住民称自己为“第一民族”或“原族”（First Nations/First People）以强调自己作为美洲最早居民的主权地位。
12Elizabeth Cook-Linn, Anti-Indianism in Modern America: A Voice from Tatekeya's Earth, Urbana: University ofIllinois Press,2007, p.37.
13Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, Norman: University of OklahomaPress,1992, pp.4-5.
14Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, P.7.
15Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, P.20.
16See Robert Warrior, Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions, Minneapolis: Universityof Minnesota Press,1995, p. xix.
18Shepard Krech, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton&Co.,2000, p.25.
19Louis Owens, Bone Game, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,2013, p.119.
20邹惠玲：《<青青的草，流动的水>印第安历史的重构》，载《外国文学评论》2004年第4期，第40-49页。
21王建平：《后殖民语境下的美国土著文学》，载《国外文学》2006年第4期，第75-81页。
22在2013年，该领域最重要的刊物ISLE庆祝建刊二十周年。
23Cheryll Glotfelty,“Introduction: Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental Crisis”, The Ecocriticism Reader:Landmarks in Literary Ecology, eds. Cheryll Glotfelty&Harold Fromm, Athens: University of Georgia Press,1996,p.xviii.
24王宁：《东方主义、后殖民追和文化霸权主义批判——爱德华·萨义德的后殖民主义剖析》，载《北京大学学报》1995年第2期，第55页。
25Michael Bennett,“From Wide Open Spaces to Metropolitan Places: the Urban Challenge to Ecocriticism,” TheISLE Reader: Ecocriticism1993-2003, eds. M.Branch&S.Slovic, Athens: University of Georgia Press,(2003):296-317.
26本文中的发展主义指兴起于二十世纪五六十年代的发展主义思潮，具体指“在发展哲学的谱系中，以单纯的经济增长为目标的社会发展观，它将社会发展归之为经济发展，将经济发展归之为经济增长。然而，这一发展观在一些发展中国家的实施，使人们饱尝了‘有增长无发展’以及‘增长与发展负相关’的恶果，导致物质富有和精神空虚、经济繁荣和道德堕落、技术进步与生态恶化的共存并生”（田启波、胡宜安19，参见田启波、胡宜安《发展主义的反思与超越》，载《高校理论战线》2011年第10期，第19-22页）。唯发展主义语境中的发展以民族国家为主体，以“跃进式”和“赶超式”发展为主体形式，以西欧和北美现代化模式为标杆，故本文中将这种发展观称为西方发展观。
27何建华将发展正义定义为“发展正义是对发展的正义评价与约束，是发展理念、发展实践、发展模式本身是否合乎公正、正义的伦理原则。发展正义的实质是通过对经济社会发展与人类存在方式的关系的深入思考，关注人类如何不以自身异化为代价发展经济，并在这种发展过程中实现人自身的自由健康全面发展。因此，发展正义是体现在发展理念、发展实践、发展模式、发展机制中的正义观念和正义原则，它要求人们从正义的角度认识、评价和调控发展”（何建华，第108-109页。参见何建华：《发展正义——当代社会面临的重大课题》，载《浙江社会科学》2011年第10期，第107-113页）。
28本文作者理解“发展”为“被引导的变化的多层面过程，这种过程与进步巧合一致，或暗示进步，它不仅以经济增长衡量，也要纳入提高生活质量的语境中进行评价（See Hussein M. Fahim, Dams, People andDevelopment: The Aswan High Dam Case, New York: Pergamon Press,1981, p.118）。
30关于北美的最早居民的称呼，存在不同的说法，如NativeAmerican,American Indian,Amerindian, IndigenousPeoples, Aboriginal Peoples等，其中常用的是Native American, American Indian（见邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，第4-10页，第26页）。加里·李·斯郎（Gary Lee Sligh）认为：“我在大部分研究中使用‘Native American’这一术语，但‘Indian’在指早期历史文本中的原住民更为恰当。”See Gary LeeSligh,A Study of Native American Women Novelists: Sophia Alice Callahan, Morning Dove, and Ella Cara Deloria,Harvard: Edwin Mellen Press,2003, p.2.本文将交替使用“美国印第安人”和“（美国）原住民”称呼，或根据语境采用相应的称呼。同样，大多数学者交替使用美国印第安文学（American Indian Literature）和原住民本土裔美国文学（Native American Literature），本文也采用相应称呼。See Joy Porter&Kenneth M. Roemer, eds., TheCambridge Companion to Native American Literature, Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press,2005,p.1.
31See Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, London andNew York: Routledge,2010, pp.27-78.
32朱新福，张慧荣：《后殖民生态批评述略》，载《当代外国文学》2011年第4期，第29页。
33See Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, pp.133-202.
34Rob Nixon,“Environmentalism and Postcolonialism”, Postcolonial Studies and Beyold, eds. Ania Loomba,Suvir Kaul, Antoinette Burton, Matti Bunzl, and Jed Esty, Durham and London: Duke University Press,2005, P.245.
37Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, American Indian Literature and CriticalStudies, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1998. p.22.
38Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology, New Haven: Yale UniversityPress,1991, p.273.
39N. Scott Momaday,“An American Land Ethic,” Ecotactics: The Sierra Club Handbook for EnvironmentActivists, eds. John G. Mitchell&Constance L. Stallings,1970, p.103.
41Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.4.
42Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology, p.292.
43[澳大利亚]薇尔·普鲁姆德：《女性主义与对自然的主宰》，马天杰，李丽丽译，重庆：重庆出版社，2007年，第112页。
44Norman Foerster, Nature in American Literature, New York: The McMillan Company,1923, p.1.
45“昭昭天命”为一个惯用措词，是19世纪美国民主党所持的一种信念，他们认为美国被赋予了向西扩张至横跨北美洲大陆的天命。“昭昭天命”的拥护者们认为，美国在领土和影响力上的扩张不仅明显（Manifest），且本诸不可违逆之天数（Destiny）。“昭昭天命”最初为19世纪时的政治标语（catch phrase），后来成为标准的历史名辞，意义通常等于美国领土扩张横贯北美洲，直达太平洋（See “Manifest Destiny”, from Wikipedia, the freeencyclopedia, Jan.2001,12Dec.2013）。
46Howard Mumford Jones, Ideas in America, Cambridge(Massachusetts): Harvard University Press,1944, p.61.
47例如在萨谬尔·瑟沃尔（Samuel Sewall）的日记中，印第安袭击后的情景很严重：“星期三，1676年6月7日，贝德尔（Bendal）先生和太太被依次抬出，并葬于墓穴。他们有八个年少的孩子”（See Samuel Sewall,The Diary of Samuel Sewall, ed. and abridged by Harvey Wish, NewYork: Capricorn Books,1967, p.24）。同时，自然之子的野蛮与上帝之子的野蛮常不分伯仲，“（星期一，7月6日，1685）一个印第安人在法庭上被羞辱，他因抢劫被割下耳朵”（See Samuel Sewall, The Diary of Samuel Sewall, ed. and abridged by Harvey Wish, NewYork:Capricorn Books,1967, p.36）。
48Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness, New York: Harper Torchbooks,1956, p.15.
49A.W.Schorger, The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction, Madison: The University ofWisconsin,1955, see chapter VIII “Methods of Capture”.
50Marcia B. Kline, Beyond the Land Itself: Views of Nature in Canada and the United Sates, Cambridge(Massachusetts): Howard University press,1970, p.59.
51Louis Owens, Wolfsong, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1995, pp:184-185.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小说名称首字缩写和引文出处页码，不作另注。本文中选自四部当代印第安英语小说的引文均为本文作者翻译。
52Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, New York: The Co-operative publication Society,1900, P.409.
53Lynn Altenbernd,“A Suspended Moment: The Irony of History in William Faulkner’s ‘The Bear,’” Modernlanguage Notes, Vol.75, No.7, Nov.1960, p.577.
54See Renato Rosaldo,“Imperialist Nostalgia,” Representations, No.26, Special Issue: Memory andCounter-Memory, Spring,1989, pp.107-122.
55恩格斯：《自然辩证法》，北京：人民出版社，1984年版，第311页。
56该引文出自亨利·戴维·梭罗作于1861年的随笔“散步”（Walking）。梭罗曾以这篇散文在当年作过一次讲演，该文于梭罗去世后被发表于《大西洋月刊》（The Atlantic Monthly）第9卷，第56期，第657-674页。
57Quted in William Cronon,“The Trouble With Wilderness,” William Cronon ed. Uncommon Ground: Rethinkingthe Human Place in Nature, New York: W.W. Norton,1996, p.76.
581890年12月29日，在南达科塔松岭区印第安（Pine Ridge Indian Reservation），伤膝溪（Wounded KneeCreek），至少150名拉科塔人（Lakota），包括妇女和儿童被杀，51人受伤，后有伤者不治而亡。
59Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, New York: The New AmericanLibrary,1960, p.52.
60Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, p.40.
6162Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, p.387.
Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, p.387.
63Louis H. Westling, The Green Breast of the New World: Landscape, Gender, and American Fiction, Athens:University of Georgia Press,1996, p.52.
64Frederick Law Olmsted,“The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees,” American Environmentalism:Reading in Conservation History, ed. Roderick Frazier Nash, New York: McGraw-Hill,1990, p.47.
65Corinne J. Naden&Rose Blue, John Muir: Saving the Wilderness, Brookfield: The Millbrook Press,1992, p.614.
66See Bill McKibben, The End of Nature, New York: Anchor Books,1999.
67David Brower, ed., Wilderness: America’s Living Heritage, San Francisco: Sierra Club,1961, p.iii.
68John Peter Saylor,“Wilderness: the Outlook from Capitol Hill”, Wilderness：America’s Living Heritage, ed.,David Brower, San Francisco: Sierra Club,1961, pp.150-1.
6970See “Nation: A Memento Mori to the Earth, Time Magazine, Monday,4May1970, p.14.
Don Scheese,“Desert Solitaire,” The Ecological Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, ed., Cheryll Glotfelty&Harold Fromm, Athens: University of Georgia Press,1996, p.320.
71Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness, New York: Ballantine Books,1985, p.6.
72William Cronon,“The Trouble With Wilderness,” p.80.
73William Cronon,“The Trouble With Wilderness,” p.80.
74William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, p.76.
75William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, p.78.
76Greg Garrard, Ecocriticism, London: Taylor&Francis,2004, p.71.
77[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，侯文蕙译，长春：吉林人民出版社，1997年，第157页。
78[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第166页。
79[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第179页。
80[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第194页。
81John Simpson, ed.“Resource”, Oxford English Dictionary, OED Online,2ndedition,2000, Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
82Bill Devall and George Sessions, Deep Ecology: Living as Nature Mattered, Salt Lake City: Gibbs M. Smith,1985, p.21.
84Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.211.
85John Purdy,“Clear Water: A Conversation with Louis Owens,” Studies in American Literatures, Vol.10, No.2,Series2, Vol.10, No.2, Summer,1998, p.15.
86Scott N. Momaday, The Man Made of Words, New York: St. Martin’s Griffin,1997, p.7
87Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.215.
88Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.216.
89Louis Owens,Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place, p.216.
90Simon Ortiz, Woven Stone, Tucson: University of Arizona Press,1992, p.188.
92William Cronon,“The Trouble with Wilderness,” p.79.
93Simon Ortiz, Woven Stone, p.188.
94Simon Ortiz, Woven Stone, pp:185-86.
96Robert P. Marzec, An Ecological and Postcolonial Study of Literature：From Daniel Defoe to Salman Rushdie,New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2007, p.24.
97Quted in Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, London:Routledge,2010, p.30.
98Quted in Graham Huggen&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.30.
99Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, pp.224-25.
100William Cronon, ed. Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, p.25.
101Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Imagines of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present,New York: Vintage,1978, p.3.
102Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.1994,p.4.
103Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, p.223.
104关于印第安人的固化模式的介绍评论，参见DevonA. Miheuaah, Amarican Indians Stereotypes and Realities,Atlanta: Clarity Press,1996。此外，还有许多关于印第安固化模式的研究。关于电影中的固化形象模式，参见JohnMihelich,“Smoke or Signals?American Popular Culture and the Challenges to Hegemonic Images of American Indiansin Native American Film,” Wicazo Sa Review, No.16(2001):129-37; Darryl Robes Kipp,“Images of Native People asSeen by the Eye of the Blackbird,” Wicazo Sa Review, No.16(2001):29-34；体育中的固化形象模式，参见CarolSpindel, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over Indian Mascots, New York: New York University Press,2002.
105美国十九世纪中期流行“野蛮主义”观念，这在美国学者和探险家斯库克莱弗特(Henry Rowe Schoolcraft)的一系列作品中得到体现，如《俄尼塔或北美红人的特色》（Oneota or Characteristics of the Red Race ofAmerica,1845）、（《在密西西比河山谷中央地带旅行》(Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley,1825)和《居住印第安部落三十年个人回忆录》(Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indians,1851.)
106Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins,1967, p. ix.
107Donald McQuade, general ed, The Harper American Literature, Vol.II, NewYork: Harper Collins CollegePublishers,1993, p.224.
108参见《约伯记》（38-41），耶和华回答约伯：“谁为雨水分道？谁为雷电开路？使雨降在无人之地，无人居住的旷野，使荒废凄凉之地得以丰足，青草得以发生。雨有父亲吗？露水是谁生的呢？冰出于谁的胎？天上的霜是谁生的呢？”（《约伯记》38:25-38:29），“你能用鱼钩钓上鳄鱼吗？能用绳子压下它的舌头吗？”（《约伯记》38:41）。
109Noderick Frazier Nash, Wilderness and American Mind, New Haven: Yale University Press,1967, p.29.
110Homi Bhabha K., The Location of Culture, London: Routledge,(1994):81-82.
111Frederick Law Olmsted,“The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees,” in American Environmentalism:Reading in Conservation History, ed. Roderick Frazier Nash. New York: McGraw-Hill,1990, p.47.
112Frederick Law Olmsted,“The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees,” in American Environmentalism:Reading in Conservation History, p.47.
113Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton and Company,1999,p.21.
114Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Imagines of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present.New York: Vintage,1978, p.78.
115Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.18.
116Lee Schweninger, Listening to the Land:Native American Literary Responses to the Landscape, Athens:University of Georgia Press,2008, p.22.
117Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.220.
118Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.21.
119张慧荣：《从<熊>看原生生命链毁灭对于殖民进程的推进作用》，载《外国文学评论》2011年第3期，第178页。
120See Winona LaDuke, All My Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life, Boston: South End press,1999.
122Thomas King, All My Relations: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction, Toronto:McClelland&Stewart,1990, p. xiii.
123Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place, p.220.
124Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.225.
125Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place,222.
126Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place,,p.224.
127Martin Lewis, Green Delusions: An Environmentalist Critique of Radical Environmentalism, Durham: DukeUniversity Press,1992, p.65.
128该著作以下简称《另一种命运》
129Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.29.
130Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.5.
131关于新大陆发现前的原住民人口数说法不一，另有观点认为当时人口是15000000~30000000, SeeJeffrey F. Huntsman “Native American Theatre,” Ethnic Theatre in the United States, ed. Maxine Schwartz Seller,Westport: Greenwood Press,1983, p.355.
132Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and. U.S Indian Policy, Lawrence: University Pressof Kansas,1991, p.15.
133James Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native American, New York: Grove Press,1998, p. xxii.
134John Purdy,“Clear Waters: A Conversation with Louis Owens”, Summer1998, p.16.
135Louis Owens,“‘The Song Is Very Short’ Native American Literature and Literary Theory,” MixedbloodMessages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1998, pp:54-55.
136Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.5.
Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, pp.19-20.
138Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Postindian Warriors of Survivance, Hanover: University Press of NewEngland,1994, p.12.
139Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, pp:239-240.
140Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, p.18.
141除了莫马戴的文章“一种美国土地伦理”（An American Land Ethic,1970），德罗里亚的《上帝是红种人》（God is Red）(1973,1994和2003年再版)论及土地的意义，爱伦在文章“阿亚尼：象这样”（“Iyani: It Goes ThisWay,”）中谈到：“我们是土地，……这是西南部美国印第安生活和文化的核心观念”，1979年，第191页。艾米丽·卡西斯认为土地“是一个纵横交错的网络的组成部分，该网络将人与自然、动物、植物以及部落典仪和创世神灵联系在一起”（See Emily Cousins “Mountains Made Alive: Native American Relationships with Sacred Land”,Cross Currents, Vol.46, No.41996/1997, pp:505,497-510）。
143David Crystal, Language Death, Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press,2000, pp.45-47.
144Quted in Laura Coltelli, Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,1992, p.63.
145Quted in Laura Coltelli, Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, p.63.
146朱新福：《美国文学中的生态思想研究》，苏州：苏州大学出版社，2006年版，第22页。
147灵视追寻是一些印第安文化中的仪式，是找到精神指导和目标的最普遍的古老方式之一。灵视追寻可帮助参与者理解人生目标。传统印第安灵视追寻指一个人走入大自然中生存1-4个昼夜，这个过程为参与者提供时间与造物的基本力量、精神能量和自我身份进行交流，参与者能得到对自己和世界的深刻见识。这种见识以灵视梦想的形式呈现，直接讲述参与者的人生目标和命运（See “Vision quest,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Jan.2001,12Dec.2013）。
148David Rich Lewis,“Native Americans and the Environment: A Survey of Twentieth-Century Issues,” AmericanIndian Quarterly, Vol.19,No.3,1995, p.423.
149Emily Cousins,“Mountains Made Alive: Native American Relationships with Sacred Land,” Cross Currents,Vol.46, No.4,1996/1997, p.505.
150见乔治·塞勒（Gregory Sayler）关于西尔科的诗“关于动物的诗”（Poems ConcerningAnimals）的讨论（See Gregory Sayler, Leslie Marmon Silko, New York: Twayne Publishers,1997）。
151Calvin Martin, Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade, Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press,1978, p.186.
152Louis Owens, Other Destiny: understanding the American Novel, p.11.
153N. Scott Momaday,“An American Land Ethic.” Ecotactics: The Sierra Club Handbook for EnvironmentalActivists, ed., John G. Mitchel, New York: Trident Press,1970, p.103.
154Linda Hogan,“The Fallen,” The Book of Medicines, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press,1993, p.42.
155Marian W. Smith, Indians of the Urban Northwest, New York: AMS,1969, p.16.
156汗屋仪式是太阳舞仪式的一部分，汗屋仪式的参与者在萨满的引导下通过桑拿浴（即汗蒸）形式，在被相信具有魔力的水、火、石头、植物和动物等生命要素的作用下，实现人与神灵之间的精神交流，实现参与者的祈愿、祝福和疗伤等愿望。汗屋仪式体现了印第安价值观：万物有灵，崇尚信仰和精神的力量，注重身心的共同净化，以提升人的精神境界。汗屋仪式能够增进部落成员对本民族的热爱和彼此之间的友爱，强化国族凝聚力，有利于弘扬传统文化，（See “Sweat Lodge”, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, January,2001,12, Dec,2013）。
157Ella Elizabeth Clark, Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest, Berkeley: University of California Press,1953, p.7.
158Pamela Amoss, Coast Salish Spirit Dancing: The Survival of an Ancestral Religion, p.43.
159Krech III, Shepard, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.211.
160Vine, Deloria Jr.,“An Open Letter to the Head of the Christian Churches in America,” Literature of theAmerican Indian, eds. Thomas E. Sanders&Walter W. Peek, Beverly Hills: Benziger Bruce&Glencoe, Inc.,1973,215.
161Philip Drucker, Indians of the Northwest Coast, New York: American Museum Science Books,1955, p.155.
162Louis Owens,“Mapping, Naming and the Power of Words,” Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family,Place, p.211.
163Pamela Amoss, Coast Salish Spirit Dancing: The Survival of an Ancestral Religion, Seattle: University ofWashington Press,1978, p.53.
164Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.18.
165Velie Alan,“The Trickster Novel,” Narrative Chance: Postmodern Discourse on Native American IndianLiteratures, ed. Gerald Vizenor, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1993, p.122.
166Barbara Babcock,“‘A Tolerated Margin of Mess’: The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered,” Critical Essayson Na1t6iv7e American Literature, ed. Andrew Wiget, Boston: Hall,1985, p.162.
Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.23.
168See Chris Lalonde,“Trickster, Trickster Discourse and Identity in Louis Owens’ Wolfsong,” Studies inAmerican Indian Literatures, Series2, Vol.7, No.1(Spring1995):27-42.
169Chris LaLonda,“Trying on Trickster in Wolfsong,” Grave Concerns, Trickster Turns: the Novels of LouisOwens, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,2002, p.55.
170Chris LaLonda,“Trying on Trickster in Wolfsong,” Grave Concerns, Trickster Turns: the Novels of LouisOwens, p.35.
171Emory Sekaquaptewa,“Hopi Indian Ceremomies,” See with a Native Eye: Essays on Native American Religion,ed., Walter Holden Capps, New York: Harper and Row,1976, p.38.
172Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.18.
173Susan Bernardin,“Wilderness Condtions: Ranging for Place and Identity in Louis Owens’s Wolfsong,” Studiesin American Literatures, Vol.10, No.2, Summer1998, p.91.
174Ramachandra Guha,“Lewis Mumford, the Forgotten American Environmentalist: An Essay in Rehabilitation,”Minding Nature: The Philosophers of Ecology, ed. David Macauley, p.214.
175David Macauley, ed, Minding Nature: The Philosophers of Ecology, New York: Guilford,1996, p.15.
176Donald Worster, The Wealth of Nature, Environmental History and the Ecological Imagication, New York:Oxford University Press,1993, p.136.
177Leslie Marmon Silko, Gardens in the Dunes, New York: Scribner,1999, p.212.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小说名称首字缩写和引文出处页码，不作另注。
178John E. Thorson, Sarah Britton, Bonnie G. Colby ed., Tribal Water Rights Essays in Contemporary Law, Policyand Economics, Tucson: the University of Arizona Press,2006, p.61.
179金恩出生于加利福利亚，在美国接受高等教育，工作于加拿大。他强调北美原住民整体概念，赞同“泛印第安主义”，反对美加之间的边界线，不愿对美国或加拿大原住民进行区分，故本文将金恩视同美国作家。详见邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，长春：吉林大学出版社，2008年版，第53页。
180查尔斯·拉森（Charles R. Larson）采用“印第安性”（Indianness）指称印第安整体特性，See Charles R. Larson,American Indian Fiction, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,1978, p.11.欧文斯也采用同样的说法，SeeLouis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press,1994, p.231.本章探讨的对象是加拿大原族，故采用“原性”（nativeness）一词。
181金恩反对将印第安文学划为后殖民文学的分类，他认为后殖民这一术语含有“不知羞愧的种族中心主义”（11），他认为将印第安文学归类为后殖民文学，以欧洲人在美洲的殖民入侵为印第安文学的起点，否认了数千年的印第安文学传统。他提倡以原住民文学的“仲合”文学（associational literature）特征取代后殖民论述，避免偏重非原住民历史或仅止于两者造成的冲突(See Thomas King,“Godzilla vs. Postcolonial,” States: TheorizingEnglish-Canadian Postcolonialism, ed.Cynthia Sugars, Peterborough: Broadview Press,2004, pp.183-190.)本文的后殖民意为殖民主义及其影响。在《帝国反击：后殖民文学的理论和实践》中，比尔·阿西克洛夫特提出，“后殖民主义”包括“从古至今所有受到帝国主义殖民过程影响的文化”，强调殖民者与被殖民者之间的冲突。艾里克·鲍默(Elleke Boehmer)在《殖民和后殖民文学》一书中也提出，后殖民文学并不是殖民统治结束后的文学，而是批判地审视殖民关系、反抗殖民观念的文学。艾妮亚·鲁巴(Ania Loomba)在《殖民主义/后殖民主义》中说，应该将后殖民主义理解对殖民统治及其影响的文明论争。鲁巴的“论争”一词与鲍默的“反抗”意思相近，包含“内部殖民”(internal colonialism)。见王建平：《后殖民语境下的美国土著文学——路易丝·厄德里齐的<痕迹>》，载《国外文学》，2006年第4期，第75-76页。
182Thomas King, Green Grass, Running Water, New York: Bantam,1993, P.1.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小说名称首字缩写和引文出处页码，不作另注。
183Karen Bakker, ed. Eau Canada: The Future of Canada’s Water, Vancouver: UBC Press,2007, p.317.
184Tom Goldtooth,“The Indigenous Declaration on Water,” Third World Water Forum, Kyoto, Japa. Mar.2003,Sept.232009, June122013.
185转引自邹惠玲：《<绿绿的草，流动的水>印第安历史的重构》，载《外国文学评论》2004年第4期，第40页。
186太阳舞是平原印第安人，美国印第安人和加拿大原族的传统宗教仪式舞蹈。不同的部落有不同的活动方式和仪式规则。舞者在舞蹈的过程中通常围成一个圈，按照太阳运动的顺时针模式舞动，不仅代表印第安人的整体团结，也象征宇宙生命的循环。舞蹈通常在秘密地点举行（See “Sun Dance,” from Wikipedia, the freeencyclopedia,12Mar.1999,2Dec.2013）。
187Robin Riddington,"Theorizing Coyote's Cannon: Sharing Stories with Thomas King," Theorizing theAmericanist Tradition, Lisa Philips Valentine&Regna Darnell, ed., Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1999, p.35.
188Ake Hulkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwall, Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press,1979, p.25.
189Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.190.
190Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: A Contemporary Perspective, Boston:Beacon,1992, p.59.
191David Suzuki&Peter Knudtson, Wisdom of the Elders, Toronto: Stoddart Publishing Co.,1992, p. xxviii.
192Northrop Fry, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1957, p.146.
193Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.190.
194Thomas King, All My Relations: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction, Norman: Universityof Oklahoma Press,1990, p.26.
196T.C. McLuhan, Touch the Earth: A Self-Portrait of Indian Existence, New York: Outerbridge&Dienstfrey,1971, p.132.
197Vine Deloria, Jr., God Is Red: A Native View of Religion, Golden: North American Press,(2003):81-82.
198Marlene Goldman,“Mapping and Dreaming: Native Resistance in Green Grass Running Water,” CanadianLiterature,161-62,1999, p.33.
199Tim Cresswell, In Place/Out of Place: Geography, Ideology, and Transgression, Minneapolis: University ofMinnessota Press,1996, p.153.
200William, Raymond, The Country and the City, London: Chatto&Windus,1973, p.284.
201Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.27
202Quted in Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.47.
203Karen Bakker, ed. Eau Canada: The Future of Canada’s Water, Vancouver: UBC Press,2007, p.317.
204Fort George，今Chisasibi。
205加拿大有悠久的水坝建设史，这些水坝对于原族产生巨大冲击。其中一些水坝包括The Gardiner Dam inSaskatchewan, the Bennett Dam, Alcan’s Kemano Project in British Columbia, the Bighorn Dam on the NorthSaskatchwan River. See Frank Quinn,“As Long As the Rivers Run: the Impacts of Corporate Water Development onNative Communities in Canada,” Canadian Journal of Native Studies, Vol.11, No.1,(1991):138-54.
206Matthew Coon-Come,“Where Can You Buy a River?” Northeast Indian Quarterly, Vol.8, No.4, Winter,1991,p.10.
207Bradbury John,“British Colunbia: Metropolis and Hinterland in Microcosm,” Heartland and Hinterland: aGeography of Canada Prentice-Hall, L. D. McCann ed, Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.,1987, p.349.
208Vandana Shiva, Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution and Profit, Cambridge (Massachusetts): South End Press,2002, p.53.
209Quinn Frank,“As Long as the Rivers Run: the Impacts of Corporate Water Development on NativeCommunities in Canada,” p.142.
210Derek Gregory&James S. Duncan,“Scripting Egypt: Orientalism and the Cultures of Travel,” Writes ofPassage: Reading Travel Writing, New York: Routledge,1999, p.116.
212关于印第安法案的全面论述，See “A Select and Annotated Bibliography Regarding Bill C-31, IndianRegistration and Band Membership, Aboriginal Identity, Women and Gender Issues,” Oct.212004,.
213简·弗利克（Jane Flick）指出斯福顿和十九世纪西部拓荒推进者克利福德·西福顿（Sir Clifford Sifton1861-1929)同名。他是个耳聋的律师和政治家，是个“强力推行通过平原西进运动在西部定居的倡导者，也是个取代原族人口的定居者重要人物。他是联邦内务部长，在1896年11后威尔弗里德·劳里埃（Wilfrid Laurier）总理手下的“印第安事务部”的负责人（Superintendent of Indian Affairs. See Flick Jane,“Sir Clifford Sifton”,“Reading Notes for Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water”, Canadian Literature,161-62,1999, p.150.）
214See Florence Stratton,“Cartographic Lessons: Susanna Moodie’s Roughing It in the Bush and Thomas King’sGreen Grass Running Water,” Canadian Literature,161/162,1999, pp.94-95.
215St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica (liter, ary English translation), trans. Fathers of the English DominicanProvince, Westminster: Christian Classics,1981, p. I,II.
216Mary M. Keys, Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Promise of the Common Good, Cambridge (United Kingdom):Cambridge University Press,2006, p.9.
217Mary M. Keys, Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Promise of the Common Good, p.9.
218Winona LaDuke, All My Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life. Cambridge (United Kingdom): SouthEnd Press,1999, p.50.
219Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development, London: Zed,1989, p.183.
220James B. Waldram, As Long as the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Development and Native Communities in WesternCanada, Winnipeg: Universityof Manitoba Press,1993, p.181.
221Arundhati Roy, The Cost of Living, New York: Modern Library,1999, p.15.
222Waldram, James B., As Long As the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Dam Development and Native Communities inWestern Canada, p.173.
223James B. Waldram, As Long as the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Development and Native Communities in WesternCanada, p.182.
224James Edward Chamberlin, The Harrowing of Eden: White Attitudes Toward North American Natives. Toronto:Fitzhenry&Whiteside,1975, pp:8-9.
225Barker M. L.&D.Soyez,“Think Locally, Act Globally?: The Transnationalization of Canadian Resource-useConflicts,” Environment, Vol36, No.5(1994):13-14.
228Ward Churchill&Winona LaDuke,“Native North America: The Political Economy of RadioactiveColonialism”, The State of Native America: Geocide, Colonization, and Resistance (Race and Resistance Series), M.Anneette Jaimes ed. Boston: South End Press,1992, p.253.
229James Edward Chamberlin, The Harrowing of Eden: White Attitudes Toward North American Natives, Toronto:Fitzhenry&Whiteside,1975, p.8.
230Arundhati Roy, The Cost of Living, New York: Modern Library,1999, p.15.
231Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive, London: Zed Books,1989, p.183.
232Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive, pp.185-86.
235Karen Bakker, Eau Canada, The Future of Canada’s Water, Vancouver: UBC Press,2007, p.307.
236Karen Bakker, Eau Canada, The Future of Canada’s Water, pp.308-09.
237Jennifer Andrews,“Reading Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water. Border-Crossing Humour,” EnglishStudies in Canada, Vol28, No.1,2002, p.96.
238Gerald Vizenor,“Trickster Discourse: Comic Holotropes and Language Games,” Narrative Chance:Postmodern Discourse on Native Games, ed. Gerald Vizenor, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,1989,p.191.
239Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.226.
240Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Postindian Warriors of Survivance, p.173.
241Thomas King, ed. All My Relation: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction, p. xiii.
242Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, New York: Henry Holtand Company, Inc.,2007, p.416.
243Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.168.
244现实中的克里人以市场手段阻止詹姆斯二期工程建设。克里人在美国宣传进口加拿大水电成本过高，1989年，缅因州取消与加拿大水电公司的十五亿美元合同。1992年，克里人和支持者向纽约州政府提出提案，要求购买国外电力的合同要达到州环境指标，并获通过。同年5月，纽约州取消一个购买加拿大水电的合同。1994年，魁北克新总理帕瑞佐（Jacques Parizeau）宣布取缔詹姆斯湾二期工程(See Jace Weaver, Defending Mother EarthNative American Perspectives on Environmental Justice, Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books,1996, p.100)。
245Jane Flick,“Reading Notes for Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water,” p.146.
246Henry David Thoreau, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, eds. Carl F. Hovde, William L. Howarth,&Elizabeth Hall Witherell, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1980, p.31.
247Alexander Morris, The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories, Toronto:Coles Publishing Company,1971, p.202.
248Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, London: Vintage,1993, p.96.
249James H. Cox,“All This Water Imagery Must Mean Something: Thomas King’s Revision of Narritives ofDormination and Conquest in Green Grass, Running Water,” American Indian Quarterly, Vol.24, No.2, spring2000,p.221.
250Thomas King, The Truth about Stories, Toronto: The House of Anansi Press,2003, p.105.
251Marlene Goldman,“Mapping and Dreaming: Native Resistance in Green Grass, Running Water,” CanadianLiterature,162/3,1999, P.27.
252Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.112.
253James Cox,“All This Water Imagery Must Mean Something: Thomas King’s Revision of Narratives of
254帕瓦仪式，即Powwow，又名Pow Wow，原意是印第安部落的巫医和精神领袖，由此引申为他们举行的宗教仪式，本来写作pau-wau或pauau，十九世纪的欧洲探险家把它错拼成了Pow Wow,后来大家，包括印第安人也就慢慢接受了这种说法。现代的帕瓦仪式是美国印第安人和加拿大原族的特别事件，人们集会，唱歌、跳舞和开展社交活动，体验传统文化，仪式持续1~3天不等。该词也可指美洲原住民任何部落的集会（See “Pow wow,”from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,Jan.2001,12June.2013.
255Vine Deloria Jr.,“Reflection and Revelation,” For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, New York:Routledge,1998, p.259.
256Laura E. Donaldson,“Noah Meets Old Coyote, or Singing in the Rain: Intertextuality in Thomas King’s GreenGrass, Running Water,” Studies in American Indian Literatures: The Journal of the Association for the Study of AmericanIndian Literatures,2ndser., Vol.7, No.2,1995, p.39.
257Laura E. Donaldson,“Noah Meets Old Coyote, or Singing in the Rain: Intertextuality in Thomas King’s GreenGrass, Running Water,” p.40.
258金恩认为仲合文学通常描写一个原住民群体。它也会描述一个非原住民群体，它避免故事叙述以非原住民群体或两种文化的矛盾为中心，而是聚焦于原住民的日常生活和错综复杂事件，根据平直的叙述线索组织情节元素，这种叙述线索避免在非原住民文学中受到重视的无所不在的高潮和结局（See Thomas King, Godzilla vs.Postcolonial, Unhomely States: Theorizing English-Canadian Postcolonialism, ed. Cynthia Sugars, Peterborough, ON.:Broadview Press,2004, p.185）。
259James H. Cox,“All This Water Imagery Must Mean Something: Thomas King’s Revision of Narratives ofDomination and Conquest in Green Grass Running Water,” p.239.
260Joseph W. Meeker, The Comedy of Survival: Literary Ecology and a Play Ethic, Tucson: University of ArizonaPres,1997, p.27.
261Laura Coltelli, Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, p.22.
262Kenneth Lincoln, Indi’n Humor: Bicultural Play in Native America, New York: Oxford University Press,1993,p.5.
263“美国印第安人战争”的概念是指今日美国所在地区北美土著居民与欧洲定居者之间的战争。印第安人战争时间跨度超过150年，早在殖民地建立之初，在1528年，西班牙殖民者便已经与印第安人发生了战斗，该战争持续到大约1890年。随着欧洲殖民者的到来，人口压力使定居者需要扩张土地，将原住民向西部和北部迁移，致使双方之间爆发战争。许多冲突是局部性的，起因于土地使用争端。战争后期，昭昭天命思想引发众多冲突。许多冲突的诱因是“印第安迁移法”（Indian Removal Act,1830），该法案支持使用武力或通过协约买卖或交换土地的方式将欧洲人定居点的印第安人有计划、大规模迁移走。这场战争无疑是残酷，凶狠和不义的，几乎造成对印第安人的种族灭绝（See “American Indian Wars,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Jan.2001,2Aug.2012,）。
264Ellen L. Arnold, ed., Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000, p.182.
265Ellen L.Arnold, ed., Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, p.164.
266Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth-Century Garden: Imperialism, Subsistence, and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, Vol.19, No.3,2007, p.115.
267Joni Adamson, American Indian Literature, Environmental Justice, and Ecocriticism: The Middle Place,Tucson: University of Arizona press,2001, p.181.
268Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminie in American Indian Traditions, Boston: Beacon,1992, p.67.
269Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminie in American Indian Traditions, Boston: Beacon,1992, p.11.
270Javier Garcia,“Fighting Biopiracy: The Legislative Protection of Traditional Knowledge”, Berkeley La RazaLaw Journey, Vol.18, No.5,2007, p.7.
271Robert M. Nelson, Place and Vision: The Functon of Landscape in Native American Fiction, New York: Lang,1993, p.32.
272Lee Schweninger,“Writing Nature: Silko and Native Americans as Nature Writers,” MELUS, Summer1993,Vol.18, No.2, p.47.
273Joanna Macy,“Working through Environmental Despair”, Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth, Healing theMind, eds., T. Roszak, M.E. Gomes&A.D. Kanner, San Francisco: Sierra Books,1995, p.255.
274See Leslie Marmon Silko,“Interior and Exterior Landscapes: The Pueblo Migration Stories,” Yellow Womanand a Beauty of the Spirit: Essays on Native American Life Today, NewYork: Touchstone,1996, p.37.
275See Dennis Tedlock, trans.,“The Beginning,” Finding the Center, Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians,Performances in the Zuni, eds. Andrew Peynetsa&Walter Sanchez, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,(1972):275-98.
276Owens Louis, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.188.
277Joni Adamson, American Indian literature, Environmental Justice, and Ecocriticism-The Middle Place, p.166.
278蛇在不同的印第安部落文化中呈现正反不同的形象，如美国北部的印第安人认为蛇是暴力和报复的象征。而在加利福利亚的印第安文化中，王蛇（Kingsnake）被视为神圣动物。在墨西哥和中美洲的一些地区，蛇被视为神性、再生和性灵力量的象征。人们对蛇充满畏惧和敬畏。许多阿兹德克（Aztec）和玛雅（Mayan）神灵如Quetzalcoatl, Coatlicue, Tlaloc, Q'uq'umatz都与蛇相联系，或以蛇的形态出现。蛇褪下的皮在墨西哥的一些地区被传统教士用作神器。蛇在一些印第安文化中成为氏族动物（clan animal）。See Laura Redish,“Native AmericanSnake Mythology,”13Mar.2003,1Oct.2012,.
279James E.Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, New York: Oxford University Press,1979, p.11.
280Paula Gunn Allen,“The Feminine Landscape of Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony”, Sacred Hoop: Recoveringthe Feminine in American Indian Tradition,1992, p.127.
281Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, Jackson: Univesity Press of Mississippi,2000,p.176.
282Robert Allen Warrior, Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1995, p.87.
28319世纪末期，在印第安人中开始流行“鬼舞”运动，1881年美国政府下令禁止印第安人跳“鬼舞”。其实，这种“鬼舞”来自于印第安人古老的“太阳舞”，加进了很多白人文化元素，如基督教的“弥赛亚”信仰。“鬼舞”被认为导致1890年的伤膝屠杀（the Wounded Knee Massacre）。直到20世纪中期，印第安人的“太阳舞”才重新悄悄恢复（See “Ghost Dance,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Jan.2001,3Oct.2013）。
284Quoted in Ronnie Farley, ed. Women of the Native Struggle: Portraits and Testimony of Native AmericanWomen, New York: Orion Books,1993, p.77.
285Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth Century Garden, Imperialism Subsistence and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes”, Studies in American Indian Literatures, p.116.
286Paula Gunn Allen,“The Feminine Landscape of Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony”, Sacred Hoop: Recoveringthe Feminine in American Indian Tradition,1992, p.63.
287Vine Deloria Jr., For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, ed. James Treat, London: Routledge,1999, p.116.
288Per. Seyerstedt,“Listening to the Spirits: An Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko,” Conversations with LeslieMarmon Silko, ed. Ellen L. Arnold, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000, p.32.
289Vine Deloria Jr.,“Vision and Community”, For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, ed. James Treat,London: Routledge,1999, p.113.
290James J. Donahue,“Review of Writing Storyteller and Medicine Woman,” MELU, Vol.31, No.1, Mar.2006, p.156.
291James J. Donahue,“Review of Writing Storyteller and Medicine Woman,” p.157.
292Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth Century Garden, Imperialism Subsistence and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, p.116.
293鲁枢元：《城市之困与环境美学——记与美国环境美学家阿诺德·伯林特的一次学术交流》，载《艺术百家》2010年第6期，第21页。
294Deloria, Barbara, Kristen Foehner&Sam Scinta, eds. Spirit and Reason, the Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader.,foreward by Wilma P. Mankiller. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing,1999.
295Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.86.
296[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死——妇女、生态和绿色革命》，吴国盛等译，长春：吉林人民出版社，1999年版，第1页。
297[澳大利亚]薇尔·普鲁姆德：《女性主义与对自然的主宰》，第93页。
298Quted in Rinda West, Out of the Shadow, Ecopsychology, Story, and Encounters with the Land, Charlottesville:University of Virginia Press,2007, p.30.
299Ellen L.Arnold ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000, p.20.
300Willard Hughes Rollings,“Indians and Christianity,” A Companion to American Indian Histor, eds. Philip J.Deloria and Neal Salisbury, Malden: Blackwell Publishers,2004, p.122.
301Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000,p.164.
302Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, p.181.
303科西嘉共和国于1768—1769被瓦克斯（Comte de Vaux）率领的法国军队占领（See “Napoleon,” fromWikipedia, the free encyclopedia,2,Oct.,2011,5, Dec.2013,）。
304See Vandana Shiva, Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply, Cambridge (Massachusetts):South End Press,2000.
305Theodor Adorno,W., Max Horkheimer. Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. Edmund Jephcott, Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press,2002, p.44.
306Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern, trans. Catherine Porter, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf,1993,pp.10-11.
307Rinda West, Out of the Shadow-Ecopsychology, Story, and Encounters with the Land, Charlottesville:University of Virginia Press,2007, p.10.
308Theodore Roszak, The Voice of the Earth, Michigan: Phanes Press,2001, p.42.
309Mary Louise Pratt&Mary Louise, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, London: Routledge,1992, pp.56-57.
311Jordan Erdos,“Plant Life and the Maya: Relationships and Conceptualizations”,12, Dec,1999,5Dec.2013,.
312Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, pp.180-81.
313Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth-Century Garden: Imperialism, Subsistence, and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, Vol.19, No.3, Fall2007, p.118.
314315Shepard Krech, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton,2000, p.47.Shepard Krech, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.48.
316Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.8.
317Vine Deloria, Jr., We Talk You Listen: New Tribes, New Turf, Lincoln: Bison Books1970, p.186.德里罗强调。
318Ellen L.Arnold ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko. Jackson:U.P.of Mississippi,2000, p.186.
320David Arnold, The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture and European Expansion, Oxford: Blackwell,1996.
321“伟大女神”是旧石器时代和新石器时代欧洲和近东（包括其它地区）的主要宗教信仰。她是生育力、生命和死亡的人格化象征。她也被认为是母亲神或伟大母亲。See S. von Cles-Reden, The Realm of the Great Goddess,Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc,1962, p.11; Uberto Pestalozza,1954, Etorno Feminio Mediterraneo, Vicenza: NeriPozza Editore,1954, pp.28-31.
322Vine Deloria, Jr.,“Reflection and Revelation,” For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, London:Routledge,1998, p.256.
323William Gregory Woods-Martin, Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland A Folklore Sketch; a Handbook of IrishPre-Christian Traditions, Vol2, London: Langmans, Green&Co,1902, p.154.
324Lynn White Jr.,“The Historic Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” Science, New Series, Vol.155, No.3767, Mar.10,1967, p.1205.
325Vine Deloria, Jr.,“Relativity Relatedness and Reality,” Spirit and Reason, p.34.
326Ellen L.Arnold, Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silk, p.6
327古诺斯替教崇拜女性神。诺斯替教是被认为早期基督教异教一种主要形式。该教的文本写于公元后的前三个世纪。诺斯替传统以希腊化的亚历山大里亚为中心，它将基督教与东方的巴比伦、波斯和西方的希腊和罗马的神灵教义相综合。诺斯替教（起源于知识）建立在对立面的统一和男性与女性原则的平等的基础上。它坚持在一个超验的上帝那里男性与女性对立面的原初统一，但同时又坚持在上帝与原初世界之间、善良与邪恶、精神与物质之间的二元对立。见[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死——妇女、生态和绿色革命》，第17-20页。
328Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, p.7.
329Robert Graves,“Introduction,” The New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, Paris: Prometheus Press,1972,p.vii.
330Annee Baring&Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess, New York: Penguin,1993, P.18.
331Barbara G. Walker, The Woman’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets, San Francisco: Harper and Row,1983, p.101.
332Marrija Gimbutas, The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe, Berkeley: University of California Press,1974, p.91.
333Annee Baring&Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess, New York: Penguin,1993, pp.18-19.
334Barbara G. Walker, Restoring the Goddess, New York: Prometheus Books,2000, p.294.
335Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess, New York: Harper andRow,1989, p.95.
336Marrija Gimbutas, The Language of Goddesses, New York: Harper Collins,1991, p.321.
337Marrija Gimbutas, The Language of the Goddess, p.321.
338339Marrija Gimbutas, The Language of the Goddess, p. xxiii.
Barbara G. Walker, The Woman’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets. San Francisco: Harper and Row,1983, p.629.
340关于蛇或神蛇作为女神显现的故事，See G.R. Levy, The Gate of Horn, London: Faber&Faber,1946, pp.218,221,235411,253; Marrija Gimbutas, The Civilization of the goddess, San Francisco: Harper and Row,1991, p.236.
Barbara G. Walker, The Woman’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets. p.903.
342Juan Eduardo Cirlot, trans. Jack Sage, A Dictonary of Symbols, London: Routledge&Kegan Paul,1978, p.285.
343Joseph Campbell&Bill Moyers, The Power of Myths, New York: Doubleday,1988, p.45.
344Eric Neumann, The Great Mother, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1974, p.145.
345Joseph Campbell&Bill Moyers, The Power of Myth, pp.47-48.
346Marija Gimbutas, The Language of the Goddess, p.321.
347Anne Baring&Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddness, London: Penguin Group,1993, p.570.
348Geoffrey Ashe, Virgin Mary’s Cult And Reemergence of The Goddess, London: Penguin group,1988, pp.191-93.
349Thomas Irmer&Matthias Schmidt,“An Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko,” Conversations with LeslieMarmon Silko, p.153.
350Louis Owens, Other Destiny: understanding the American Novel, pp.180-81.
351Stephanie Lee,“Domestic Resistance: Gardening, Mothering and Storytelling in Lesley Marmon Silko’sGardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literature, Vol.21, No.1,2009, p.20.
352Lynn Townsend White, Jr.,“The Historic Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” Science, Vol.155, No.3767, Mar.10,1967, Mar.10,1967, p.1205.
353[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第2-6页。
354见Susan Griffin, Pornography and Silence: Culture’s Revenge Against Nature, New York: Harper&Row,1981.
355Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York: Vintage Books,1993, p.2.
356见[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第206-15页；Shive Visvanathan,“From the Annals of the LaboratoryState,” Alternatives12.1. Jan.1987, pp.38-40.
358Gregory Salyer,“Two Versions of Literary Nationalism: Leslie Marmon Silko and Sherman Alexie,” LiteraryStrategies for the New Millenium, ALA Symposium, Puerta Vallarta, Mexico.14Nov.1999, p.2.
359See Ward Churchill and Winona LaDuke,“Native North America: The Political Economy of RadioactiveColonization,” The State of Native America: Geocide, Coloniazation and Resistance (Race and Resistance Ser.) ed.James M. Annette, Boston: South End,(1992):241-66; Judith Todd,“On Common Ground: Native American andFeminist Spirituality Approaches in the Struggle to Save Mother Earth,” The Politics of Women’s Spirituality: Essays onthe Rise of Spiritual Power within the Feminist Movement, Charlene Spretnak ed, New York: Anchor-Doubleday,(1982):
430-45.
360Four Directions Council,“The Uranium Industry and Indigenous Peoples of North America,” StatementSubmitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights,20Feb.1999,14Dec2013.
361杜鹏《环境正义：环境伦理的回归》，载《自然辩证法研究》，2007年第6期，第5页。“环境正义”理论与实践研究是当前环境伦理学研究的重要内容。国内外“环境正义”研究主要基于各自的环境状况与发展实践，围绕着“环境正义”的含义、“环境正义”的向度、“环境正义”的原则、“环境正义”何以可能等问题进行各自的话语表达与理论建构。参见张斌，陈学谦《环境正义研究述评》，载《伦理学研究》，2008年第4期，第59-69页。
362Michael B. Gerrard ed., The Law of Environmental Justice, Chicago: ABA Section of Environment, Energy andResources,1999, p. xxix.
363Quted in Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (2nded.), pp.168-69.
364Linda Hogan,“The Transformation of Tribalism,” Book Forum5,1981, p.409.
365Quted in Barbara J. Cook, ed., From the Center of Tradition: Critical Perspectives on Linda Hogan, Boulder:University Press of Colorado,2003, p.2.
366Amy Greenwood Baria,“Linda Hogan’s Two Worlds,” Studies in American Indian Literature Vol.10,No.4,1998, p.67.
367John A. Murray,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan,”7Feb.1999,7Aug.2013.
368497So.2d889（Fla. App.2Dist.1986）
369United States v. Billie,667F Supp.1485(S.E. Fla.1987)
370Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations,San Francisco: Sierra Club Books,1991, p.256.
371Fla. Stat. Ann.§372.671(West1988)
372United States v. Billie,667F Supp.1485,1496(S.D. Fla.1987).1983年比利案的第一次庭审名称为Florida V.James E. Billie，庭审记录没有向世界公布。目前只能查到1987年第二次案件庭审的文件。与该案件相关的记录源自第二次案件的记录。
373Endangered Species Preservation Act, Pub. L. No.89-669,80Stat.926(1966). Endangered Species Act, Pub. L.No.93-205,87Stat.884(1973)
374See Treaty with the Seminole (May9,1832),7Stat.368; Treaty with the e Seminole (March28,1833),7Stat.368
375United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1488
376Executive order No.1379(June28,1911)
377378United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1488
Menominee Tribe of Indians V. United States,391U.S.404(1968).
379United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497
380United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1496
381United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1496
382United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497.
383State v. Billie,497So.2d at890
384State v. Billie,497So.2d at895; United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497
38516U.S.C§§1539(e)(1988);50C.F.R.§§17.5(1991)
386State v. Billie,497So.2d at894
387Robert J. Miller, Speaking with Forked Tongues: Indian Treaties, Salmon and the Endangered Species Act,70OR. L. REV543,568(1991).
388United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497
389United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1492
390United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1492
391Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred: The Faith of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations,pp.256-57.
392Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred: The Faith of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations, p.256.
393Hudson, Gail,“Endangered Wisdom,”6Oct.2001,11Dec.2013,
394美国佛罗里达埃沃格莱兹国家公园（Everglades National Park）沼泽地。
396Linda Hogan, Power, New York: W.W. Norton,1998.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小
397Linda Hogan,“Mountain Lion,” The Book of Medicines, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press,1993, p.27.
398Robert L. Berner, Defining Amerian Indian Literature: One Nation Divisible, New York: Edwin Mellen Press,1999, p.407.
399Linda Hogan,“Mountain Lion,”The Book of Medicines, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press,1993, p.27.
400Linda Hogan,“Endangered Wisdom,” by Gail Hudson,6Oct.2010,11Dec.2013,
401Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’s Power,”From the Center of Tradition: Critical Perspectives on Linda Hogan, ed., Barbara J.Cook. Boulder: University Press ofColorado,2003, p.162.
402Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’s Power,”p.173.
404[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》徐育新等译，北京：大众文艺出版社，1998年，第455页。
405[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，第455页。
406[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，第455页。
407[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，第456页。
408Linda Hogan,“Walking,” Sisters of the Earth: Women's Prose and Poetry about Nature, p.12.
409Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,“Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, eds. CaryNelson and Larry Grossberg, Chicago: University of Illinois Press,(1988):271-313.
410Philip Armstrong, What Animals Mean in the Fiction of Modernity, London: Routledge,2008, pp.3-4.
411Sarah Whatmore,“Hybrid Geographies: Rethinking the ‘Human’ in Human Geography,” The Animals Reader,eds., Linda Kalof, Seven Mattes&Amy Fitzgerald, Oxford: Berg,2007, pp.340-1.
412Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World, New York: Norton,1995, p.40.
413Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.20.
414Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.168.
415[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第181页。
416[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第199页。
417Desmond M. Clarke, Descartes’ Philosophy of Science, Manchester: Manchester University Press,1982, p.182.
418See James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth CenturyAmerica, Westwood: Greenwood Press,1981,(1981):3-40.尽管加利福利亚的淘金潮在1848年已开始，于1869年完工的横贯大陆的铁路激发了人们向西移民的新兴趣。
419James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth CenturyAmerica, pp.4-5.
420See Thomas A. Lund, American Wildlife Law, Berkeley: University of California Press,1980, pp.8-10.
421原有野牛的数目不等，四千万头是保守数目。关于野牛的数目估算的详细介绍, see Frank Gilbert Roe, TheNorth American Buffal: A Critical Study of the Species in Its Wild State, Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1951, pp.334-520.
422野牛猎手以捕杀的野牛战利品数量为自豪。例如，野牛比尔·科德（Baffalo Bill Code）声称他在为“联邦太平洋铁路”（Union Pacific Railroad）工作的短短十二个月中，杀了4280头野牛（see Peter Matthiessen, Wildlifein America, NewYork: Penguin,1959, p.149）。一些评论家相信，铁路的建成导致“对于野牛的最后疯狂袭击”（seePeter Matthiessen, Wildlife in America, p.148）。不仅因为铁路允许猎手从行进的火车上无止境地射杀猎物，它也提供了一个向东部市场运送皮革的前所未有的方式（See Peter Matthiessen, Wildlife in America, p.149.）大约不到三十年，几乎所有的四千万头野牛在平原上倒下死去。一些历史学家估计在1870年代早期，每年杀戮五百万头野牛, See James B. Trefethen, An American Crusade for Wildlife, New York: Boone&Crockett Club,1975, p.15.
423在新的黄石国家公园，在保护区内估计只有约二十头动物处于安全状态（See Peter Matthiessen, Wildlifein America, NewYork: Penguin,1959, pp.150-51）。怀俄明州在1890年通过了为期十年的禁捕野牛季决定，黄石公园的野牛在这样的保护下数量增长。在1908年，在蒙大拿建立了国家野牛区（National Bison Range），由于这些有限的储备，美国的野牛侥幸逃脱灭绝的命运，数千万头野牛急剧减少为二十头野牛（See James A.Tober, WhoOwns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth Century America, pp.3-40,97-102）。
424Frank Gilbert Roe, The North American Buffalo, Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1951, p.602.
425[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第167页。
426James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth CenturyAmerica, p.9.
427Roderick Frazier Nash, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics, Madison: University ofWisconsin Press,1989, p.175.
428豁免权条款中定义的生活物资包括为满足当地人的生活需求，在阿拉斯加的村镇贩卖鱼和野生动物的可食用部分，而且仅仅限于阿拉斯加地区（See “Title I—Endangered Species Act of1988, Public Law100-478-Oct.,7,1988,100th Congress,” Dec.1988,8June2013.）。豁免权允许居住在阿拉斯加原住民阿留申人（Aleuts）、爱斯基摩人（Eskimos）或居住在阿拉斯加原住民村落中的非原住民为获取生活物资而进行的打猎，都可以免于追究责任。
429“Predatory Mammals and Endangered Species: Hearings Before Subcommittee on Fisheries and WildlifeConservation and the Environment of the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries,”92nd Cong.,2d Sess.143,1972(See “United States v. Bille”, No.87-8038-Cr-Paine (667F. Supp.1485)(S.D. Fla. August24,1987”,14Sept.2001,2Dec.2013.143,1972(See “United States v. Bille”,No.87-8038-Cr-Paine (667F. Supp.1485)(S.D. Fla. August24,1987”,14Sept.2001,2Dec.2013.
430关于自哥伦布发现新大陆后对美国印第安宗教的压迫，See Walter Echo-Hawk, Loopholes in ReligiousLiberty: The Need for Federal Law to Protect Freedom of Worship for Native Peope,16Native Am. Rts. Legal Rev.7(Summer1991).
431Susan Landon,“Indians Want Equity In Religious Freedom, Navajo President Says,” Albuqueque Journal,23Nov.1991, p.21.
432John A. Murray,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan,”10May2008,7Aug.2013.
433[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，徐育新等译，北京：大众文艺出版社，1998年，第479页。
434Camille Colatosti,“Holding a World in Balance,”9Feb.1997,11Dec.2012,.
435Lawrence Buell, Writing for an Endangered World: Literture, Culture, and Environment in the U.S. and Beyond,Belknap: Press of Harvard University Press,2001, p.239.
436Jerry Mander, In the Absence of Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations, SanFrancisco: Sierra Club,1992, p.257.
437Donelle N. Dreese,“The Terrestrial and Aquatic Intelligence of Linda Hogan”, Studies in American IndianLiterature,2nd Ser., Vol.11, No.4,winter1999, p.15.
438Greta Gaard,“Ecofeminism and Wilderness,” Environmental Ethics,19, Spring,1997, p.12.
439Camille Colatosti,“Holding a World in Balance,”4September2002,11/Aug.2012..
440Giovanna Di Chiro,“Nature as Community: The Convergence of Environmental and Social Justice,”Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, ed. William Cronon, New York: W. W. Norton,1996,p.311.
441Ramachandra Guha&J. Martinez-Alier, Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South, London:Earthscan,1997, p.107.
442[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第168-169页。
443See “Florida panther,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Jan.2001,12Dec.2013.
444Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’s Power,”p.162.
445David Maehr, The Florida Panther: Life and Death of a Vanishing Carnivore, Washington, D.C.: Island Press,1997, p. xi.
446David Maehr, The Florida Panther: Life and Death of a Vanishing Carnivore, p.225.
447Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
448Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World, p.108.
449Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World, p.83
450Linda Hogan, The Woman Who Watches Over the World: A Native Memoir, New York: W.W. Norton&Co.,2001, p.59.
451Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
452Greta Gaard,“Strategies for a Cross-Cultural Ecofeminist Ethics: Interrogating Tradition, Preserving Nature,”New Essays in Ecofeminist Literary Criticism, ed. Glynnis Carr, Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press,2000, p.93.
453Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’ Power,”From the Center of Tradition: Critical Perspectives on Linda Hogan, ed. Barbara J. Cook, Boulder: University Press ofColorado,2003, p.168.
454Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
455Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan.”4561871年，根据3月3日的印第安租借法案（the Indian Appropriation Act），政府停止签订协约。Felix S.Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law, Lexisnexis,1942, p.33..
457Coggins&Modrcin, Native American Indians and Federal Wildlife Law,31Stan. L. Rev.,1979,p.379.; D.Getches&C. Wilkinson, Federal Indian Law,1986,p.269. Nation一词可译为国族或族群。早期印第安社会往往把自己视为国族(nation)，这一概念并不是现代意义上的民族/国家(nation/state)，而是(因具体人际关系和职责关系连接在一起的)人民的同义词。在前殖民时期，这种国族间的关系被理解为人民与人民之间的关系。后来美国人称印第安人为“族群”(一般用来指称不同于主体居民的人们，脱离母体的非本土族体)，因为欧洲人在美洲大陆以主人自居，把印第安人和其他移民通称为异己的“族群”(详见朱伦《西方的‘族体’概念系统——从‘族群’概念在中国的应用错位说起》，载《中国社会科学》2005年第4期，第86页)印第安学者德罗里亚也认为，国族概念是早期(前殖民时期和美国独立后一段时期)土著人与欧洲人之间关系的延续，这种主权意识仍然是土著部落的主导思想。18世纪后期，美国与印第安人所建立的条约关系(印第安部落以独立主权国家身份来签署条约)只能说是印第安人的精神遗产，而不是实际意义上的政治或物质遗产，因为它从来都不是美国联邦政府制定印第安政策和立法的主要依据，这种政治话语也一直主导着文化话语(See Vine Deloria,ed.,American Indian Policy in theTwentieth Century, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1992,p.10.)转引自王建平《后殖民语境下的美国土著文学——路易丝·厄德里齐的<痕迹>》，载《国外文学》2006年第4期，第31页。
458关于围绕协约权的辩护，See United States v. Dion,476U.S.734(1986)(Yankton Sioux1858treaty); UnitedStates v. Fryberg,622F.2d1010(9th Cir.1980)(Tulalip-Treaty of Point Elliot)等。
459United States v. Dion,762F.2d674(8th Cir.1985); United States v. L. Top Sky,547F.2d483(9th Cir.1976).
460Richard Blow,“The Great American Whale Hunt,” Mother Jones, p.8, September/October1998,6Oct2013,.
461Greta Gaard,“Tools for a Cross-Cultural Feminist Ethics: Exploring Ethical Contexts and Contents in theMakah Whale Hunt,” Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philophy, Vol.16No.1,2001, p.4.
462Linda Hogan, Deena Metzger&Brenda Peterson, eds., Intimate Nature: The Bond Between Women Animals,New York: Fawcett Books,1998, p.102.
463Brenda Peterson,“Who Will Speak for the Whales? Elders Call for a Spiritual Dialogue on Makah Tribe’sWhaling Proposal,” The Seattle Times,22Dec.1996, B-7-8.
464Quted in Linda Hogan,“Silencing Tribal Grandmothers: Traditions, Old Values at Heart of Makah’s ClashOver Whaling,” B-9-10.
465Linda Hogan,“Silencing Tribal Grandmothers, Old Values at Heart of Makah’s Clash over Whaling,” SeattleTimes15, Dec.1996: B9.
466Quted in Linda Hogan,“Silencing Tribal Grandmothers: Traditions, Old Values at Heart of Makah’s ClashOver Whaling,” B-8.
467Linda Hogan&Brenda Peterson, eds., Sightings: The Gray Whales’ Mysterious Journey, Washington, D.C.:National Geographic Society,2002, p.154.
468Linda Hogan&Brenda Peterson, eds., Sightings: The Gray Whales’ Mysterious Journey, p.153.
469Greta Gaard,“Tools for a Cross-Cultural Feminist Ethics: Exploring Ethical Contexts and Contents in theMakah Whale Hunt,” p.4.
470Linda Hogan&Brenda Peterson, eds., Sightings: The Gray Whales’ Mysterious Journey, p.154.
471Karsten Fitz,“Native and Christian: Religion and Spirituality as Transcultural Negotiation in American IndianNovels of the1990s,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, Vol.26, No.2,2002, p.13.
473Amy Aronson,“Interviews of Linda Hogan,” Dec.2009,9Oct.2013,.
474Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
475王腊宝：《流亡、思乡与当代移民文学》，载《外国文学评论》2005年第1期，第113页。
476Linda Hogan, Deena Metzger&Brenda Peterson, eds. Intimate Nature: The Bond Between Women andAnimals, New York: Fawcett Books,1998, p.11.
4774是印第安神圣数字，参见Buckland, A.W.“Four as a Sacred Number,” Vol.25,1896, p.96。
478Linda Hogan,“Creations (Ria Lagartos and Ria Celestin, Yucatan, Mexico),” Heart of the Land: Essays onLast Great Places, ed. Joseph Barbato&Lisa Weinerman, New York: Pantheon Books,1994, p.108.
479Arnold Krupat, Red Matters: Native A merican Studies, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,2002,p.10.
480Sidner Larson, Captured in the Middle: Tradition and Experience in Contemporary Native AmericanWriting,Seattle: University of Washington Press,2000, p.156.
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邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，长春：吉林大学出版社，2008年版。
---.《<绿绿的草，流动的水>印第安历史的重构》，载《外国文学评论》，2004年第4期，第39-49页。
3邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，长春：吉林大学出版社，2008年版，第26页。
4See Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization: A Study of the Indian and the American Mind, Berkeley:University of California Press,1988; Robert F. Berkhofer Jr., The White Man’s Indian: Images of the American Indianfrom Columbus to the Present, New York: Vintage,1978; Vine Deloria Jr.,“The Indians of the American Imagination,”God is Red: A Native View of Religion, Dolden: North American Press,2003,25-45; Ward Churchill,“Fantasies of theMaster Race: Categories of Stereotyping of American Indians in Film,” Fantasies of the Master Race: Literature, Cinemaand the Colonization of American Indians, Monroe ME: Common Courage,1992, pp.231-41.
6王宁：《叙述、文化定位和身份认同——霍米·巴巴的后殖民批评理论》，载《外国文学》2002年第6期,第48-55页。
7Jace Weaver, That People Might Live: Native American Literature and Native American Community, New York:Oxford University Press,1997, p.10.
8Michael Dorris, Native American Literature in an Ethnohistorical Context, College English, Vol.41, No.2,1979,pp.147-62.
9Arnold Krupat, The Turn to the Native, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,1998, p.32.
10邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，第45页。
11加拿大原住民称自己为“第一民族”或“原族”（First Nations/First People）以强调自己作为美洲最早居民的主权地位。
12Elizabeth Cook-Linn, Anti-Indianism in Modern America: A Voice from Tatekeya's Earth, Urbana: University ofIllinois Press,2007, p.37.
13Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, Norman: University of OklahomaPress,1992, pp.4-5.
14Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, P.7.
15Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, P.20.
16See Robert Warrior, Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions, Minneapolis: Universityof Minnesota Press,1995, p. xix.
18Shepard Krech, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton&Co.,2000, p.25.
19Louis Owens, Bone Game, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,2013, p.119.
20邹惠玲：《<青青的草，流动的水>印第安历史的重构》，载《外国文学评论》2004年第4期，第40-49页。
21王建平：《后殖民语境下的美国土著文学》，载《国外文学》2006年第4期，第75-81页。
22在2013年，该领域最重要的刊物ISLE庆祝建刊二十周年。
23Cheryll Glotfelty,“Introduction: Literary Studies in an Age of Environmental Crisis”, The Ecocriticism Reader:Landmarks in Literary Ecology, eds. Cheryll Glotfelty&Harold Fromm, Athens: University of Georgia Press,1996,p.xviii.
24王宁：《东方主义、后殖民追和文化霸权主义批判——爱德华·萨义德的后殖民主义剖析》，载《北京大学学报》1995年第2期，第55页。
25Michael Bennett,“From Wide Open Spaces to Metropolitan Places: the Urban Challenge to Ecocriticism,” TheISLE Reader: Ecocriticism1993-2003, eds. M.Branch&S.Slovic, Athens: University of Georgia Press,(2003):296-317.
26本文中的发展主义指兴起于二十世纪五六十年代的发展主义思潮，具体指“在发展哲学的谱系中，以单纯的经济增长为目标的社会发展观，它将社会发展归之为经济发展，将经济发展归之为经济增长。然而，这一发展观在一些发展中国家的实施，使人们饱尝了‘有增长无发展’以及‘增长与发展负相关’的恶果，导致物质富有和精神空虚、经济繁荣和道德堕落、技术进步与生态恶化的共存并生”（田启波、胡宜安19，参见田启波、胡宜安《发展主义的反思与超越》，载《高校理论战线》2011年第10期，第19-22页）。唯发展主义语境中的发展以民族国家为主体，以“跃进式”和“赶超式”发展为主体形式，以西欧和北美现代化模式为标杆，故本文中将这种发展观称为西方发展观。
27何建华将发展正义定义为“发展正义是对发展的正义评价与约束，是发展理念、发展实践、发展模式本身是否合乎公正、正义的伦理原则。发展正义的实质是通过对经济社会发展与人类存在方式的关系的深入思考，关注人类如何不以自身异化为代价发展经济，并在这种发展过程中实现人自身的自由健康全面发展。因此，发展正义是体现在发展理念、发展实践、发展模式、发展机制中的正义观念和正义原则，它要求人们从正义的角度认识、评价和调控发展”（何建华，第108-109页。参见何建华：《发展正义——当代社会面临的重大课题》，载《浙江社会科学》2011年第10期，第107-113页）。
28本文作者理解“发展”为“被引导的变化的多层面过程，这种过程与进步巧合一致，或暗示进步，它不仅以经济增长衡量，也要纳入提高生活质量的语境中进行评价（See Hussein M. Fahim, Dams, People andDevelopment: The Aswan High Dam Case, New York: Pergamon Press,1981, p.118）。
30关于北美的最早居民的称呼，存在不同的说法，如NativeAmerican,American Indian,Amerindian, IndigenousPeoples, Aboriginal Peoples等，其中常用的是Native American, American Indian（见邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，第4-10页，第26页）。加里·李·斯郎（Gary Lee Sligh）认为：“我在大部分研究中使用‘Native American’这一术语，但‘Indian’在指早期历史文本中的原住民更为恰当。”See Gary LeeSligh,A Study of Native American Women Novelists: Sophia Alice Callahan, Morning Dove, and Ella Cara Deloria,Harvard: Edwin Mellen Press,2003, p.2.本文将交替使用“美国印第安人”和“（美国）原住民”称呼，或根据语境采用相应的称呼。同样，大多数学者交替使用美国印第安文学（American Indian Literature）和原住民本土裔美国文学（Native American Literature），本文也采用相应称呼。See Joy Porter&Kenneth M. Roemer, eds., TheCambridge Companion to Native American Literature, Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press,2005,p.1.
31See Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, London andNew York: Routledge,2010, pp.27-78.
32朱新福，张慧荣：《后殖民生态批评述略》，载《当代外国文学》2011年第4期，第29页。
33See Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, pp.133-202.
34Rob Nixon,“Environmentalism and Postcolonialism”, Postcolonial Studies and Beyold, eds. Ania Loomba,Suvir Kaul, Antoinette Burton, Matti Bunzl, and Jed Esty, Durham and London: Duke University Press,2005, P.245.
37Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, American Indian Literature and CriticalStudies, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1998. p.22.
38Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology, New Haven: Yale UniversityPress,1991, p.273.
39N. Scott Momaday,“An American Land Ethic,” Ecotactics: The Sierra Club Handbook for EnvironmentActivists, eds. John G. Mitchell&Constance L. Stallings,1970, p.103.
41Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.4.
42Max Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology, p.292.
43[澳大利亚]薇尔·普鲁姆德：《女性主义与对自然的主宰》，马天杰，李丽丽译，重庆：重庆出版社，2007年，第112页。
44Norman Foerster, Nature in American Literature, New York: The McMillan Company,1923, p.1.
45“昭昭天命”为一个惯用措词，是19世纪美国民主党所持的一种信念，他们认为美国被赋予了向西扩张至横跨北美洲大陆的天命。“昭昭天命”的拥护者们认为，美国在领土和影响力上的扩张不仅明显（Manifest），且本诸不可违逆之天数（Destiny）。“昭昭天命”最初为19世纪时的政治标语（catch phrase），后来成为标准的历史名辞，意义通常等于美国领土扩张横贯北美洲，直达太平洋（See “Manifest Destiny”, from Wikipedia, the freeencyclopedia, Jan.2001,12Dec.2013
46Howard Mumford Jones, Ideas in America, Cambridge(Massachusetts): Harvard University Press,1944, p.61.
47例如在萨谬尔·瑟沃尔（Samuel Sewall）的日记中，印第安袭击后的情景很严重：“星期三，1676年6月7日，贝德尔（Bendal）先生和太太被依次抬出，并葬于墓穴。他们有八个年少的孩子”（See Samuel Sewall,The Diary of Samuel Sewall, ed. and abridged by Harvey Wish, NewYork: Capricorn Books,1967, p.24）。同时，自然之子的野蛮与上帝之子的野蛮常不分伯仲，“（星期一，7月6日，1685）一个印第安人在法庭上被羞辱，他因抢劫被割下耳朵”（See Samuel Sewall, The Diary of Samuel Sewall, ed. and abridged by Harvey Wish, NewYork:Capricorn Books,1967, p.36）。
48Perry Miller, Errand into the Wilderness, New York: Harper Torchbooks,1956, p.15.
49A.W.Schorger, The Passenger Pigeon: Its Natural History and Extinction, Madison: The University ofWisconsin,1955, see chapter VIII “Methods of Capture”.
50Marcia B. Kline, Beyond the Land Itself: Views of Nature in Canada and the United Sates, Cambridge(Massachusetts): Howard University press,1970, p.59.
51Louis Owens, Wolfsong, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1995, pp:184-185.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小说名称首字缩写和引文出处页码，不作另注。本文中选自四部当代印第安英语小说的引文均为本文作者翻译。
52Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, Vol. I, New York: The Co-operative publication Society,1900, P.409.
53Lynn Altenbernd,“A Suspended Moment: The Irony of History in William Faulkner’s ‘The Bear,’” Modernlanguage Notes, Vol.75, No.7, Nov.1960, p.577.
54See Renato Rosaldo,“Imperialist Nostalgia,” Representations, No.26, Special Issue: Memory andCounter-Memory, Spring,1989, pp.107-122.
55恩格斯：《自然辩证法》，北京：人民出版社，1984年版，第311页。
56该引文出自亨利·戴维·梭罗作于1861年的随笔“散步”（Walking）。梭罗曾以这篇散文在当年作过一次讲演，该文于梭罗去世后被发表于《大西洋月刊》（The Atlantic Monthly）第9卷，第56期，第657-674页。
57Quted in William Cronon,“The Trouble With Wilderness,” William Cronon ed. Uncommon Ground: Rethinkingthe Human Place in Nature, New York: W.W. Norton,1996, p.76.
581890年12月29日，在南达科塔松岭区印第安（Pine Ridge Indian Reservation），伤膝溪（Wounded KneeCreek），至少150名拉科塔人（Lakota），包括妇女和儿童被杀，51人受伤，后有伤者不治而亡。
59Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, New York: The New AmericanLibrary,1960, p.52.
60Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, p.40.
6162Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, p.387.
Henry David Thoreau, Walden or in the Woods; and On Civil Disobedience, p.387.
63Louis H. Westling, The Green Breast of the New World: Landscape, Gender, and American Fiction, Athens:University of Georgia Press,1996, p.52.
64Frederick Law Olmsted,“The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees,” American Environmentalism:Reading in Conservation History, ed. Roderick Frazier Nash, New York: McGraw-Hill,1990, p.47.
65Corinne J. Naden&Rose Blue, John Muir: Saving the Wilderness, Brookfield: The Millbrook Press,1992, p.614.
66See Bill McKibben, The End of Nature, New York: Anchor Books,1999.
67David Brower, ed., Wilderness: America’s Living Heritage, San Francisco: Sierra Club,1961, p.iii.
68John Peter Saylor,“Wilderness: the Outlook from Capitol Hill”, Wilderness：America’s Living Heritage, ed.,David Brower, San Francisco: Sierra Club,1961, pp.150-1.
6970See “Nation: A Memento Mori to the Earth, Time Magazine, Monday,4May1970, p.14.
Don Scheese,“Desert Solitaire,” The Ecological Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology, ed., Cheryll Glotfelty&Harold Fromm, Athens: University of Georgia Press,1996, p.320.
71Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness, New York: Ballantine Books,1985, p.6.
72William Cronon,“The Trouble With Wilderness,” p.80.
73William Cronon,“The Trouble With Wilderness,” p.80.
74William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, p.76.
75William Cronon, ed., Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, p.78.
76Greg Garrard, Ecocriticism, London: Taylor&Francis,2004, p.71.
77[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，侯文蕙译，长春：吉林人民出版社，1997年，第157页。
78[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第166页。
79[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第179页。
80[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第194页。
81John Simpson, ed.“Resource”, Oxford English Dictionary, OED Online,2ndedition,2000, Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.
82Bill Devall and George Sessions, Deep Ecology: Living as Nature Mattered, Salt Lake City: Gibbs M. Smith,1985, p.21.
84Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.211.
85John Purdy,“Clear Water: A Conversation with Louis Owens,” Studies in American Literatures, Vol.10, No.2,Series2, Vol.10, No.2, Summer,1998, p.15.
86Scott N. Momaday, The Man Made of Words, New York: St. Martin’s Griffin,1997, p.7
87Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.215.
88Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.216.
89Louis Owens,Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place, p.216.
90Simon Ortiz, Woven Stone, Tucson: University of Arizona Press,1992, p.188.
92William Cronon,“The Trouble with Wilderness,” p.79.
93Simon Ortiz, Woven Stone, p.188.
94Simon Ortiz, Woven Stone, pp:185-86.
96Robert P. Marzec, An Ecological and Postcolonial Study of Literature：From Daniel Defoe to Salman Rushdie,New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2007, p.24.
97Quted in Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, London:Routledge,2010, p.30.
98Quted in Graham Huggen&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.30.
99Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, pp.224-25.
100William Cronon, ed. Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, p.25.
101Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Imagines of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present,New York: Vintage,1978, p.3.
102Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.1994,p.4.
103Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, p.223.
104关于印第安人的固化模式的介绍评论，参见DevonA. Miheuaah, Amarican Indians Stereotypes and Realities,Atlanta: Clarity Press,1996。此外，还有许多关于印第安固化模式的研究。关于电影中的固化形象模式，参见JohnMihelich,“Smoke or Signals?American Popular Culture and the Challenges to Hegemonic Images of American Indiansin Native American Film,” Wicazo Sa Review, No.16(2001):129-37; Darryl Robes Kipp,“Images of Native People asSeen by the Eye of the Blackbird,” Wicazo Sa Review, No.16(2001):29-34；体育中的固化形象模式，参见CarolSpindel, Dancing at Halftime: Sports and the Controversy over Indian Mascots, New York: New York University Press,2002.
105美国十九世纪中期流行“野蛮主义”观念，这在美国学者和探险家斯库克莱弗特(Henry Rowe Schoolcraft)的一系列作品中得到体现，如《俄尼塔或北美红人的特色》（Oneota or Characteristics of the Red Race ofAmerica,1845）、（《在密西西比河山谷中央地带旅行》(Travels in the Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley,1825)和《居住印第安部落三十年个人回忆录》(Personal Memoirs of a Residence of Thirty Years with the Indians,1851.)
106Roy Harvey Pearce, Savagism and Civilization, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins,1967, p. ix.
107Donald McQuade, general ed, The Harper American Literature, Vol.II, NewYork: Harper Collins CollegePublishers,1993, p.224.
108参见《约伯记》（38-41），耶和华回答约伯：“谁为雨水分道？谁为雷电开路？使雨降在无人之地，无人居住的旷野，使荒废凄凉之地得以丰足，青草得以发生。雨有父亲吗？露水是谁生的呢？冰出于谁的胎？天上的霜是谁生的呢？”（《约伯记》38:25-38:29），“你能用鱼钩钓上鳄鱼吗？能用绳子压下它的舌头吗？”（《约伯记》38:41）。
109Noderick Frazier Nash, Wilderness and American Mind, New Haven: Yale University Press,1967, p.29.
110Homi Bhabha K., The Location of Culture, London: Routledge,(1994):81-82.
111Frederick Law Olmsted,“The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees,” in American Environmentalism:Reading in Conservation History, ed. Roderick Frazier Nash. New York: McGraw-Hill,1990, p.47.
112Frederick Law Olmsted,“The Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Trees,” in American Environmentalism:Reading in Conservation History, p.47.
113Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton and Company,1999,p.21.
114Robert F. Berkhofer, The White Man’s Indian: Imagines of the American Indian from Columbus to the Present.New York: Vintage,1978, p.78.
115Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.18.
116Lee Schweninger, Listening to the Land:Native American Literary Responses to the Landscape, Athens:University of Georgia Press,2008, p.22.
117Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.220.
118Shepard Krech III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.21.
119张慧荣：《从<熊>看原生生命链毁灭对于殖民进程的推进作用》，载《外国文学评论》2011年第3期，第178页。
120See Winona LaDuke, All My Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life, Boston: South End press,1999.
122Thomas King, All My Relations: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction, Toronto:McClelland&Stewart,1990, p. xiii.
123Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place, p.220.
124Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.225.
125Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place,222.
126Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature,Film, Family, Place,,p.224.
127Martin Lewis, Green Delusions: An Environmentalist Critique of Radical Environmentalism, Durham: DukeUniversity Press,1992, p.65.
128该著作以下简称《另一种命运》
129Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.29.
130Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.5.
131关于新大陆发现前的原住民人口数说法不一，另有观点认为当时人口是15000000~30000000, SeeJeffrey F. Huntsman “Native American Theatre,” Ethnic Theatre in the United States, ed. Maxine Schwartz Seller,Westport: Greenwood Press,1983, p.355.
132Brian W. Dippie, The Vanishing American: White Attitudes and. U.S Indian Policy, Lawrence: University Pressof Kansas,1991, p.15.
133James Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native American, New York: Grove Press,1998, p. xxii.
134John Purdy,“Clear Waters: A Conversation with Louis Owens”, Summer1998, p.16.
135Louis Owens,“‘The Song Is Very Short’ Native American Literature and Literary Theory,” MixedbloodMessages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1998, pp:54-55.
136Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.5.
Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, pp.19-20.
138Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Postindian Warriors of Survivance, Hanover: University Press of NewEngland,1994, p.12.
139Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, pp:239-240.
140Louis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, p.18.
141除了莫马戴的文章“一种美国土地伦理”（An American Land Ethic,1970），德罗里亚的《上帝是红种人》（God is Red）(1973,1994和2003年再版)论及土地的意义，爱伦在文章“阿亚尼：象这样”（“Iyani: It Goes ThisWay,”）中谈到：“我们是土地，……这是西南部美国印第安生活和文化的核心观念”，1979年，第191页。艾米丽·卡西斯认为土地“是一个纵横交错的网络的组成部分，该网络将人与自然、动物、植物以及部落典仪和创世神灵联系在一起”（See Emily Cousins “Mountains Made Alive: Native American Relationships with Sacred Land”,Cross Currents, Vol.46, No.41996/1997, pp:505,497-510）。
143David Crystal, Language Death, Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press,2000, pp.45-47.
144Quted in Laura Coltelli, Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,1992, p.63.
145Quted in Laura Coltelli, Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, p.63.
146朱新福：《美国文学中的生态思想研究》，苏州：苏州大学出版社，2006年版，第22页。
147灵视追寻是一些印第安文化中的仪式，是找到精神指导和目标的最普遍的古老方式之一。灵视追寻可帮助参与者理解人生目标。传统印第安灵视追寻指一个人走入大自然中生存1-4个昼夜，这个过程为参与者提供时间与造物的基本力量、精神能量和自我身份进行交流，参与者能得到对自己和世界的深刻见识。这种见识以灵视梦想的形式呈现，直接讲述参与者的人生目标和命运（See “Vision quest,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Jan.2001,12Dec.2013
148David Rich Lewis,“Native Americans and the Environment: A Survey of Twentieth-Century Issues,” AmericanIndian Quarterly, Vol.19,No.3,1995, p.423.
149Emily Cousins,“Mountains Made Alive: Native American Relationships with Sacred Land,” Cross Currents,Vol.46, No.4,1996/1997, p.505.
150见乔治·塞勒（Gregory Sayler）关于西尔科的诗“关于动物的诗”（Poems ConcerningAnimals）的讨论（See Gregory Sayler, Leslie Marmon Silko, New York: Twayne Publishers,1997）。
151Calvin Martin, Keepers of the Game: Indian-Animal Relationships and the Fur Trade, Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press,1978, p.186.
152Louis Owens, Other Destiny: understanding the American Novel, p.11.
153N. Scott Momaday,“An American Land Ethic.” Ecotactics: The Sierra Club Handbook for EnvironmentalActivists, ed., John G. Mitchel, New York: Trident Press,1970, p.103.
154Linda Hogan,“The Fallen,” The Book of Medicines, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press,1993, p.42.
155Marian W. Smith, Indians of the Urban Northwest, New York: AMS,1969, p.16.
156汗屋仪式是太阳舞仪式的一部分，汗屋仪式的参与者在萨满的引导下通过桑拿浴（即汗蒸）形式，在被相信具有魔力的水、火、石头、植物和动物等生命要素的作用下，实现人与神灵之间的精神交流，实现参与者的祈愿、祝福和疗伤等愿望。汗屋仪式体现了印第安价值观：万物有灵，崇尚信仰和精神的力量，注重身心的共同净化，以提升人的精神境界。汗屋仪式能够增进部落成员对本民族的热爱和彼此之间的友爱，强化国族凝聚力，有利于弘扬传统文化，（See “Sweat Lodge”, from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, January,2001,12, Dec,2013
157Ella Elizabeth Clark, Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest, Berkeley: University of California Press,1953, p.7.
158Pamela Amoss, Coast Salish Spirit Dancing: The Survival of an Ancestral Religion, p.43.
159Krech III, Shepard, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.211.
160Vine, Deloria Jr.,“An Open Letter to the Head of the Christian Churches in America,” Literature of theAmerican Indian, eds. Thomas E. Sanders&Walter W. Peek, Beverly Hills: Benziger Bruce&Glencoe, Inc.,1973,215.
161Philip Drucker, Indians of the Northwest Coast, New York: American Museum Science Books,1955, p.155.
162Louis Owens,“Mapping, Naming and the Power of Words,” Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family,Place, p.211.
163Pamela Amoss, Coast Salish Spirit Dancing: The Survival of an Ancestral Religion, Seattle: University ofWashington Press,1978, p.53.
164Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.18.
165Velie Alan,“The Trickster Novel,” Narrative Chance: Postmodern Discourse on Native American IndianLiteratures, ed. Gerald Vizenor, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1993, p.122.
166Barbara Babcock,“‘A Tolerated Margin of Mess’: The Trickster and His Tales Reconsidered,” Critical Essayson Na1t6iv7e American Literature, ed. Andrew Wiget, Boston: Hall,1985, p.162.
Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.23.
168See Chris Lalonde,“Trickster, Trickster Discourse and Identity in Louis Owens’ Wolfsong,” Studies inAmerican Indian Literatures, Series2, Vol.7, No.1(Spring1995):27-42.
169Chris LaLonda,“Trying on Trickster in Wolfsong,” Grave Concerns, Trickster Turns: the Novels of LouisOwens, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,2002, p.55.
170Chris LaLonda,“Trying on Trickster in Wolfsong,” Grave Concerns, Trickster Turns: the Novels of LouisOwens, p.35.
171Emory Sekaquaptewa,“Hopi Indian Ceremomies,” See with a Native Eye: Essays on Native American Religion,ed., Walter Holden Capps, New York: Harper and Row,1976, p.38.
172Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.18.
173Susan Bernardin,“Wilderness Condtions: Ranging for Place and Identity in Louis Owens’s Wolfsong,” Studiesin American Literatures, Vol.10, No.2, Summer1998, p.91.
174Ramachandra Guha,“Lewis Mumford, the Forgotten American Environmentalist: An Essay in Rehabilitation,”Minding Nature: The Philosophers of Ecology, ed. David Macauley, p.214.
175David Macauley, ed, Minding Nature: The Philosophers of Ecology, New York: Guilford,1996, p.15.
176Donald Worster, The Wealth of Nature, Environmental History and the Ecological Imagication, New York:Oxford University Press,1993, p.136.
177Leslie Marmon Silko, Gardens in the Dunes, New York: Scribner,1999, p.212.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小说名称首字缩写和引文出处页码，不作另注。
178John E. Thorson, Sarah Britton, Bonnie G. Colby ed., Tribal Water Rights Essays in Contemporary Law, Policyand Economics, Tucson: the University of Arizona Press,2006, p.61.
179金恩出生于加利福利亚，在美国接受高等教育，工作于加拿大。他强调北美原住民整体概念，赞同“泛印第安主义”，反对美加之间的边界线，不愿对美国或加拿大原住民进行区分，故本文将金恩视同美国作家。详见邹惠玲：《后殖民理论视角下的美国印第安英语文学研究》，长春：吉林大学出版社，2008年版，第53页。
180查尔斯·拉森（Charles R. Larson）采用“印第安性”（Indianness）指称印第安整体特性，See Charles R. Larson,American Indian Fiction, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,1978, p.11.欧文斯也采用同样的说法，SeeLouis Owens, Other Destiny: Understanding the American Novel, Norman and London: University of Oklahoma Press,1994, p.231.本章探讨的对象是加拿大原族，故采用“原性”（nativeness）一词。
181金恩反对将印第安文学划为后殖民文学的分类，他认为后殖民这一术语含有“不知羞愧的种族中心主义”（11），他认为将印第安文学归类为后殖民文学，以欧洲人在美洲的殖民入侵为印第安文学的起点，否认了数千年的印第安文学传统。他提倡以原住民文学的“仲合”文学（associational literature）特征取代后殖民论述，避免偏重非原住民历史或仅止于两者造成的冲突(See Thomas King,“Godzilla vs. Postcolonial,” States: TheorizingEnglish-Canadian Postcolonialism, ed.Cynthia Sugars, Peterborough: Broadview Press,2004, pp.183-190.)本文的后殖民意为殖民主义及其影响。在《帝国反击：后殖民文学的理论和实践》中，比尔·阿西克洛夫特提出，“后殖民主义”包括“从古至今所有受到帝国主义殖民过程影响的文化”，强调殖民者与被殖民者之间的冲突。艾里克·鲍默(Elleke Boehmer)在《殖民和后殖民文学》一书中也提出，后殖民文学并不是殖民统治结束后的文学，而是批判地审视殖民关系、反抗殖民观念的文学。艾妮亚·鲁巴(Ania Loomba)在《殖民主义/后殖民主义》中说，应该将后殖民主义理解对殖民统治及其影响的文明论争。鲁巴的“论争”一词与鲍默的“反抗”意思相近，包含“内部殖民”(internal colonialism)。见王建平：《后殖民语境下的美国土著文学——路易丝·厄德里齐的<痕迹>》，载《国外文学》，2006年第4期，第75-76页。
182Thomas King, Green Grass, Running Water, New York: Bantam,1993, P.1.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小说名称首字缩写和引文出处页码，不作另注。
183Karen Bakker, ed. Eau Canada: The Future of Canada’s Water, Vancouver: UBC Press,2007, p.317.
184Tom Goldtooth,“The Indigenous Declaration on Water,” Third World Water Forum, Kyoto, Japa. Mar.2003,Sept.232009, June122013
185转引自邹惠玲：《<绿绿的草，流动的水>印第安历史的重构》，载《外国文学评论》2004年第4期，第40页。
186太阳舞是平原印第安人，美国印第安人和加拿大原族的传统宗教仪式舞蹈。不同的部落有不同的活动方式和仪式规则。舞者在舞蹈的过程中通常围成一个圈，按照太阳运动的顺时针模式舞动，不仅代表印第安人的整体团结，也象征宇宙生命的循环。舞蹈通常在秘密地点举行（See “Sun Dance,” from Wikipedia, the freeencyclopedia,12Mar.1999,2Dec.2013
187Robin Riddington,"Theorizing Coyote's Cannon: Sharing Stories with Thomas King," Theorizing theAmericanist Tradition, Lisa Philips Valentine&Regna Darnell, ed., Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1999, p.35.
188Ake Hulkrantz, The Religions of the American Indians, trans. Monica Setterwall, Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press,1979, p.25.
189Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.190.
190Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: A Contemporary Perspective, Boston:Beacon,1992, p.59.
191David Suzuki&Peter Knudtson, Wisdom of the Elders, Toronto: Stoddart Publishing Co.,1992, p. xxviii.
192Northrop Fry, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1957, p.146.
193Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.190.
194Thomas King, All My Relations: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction, Norman: Universityof Oklahoma Press,1990, p.26.
196T.C. McLuhan, Touch the Earth: A Self-Portrait of Indian Existence, New York: Outerbridge&Dienstfrey,1971, p.132.
197Vine Deloria, Jr., God Is Red: A Native View of Religion, Golden: North American Press,(2003):81-82.
198Marlene Goldman,“Mapping and Dreaming: Native Resistance in Green Grass Running Water,” CanadianLiterature,161-62,1999, p.33.
199Tim Cresswell, In Place/Out of Place: Geography, Ideology, and Transgression, Minneapolis: University ofMinnessota Press,1996, p.153.
200William, Raymond, The Country and the City, London: Chatto&Windus,1973, p.284.
201Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.27
202Quted in Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.47.
203Karen Bakker, ed. Eau Canada: The Future of Canada’s Water, Vancouver: UBC Press,2007, p.317.
204Fort George，今Chisasibi。
205加拿大有悠久的水坝建设史，这些水坝对于原族产生巨大冲击。其中一些水坝包括The Gardiner Dam inSaskatchewan, the Bennett Dam, Alcan’s Kemano Project in British Columbia, the Bighorn Dam on the NorthSaskatchwan River. See Frank Quinn,“As Long As the Rivers Run: the Impacts of Corporate Water Development onNative Communities in Canada,” Canadian Journal of Native Studies, Vol.11, No.1,(1991):138-54.
206Matthew Coon-Come,“Where Can You Buy a River?” Northeast Indian Quarterly, Vol.8, No.4, Winter,1991,p.10.
207Bradbury John,“British Colunbia: Metropolis and Hinterland in Microcosm,” Heartland and Hinterland: aGeography of Canada Prentice-Hall, L. D. McCann ed, Scarborough: Prentice-Hall Canada Inc.,1987, p.349.
208Vandana Shiva, Water Wars: Privatization, Pollution and Profit, Cambridge (Massachusetts): South End Press,2002, p.53.
209Quinn Frank,“As Long as the Rivers Run: the Impacts of Corporate Water Development on NativeCommunities in Canada,” p.142.
210Derek Gregory&James S. Duncan,“Scripting Egypt: Orientalism and the Cultures of Travel,” Writes ofPassage: Reading Travel Writing, New York: Routledge,1999, p.116.
212关于印第安法案的全面论述，See “A Select and Annotated Bibliography Regarding Bill C-31, IndianRegistration and Band Membership, Aboriginal Identity, Women and Gender Issues,” Oct.212004,
213简·弗利克（Jane Flick）指出斯福顿和十九世纪西部拓荒推进者克利福德·西福顿（Sir Clifford Sifton1861-1929)同名。他是个耳聋的律师和政治家，是个“强力推行通过平原西进运动在西部定居的倡导者，也是个取代原族人口的定居者重要人物。他是联邦内务部长，在1896年11后威尔弗里德·劳里埃（Wilfrid Laurier）总理手下的“印第安事务部”的负责人（Superintendent of Indian Affairs. See Flick Jane,“Sir Clifford Sifton”,“Reading Notes for Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water”, Canadian Literature,161-62,1999, p.150.）
214See Florence Stratton,“Cartographic Lessons: Susanna Moodie’s Roughing It in the Bush and Thomas King’sGreen Grass Running Water,” Canadian Literature,161/162,1999, pp.94-95.
215St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica (liter, ary English translation), trans. Fathers of the English DominicanProvince, Westminster: Christian Classics,1981, p. I,II.
216Mary M. Keys, Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Promise of the Common Good, Cambridge (United Kingdom):Cambridge University Press,2006, p.9.
217Mary M. Keys, Aquinas, Aristotle, and the Promise of the Common Good, p.9.
218Winona LaDuke, All My Relations: Native Struggles for Land and Life. Cambridge (United Kingdom): SouthEnd Press,1999, p.50.
219Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development, London: Zed,1989, p.183.
220James B. Waldram, As Long as the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Development and Native Communities in WesternCanada, Winnipeg: Universityof Manitoba Press,1993, p.181.
221Arundhati Roy, The Cost of Living, New York: Modern Library,1999, p.15.
222Waldram, James B., As Long As the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Dam Development and Native Communities inWestern Canada, p.173.
223James B. Waldram, As Long as the Rivers Run: Hydroelectric Development and Native Communities in WesternCanada, p.182.
224James Edward Chamberlin, The Harrowing of Eden: White Attitudes Toward North American Natives. Toronto:Fitzhenry&Whiteside,1975, pp:8-9.
225Barker M. L.&D.Soyez,“Think Locally, Act Globally?: The Transnationalization of Canadian Resource-useConflicts,” Environment, Vol36, No.5(1994):13-14.
228Ward Churchill&Winona LaDuke,“Native North America: The Political Economy of RadioactiveColonialism”, The State of Native America: Geocide, Colonization, and Resistance (Race and Resistance Series), M.Anneette Jaimes ed. Boston: South End Press,1992, p.253.
229James Edward Chamberlin, The Harrowing of Eden: White Attitudes Toward North American Natives, Toronto:Fitzhenry&Whiteside,1975, p.8.
230Arundhati Roy, The Cost of Living, New York: Modern Library,1999, p.15.
231Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive, London: Zed Books,1989, p.183.
232Vandana Shiva, Staying Alive, pp.185-86.
235Karen Bakker, Eau Canada, The Future of Canada’s Water, Vancouver: UBC Press,2007, p.307.
236Karen Bakker, Eau Canada, The Future of Canada’s Water, pp.308-09.
237Jennifer Andrews,“Reading Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water. Border-Crossing Humour,” EnglishStudies in Canada, Vol28, No.1,2002, p.96.
238Gerald Vizenor,“Trickster Discourse: Comic Holotropes and Language Games,” Narrative Chance:Postmodern Discourse on Native Games, ed. Gerald Vizenor, Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press,1989,p.191.
239Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.226.
240Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners: Postindian Warriors of Survivance, p.173.
241Thomas King, ed. All My Relation: An Anthology of Contemporary Canadian Native Fiction, p. xiii.
242Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee: An Indian History of the American West, New York: Henry Holtand Company, Inc.,2007, p.416.
243Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.168.
244现实中的克里人以市场手段阻止詹姆斯二期工程建设。克里人在美国宣传进口加拿大水电成本过高，1989年，缅因州取消与加拿大水电公司的十五亿美元合同。1992年，克里人和支持者向纽约州政府提出提案，要求购买国外电力的合同要达到州环境指标，并获通过。同年5月，纽约州取消一个购买加拿大水电的合同。1994年，魁北克新总理帕瑞佐（Jacques Parizeau）宣布取缔詹姆斯湾二期工程(See Jace Weaver, Defending Mother EarthNative American Perspectives on Environmental Justice, Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books,1996, p.100)。
245Jane Flick,“Reading Notes for Thomas King’s Green Grass, Running Water,” p.146.
246Henry David Thoreau, A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, eds. Carl F. Hovde, William L. Howarth,&Elizabeth Hall Witherell, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1980, p.31.
247Alexander Morris, The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the Northwest Territories, Toronto:Coles Publishing Company,1971, p.202.
248Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism, London: Vintage,1993, p.96.
249James H. Cox,“All This Water Imagery Must Mean Something: Thomas King’s Revision of Narritives ofDormination and Conquest in Green Grass, Running Water,” American Indian Quarterly, Vol.24, No.2, spring2000,p.221.
250Thomas King, The Truth about Stories, Toronto: The House of Anansi Press,2003, p.105.
251Marlene Goldman,“Mapping and Dreaming: Native Resistance in Green Grass, Running Water,” CanadianLiterature,162/3,1999, P.27.
252Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.112.
253James Cox,“All This Water Imagery Must Mean Something: Thomas King’s Revision of Narratives of
254帕瓦仪式，即Powwow，又名Pow Wow，原意是印第安部落的巫医和精神领袖，由此引申为他们举行的宗教仪式，本来写作pau-wau或pauau，十九世纪的欧洲探险家把它错拼成了Pow Wow,后来大家，包括印第安人也就慢慢接受了这种说法。现代的帕瓦仪式是美国印第安人和加拿大原族的特别事件，人们集会，唱歌、跳舞和开展社交活动，体验传统文化，仪式持续1~3天不等。该词也可指美洲原住民任何部落的集会（See “Pow wow,”from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia,Jan.2001,12June.2013
255Vine Deloria Jr.,“Reflection and Revelation,” For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, New York:Routledge,1998, p.259.
256Laura E. Donaldson,“Noah Meets Old Coyote, or Singing in the Rain: Intertextuality in Thomas King’s GreenGrass, Running Water,” Studies in American Indian Literatures: The Journal of the Association for the Study of AmericanIndian Literatures,2ndser., Vol.7, No.2,1995, p.39.
257Laura E. Donaldson,“Noah Meets Old Coyote, or Singing in the Rain: Intertextuality in Thomas King’s GreenGrass, Running Water,” p.40.
258金恩认为仲合文学通常描写一个原住民群体。它也会描述一个非原住民群体，它避免故事叙述以非原住民群体或两种文化的矛盾为中心，而是聚焦于原住民的日常生活和错综复杂事件，根据平直的叙述线索组织情节元素，这种叙述线索避免在非原住民文学中受到重视的无所不在的高潮和结局（See Thomas King, Godzilla vs.Postcolonial, Unhomely States: Theorizing English-Canadian Postcolonialism, ed. Cynthia Sugars, Peterborough, ON.:Broadview Press,2004, p.185）。
259James H. Cox,“All This Water Imagery Must Mean Something: Thomas King’s Revision of Narratives ofDomination and Conquest in Green Grass Running Water,” p.239.
260Joseph W. Meeker, The Comedy of Survival: Literary Ecology and a Play Ethic, Tucson: University of ArizonaPres,1997, p.27.
261Laura Coltelli, Winged Words: American Indian Writers Speak, p.22.
262Kenneth Lincoln, Indi’n Humor: Bicultural Play in Native America, New York: Oxford University Press,1993,p.5.
263“美国印第安人战争”的概念是指今日美国所在地区北美土著居民与欧洲定居者之间的战争。印第安人战争时间跨度超过150年，早在殖民地建立之初，在1528年，西班牙殖民者便已经与印第安人发生了战斗，该战争持续到大约1890年。随着欧洲殖民者的到来，人口压力使定居者需要扩张土地，将原住民向西部和北部迁移，致使双方之间爆发战争。许多冲突是局部性的，起因于土地使用争端。战争后期，昭昭天命思想引发众多冲突。许多冲突的诱因是“印第安迁移法”（Indian Removal Act,1830），该法案支持使用武力或通过协约买卖或交换土地的方式将欧洲人定居点的印第安人有计划、大规模迁移走。这场战争无疑是残酷，凶狠和不义的，几乎造成对印第安人的种族灭绝（See “American Indian Wars,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Jan.2001,2Aug.2012,
264Ellen L. Arnold, ed., Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000, p.182.
265Ellen L.Arnold, ed., Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, p.164.
266Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth-Century Garden: Imperialism, Subsistence, and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, Vol.19, No.3,2007, p.115.
267Joni Adamson, American Indian Literature, Environmental Justice, and Ecocriticism: The Middle Place,Tucson: University of Arizona press,2001, p.181.
268Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminie in American Indian Traditions, Boston: Beacon,1992, p.67.
269Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminie in American Indian Traditions, Boston: Beacon,1992, p.11.
270Javier Garcia,“Fighting Biopiracy: The Legislative Protection of Traditional Knowledge”, Berkeley La RazaLaw Journey, Vol.18, No.5,2007, p.7.
271Robert M. Nelson, Place and Vision: The Functon of Landscape in Native American Fiction, New York: Lang,1993, p.32.
272Lee Schweninger,“Writing Nature: Silko and Native Americans as Nature Writers,” MELUS, Summer1993,Vol.18, No.2, p.47.
273Joanna Macy,“Working through Environmental Despair”, Ecopsychology: Restoring the Earth, Healing theMind, eds., T. Roszak, M.E. Gomes&A.D. Kanner, San Francisco: Sierra Books,1995, p.255.
274See Leslie Marmon Silko,“Interior and Exterior Landscapes: The Pueblo Migration Stories,” Yellow Womanand a Beauty of the Spirit: Essays on Native American Life Today, NewYork: Touchstone,1996, p.37.
275See Dennis Tedlock, trans.,“The Beginning,” Finding the Center, Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians,Performances in the Zuni, eds. Andrew Peynetsa&Walter Sanchez, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,(1972):275-98.
276Owens Louis, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.188.
277Joni Adamson, American Indian literature, Environmental Justice, and Ecocriticism-The Middle Place, p.166.
278蛇在不同的印第安部落文化中呈现正反不同的形象，如美国北部的印第安人认为蛇是暴力和报复的象征。而在加利福利亚的印第安文化中，王蛇（Kingsnake）被视为神圣动物。在墨西哥和中美洲的一些地区，蛇被视为神性、再生和性灵力量的象征。人们对蛇充满畏惧和敬畏。许多阿兹德克（Aztec）和玛雅（Mayan）神灵如Quetzalcoatl, Coatlicue, Tlaloc, Q'uq'umatz都与蛇相联系，或以蛇的形态出现。蛇褪下的皮在墨西哥的一些地区被传统教士用作神器。蛇在一些印第安文化中成为氏族动物（clan animal）。See Laura Redish,“Native AmericanSnake Mythology,”13Mar.2003,1Oct.2012,
279James E.Lovelock, Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, New York: Oxford University Press,1979, p.11.
280Paula Gunn Allen,“The Feminine Landscape of Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony”, Sacred Hoop: Recoveringthe Feminine in American Indian Tradition,1992, p.127.
281Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, Jackson: Univesity Press of Mississippi,2000,p.176.
282Robert Allen Warrior, Tribal Secrets: Recovering American Indian Intellectual Traditions, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1995, p.87.
28319世纪末期，在印第安人中开始流行“鬼舞”运动，1881年美国政府下令禁止印第安人跳“鬼舞”。其实，这种“鬼舞”来自于印第安人古老的“太阳舞”，加进了很多白人文化元素，如基督教的“弥赛亚”信仰。“鬼舞”被认为导致1890年的伤膝屠杀（the Wounded Knee Massacre）。直到20世纪中期，印第安人的“太阳舞”才重新悄悄恢复（See “Ghost Dance,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Jan.2001,3Oct.2013
284Quoted in Ronnie Farley, ed. Women of the Native Struggle: Portraits and Testimony of Native AmericanWomen, New York: Orion Books,1993, p.77.
285Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth Century Garden, Imperialism Subsistence and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes”, Studies in American Indian Literatures, p.116.
286Paula Gunn Allen,“The Feminine Landscape of Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony”, Sacred Hoop: Recoveringthe Feminine in American Indian Tradition,1992, p.63.
287Vine Deloria Jr., For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, ed. James Treat, London: Routledge,1999, p.116.
288Per. Seyerstedt,“Listening to the Spirits: An Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko,” Conversations with LeslieMarmon Silko, ed. Ellen L. Arnold, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000, p.32.
289Vine Deloria Jr.,“Vision and Community”, For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, ed. James Treat,London: Routledge,1999, p.113.
290James J. Donahue,“Review of Writing Storyteller and Medicine Woman,” MELU, Vol.31, No.1, Mar.2006, p.156.
291James J. Donahue,“Review of Writing Storyteller and Medicine Woman,” p.157.
292Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth Century Garden, Imperialism Subsistence and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, p.116.
293鲁枢元：《城市之困与环境美学——记与美国环境美学家阿诺德·伯林特的一次学术交流》，载《艺术百家》2010年第6期，第21页。
294Deloria, Barbara, Kristen Foehner&Sam Scinta, eds. Spirit and Reason, the Vine Deloria, Jr., Reader.,foreward by Wilma P. Mankiller. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum Publishing,1999.
295Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.86.
296[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死——妇女、生态和绿色革命》，吴国盛等译，长春：吉林人民出版社，1999年版，第1页。
297[澳大利亚]薇尔·普鲁姆德：《女性主义与对自然的主宰》，第93页。
298Quted in Rinda West, Out of the Shadow, Ecopsychology, Story, and Encounters with the Land, Charlottesville:University of Virginia Press,2007, p.30.
299Ellen L.Arnold ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000, p.20.
300Willard Hughes Rollings,“Indians and Christianity,” A Companion to American Indian Histor, eds. Philip J.Deloria and Neal Salisbury, Malden: Blackwell Publishers,2004, p.122.
301Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi,2000,p.164.
302Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, p.181.
303科西嘉共和国于1768—1769被瓦克斯（Comte de Vaux）率领的法国军队占领（See “Napoleon,” fromWikipedia, the free encyclopedia,2,Oct.,2011,5, Dec.2013,
304See Vandana Shiva, Stolen Harvest: The Hijacking of the Global Food Supply, Cambridge (Massachusetts):South End Press,2000.
305Theodor Adorno,W., Max Horkheimer. Dialectic of Enlightenment, trans. Edmund Jephcott, Stanford: StanfordUniversity Press,2002, p.44.
306Bruno Latour, We Have Never Been Modern, trans. Catherine Porter, New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf,1993,pp.10-11.
307Rinda West, Out of the Shadow-Ecopsychology, Story, and Encounters with the Land, Charlottesville:University of Virginia Press,2007, p.10.
308Theodore Roszak, The Voice of the Earth, Michigan: Phanes Press,2001, p.42.
309Mary Louise Pratt&Mary Louise, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation, London: Routledge,1992, pp.56-57.
311Jordan Erdos,“Plant Life and the Maya: Relationships and Conceptualizations”,12, Dec,1999,5Dec.2013,
312Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, pp.180-81.
313Terre Ryan,“The Nineteenth-Century Garden: Imperialism, Subsistence, and Subversion in Leslie MarmonSilko’s Gardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literatures, Vol.19, No.3, Fall2007, p.118.
314315Shepard Krech, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, New York: W.W. Norton,2000, p.47.Shepard Krech, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History, p.48.
316Louis Owens, Mixedblood Messages: Literature, Film, Family, Place, p.8.
317Vine Deloria, Jr., We Talk You Listen: New Tribes, New Turf, Lincoln: Bison Books1970, p.186.德里罗强调。
318Ellen L.Arnold ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko. Jackson:U.P.of Mississippi,2000, p.186.
320David Arnold, The Problem of Nature: Environment, Culture and European Expansion, Oxford: Blackwell,1996.
321“伟大女神”是旧石器时代和新石器时代欧洲和近东（包括其它地区）的主要宗教信仰。她是生育力、生命和死亡的人格化象征。她也被认为是母亲神或伟大母亲。See S. von Cles-Reden, The Realm of the Great Goddess,Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc,1962, p.11; Uberto Pestalozza,1954, Etorno Feminio Mediterraneo, Vicenza: NeriPozza Editore,1954, pp.28-31.
322Vine Deloria, Jr.,“Reflection and Revelation,” For This Land: Writings on Religion in America, London:Routledge,1998, p.256.
323William Gregory Woods-Martin, Traces of the Elder Faiths of Ireland A Folklore Sketch; a Handbook of IrishPre-Christian Traditions, Vol2, London: Langmans, Green&Co,1902, p.154.
324Lynn White Jr.,“The Historic Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” Science, New Series, Vol.155, No.3767, Mar.10,1967, p.1205.
325Vine Deloria, Jr.,“Relativity Relatedness and Reality,” Spirit and Reason, p.34.
326Ellen L.Arnold, Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silk, p.6
327古诺斯替教崇拜女性神。诺斯替教是被认为早期基督教异教一种主要形式。该教的文本写于公元后的前三个世纪。诺斯替传统以希腊化的亚历山大里亚为中心，它将基督教与东方的巴比伦、波斯和西方的希腊和罗马的神灵教义相综合。诺斯替教（起源于知识）建立在对立面的统一和男性与女性原则的平等的基础上。它坚持在一个超验的上帝那里男性与女性对立面的原初统一，但同时又坚持在上帝与原初世界之间、善良与邪恶、精神与物质之间的二元对立。见[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死——妇女、生态和绿色革命》，第17-20页。
328Ellen L.Arnold, ed. Conversations with Leslie Marmon Silko, p.7.
329Robert Graves,“Introduction,” The New Larousse Encyclopedia of Mythology, Paris: Prometheus Press,1972,p.vii.
330Annee Baring&Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess, New York: Penguin,1993, P.18.
331Barbara G. Walker, The Woman’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets, San Francisco: Harper and Row,1983, p.101.
332Marrija Gimbutas, The Gods and Goddesses of Old Europe, Berkeley: University of California Press,1974, p.91.
333Annee Baring&Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess, New York: Penguin,1993, pp.18-19.
334Barbara G. Walker, Restoring the Goddess, New York: Prometheus Books,2000, p.294.
335Starhawk, The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess, New York: Harper andRow,1989, p.95.
336Marrija Gimbutas, The Language of Goddesses, New York: Harper Collins,1991, p.321.
337Marrija Gimbutas, The Language of the Goddess, p.321.
338339Marrija Gimbutas, The Language of the Goddess, p. xxiii.
Barbara G. Walker, The Woman’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets. San Francisco: Harper and Row,1983, p.629.
340关于蛇或神蛇作为女神显现的故事，See G.R. Levy, The Gate of Horn, London: Faber&Faber,1946, pp.218,221,235411,253; Marrija Gimbutas, The Civilization of the goddess, San Francisco: Harper and Row,1991, p.236.
Barbara G. Walker, The Woman’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets. p.903.
342Juan Eduardo Cirlot, trans. Jack Sage, A Dictonary of Symbols, London: Routledge&Kegan Paul,1978, p.285.
343Joseph Campbell&Bill Moyers, The Power of Myths, New York: Doubleday,1988, p.45.
344Eric Neumann, The Great Mother, Princeton: Princeton University Press,1974, p.145.
345Joseph Campbell&Bill Moyers, The Power of Myth, pp.47-48.
346Marija Gimbutas, The Language of the Goddess, p.321.
347Anne Baring&Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddness, London: Penguin Group,1993, p.570.
348Geoffrey Ashe, Virgin Mary’s Cult And Reemergence of The Goddess, London: Penguin group,1988, pp.191-93.
349Thomas Irmer&Matthias Schmidt,“An Interview with Leslie Marmon Silko,” Conversations with LeslieMarmon Silko, p.153.
350Louis Owens, Other Destiny: understanding the American Novel, pp.180-81.
351Stephanie Lee,“Domestic Resistance: Gardening, Mothering and Storytelling in Lesley Marmon Silko’sGardens in the Dunes,” Studies in American Indian Literature, Vol.21, No.1,2009, p.20.
352Lynn Townsend White, Jr.,“The Historic Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,” Science, Vol.155, No.3767, Mar.10,1967, Mar.10,1967, p.1205.
353[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第2-6页。
354见Susan Griffin, Pornography and Silence: Culture’s Revenge Against Nature, New York: Harper&Row,1981.
355Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism, New York: Vintage Books,1993, p.2.
356见[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第206-15页；Shive Visvanathan,“From the Annals of the LaboratoryState,” Alternatives12.1. Jan.1987, pp.38-40.
358Gregory Salyer,“Two Versions of Literary Nationalism: Leslie Marmon Silko and Sherman Alexie,” LiteraryStrategies for the New Millenium, ALA Symposium, Puerta Vallarta, Mexico.14Nov.1999, p.2.
359See Ward Churchill and Winona LaDuke,“Native North America: The Political Economy of RadioactiveColonization,” The State of Native America: Geocide, Coloniazation and Resistance (Race and Resistance Ser.) ed.James M. Annette, Boston: South End,(1992):241-66; Judith Todd,“On Common Ground: Native American andFeminist Spirituality Approaches in the Struggle to Save Mother Earth,” The Politics of Women’s Spirituality: Essays onthe Rise of Spiritual Power within the Feminist Movement, Charlene Spretnak ed, New York: Anchor-Doubleday,(1982):
430-45.
360Four Directions Council,“The Uranium Industry and Indigenous Peoples of North America,” StatementSubmitted to the United Nations Commission on Human Rights,20Feb.1999,14Dec2013
361杜鹏《环境正义：环境伦理的回归》，载《自然辩证法研究》，2007年第6期，第5页。“环境正义”理论与实践研究是当前环境伦理学研究的重要内容。国内外“环境正义”研究主要基于各自的环境状况与发展实践，围绕着“环境正义”的含义、“环境正义”的向度、“环境正义”的原则、“环境正义”何以可能等问题进行各自的话语表达与理论建构。参见张斌，陈学谦《环境正义研究述评》，载《伦理学研究》，2008年第4期，第59-69页。
362Michael B. Gerrard ed., The Law of Environmental Justice, Chicago: ABA Section of Environment, Energy andResources,1999, p. xxix.
363Quted in Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the Feminine in American Indian Traditions (2nded.), pp.168-69.
364Linda Hogan,“The Transformation of Tribalism,” Book Forum5,1981, p.409.
365Quted in Barbara J. Cook, ed., From the Center of Tradition: Critical Perspectives on Linda Hogan, Boulder:University Press of Colorado,2003, p.2.
366Amy Greenwood Baria,“Linda Hogan’s Two Worlds,” Studies in American Indian Literature Vol.10,No.4,1998, p.67.
367John A. Murray,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan,”7Feb.1999,7Aug.2013
368497So.2d889（Fla. App.2Dist.1986）
369United States v. Billie,667F Supp.1485(S.E. Fla.1987)
370Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations,San Francisco: Sierra Club Books,1991, p.256.
371Fla. Stat. Ann.§372.671(West1988)
372United States v. Billie,667F Supp.1485,1496(S.D. Fla.1987).1983年比利案的第一次庭审名称为Florida V.James E. Billie，庭审记录没有向世界公布。目前只能查到1987年第二次案件庭审的文件。与该案件相关的记录源自第二次案件的记录。
373Endangered Species Preservation Act, Pub. L. No.89-669,80Stat.926(1966). Endangered Species Act, Pub. L.No.93-205,87Stat.884(1973)
374See Treaty with the Seminole (May9,1832),7Stat.368; Treaty with the e Seminole (March28,1833),7Stat.368
375United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1488
376Executive order No.1379(June28,1911)
377378United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1488
Menominee Tribe of Indians V. United States,391U.S.404(1968).
379United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497
380United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1496
381United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1496
382United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497.
383State v. Billie,497So.2d at890
384State v. Billie,497So.2d at895; United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497
38516U.S.C§§1539(e)(1988);50C.F.R.§§17.5(1991)
386State v. Billie,497So.2d at894
387Robert J. Miller, Speaking with Forked Tongues: Indian Treaties, Salmon and the Endangered Species Act,70OR. L. REV543,568(1991).
388United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1497
389United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1492
390United States v. Billie,667F Supp. at1492
391Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred: The Faith of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations,pp.256-57.
392Jerry Mander, In the Absence of the Sacred: The Faith of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations, p.256.
393Hudson, Gail,“Endangered Wisdom,”6Oct.2001,11Dec.2013,
394美国佛罗里达埃沃格莱兹国家公园（Everglades National Park）沼泽地。
396Linda Hogan, Power, New York: W.W. Norton,1998.后文出自同一小说的引文，将随文在括号中标注该小
397Linda Hogan,“Mountain Lion,” The Book of Medicines, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press,1993, p.27.
398Robert L. Berner, Defining Amerian Indian Literature: One Nation Divisible, New York: Edwin Mellen Press,1999, p.407.
399Linda Hogan,“Mountain Lion,”The Book of Medicines, Minneapolis: Coffee House Press,1993, p.27.
400Linda Hogan,“Endangered Wisdom,” by Gail Hudson,6Oct.2010,11Dec.2013,
401Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’s Power,”From the Center of Tradition: Critical Perspectives on Linda Hogan, ed., Barbara J.Cook. Boulder: University Press ofColorado,2003, p.162.
402Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’s Power,”p.173.
404[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》徐育新等译，北京：大众文艺出版社，1998年，第455页。
405[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，第455页。
406[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，第455页。
407[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，第456页。
408Linda Hogan,“Walking,” Sisters of the Earth: Women's Prose and Poetry about Nature, p.12.
409Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak,“Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, eds. CaryNelson and Larry Grossberg, Chicago: University of Illinois Press,(1988):271-313.
410Philip Armstrong, What Animals Mean in the Fiction of Modernity, London: Routledge,2008, pp.3-4.
411Sarah Whatmore,“Hybrid Geographies: Rethinking the ‘Human’ in Human Geography,” The Animals Reader,eds., Linda Kalof, Seven Mattes&Amy Fitzgerald, Oxford: Berg,2007, pp.340-1.
412Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World, New York: Norton,1995, p.40.
413Louis Owens, Other Destinies: Understanding the American Indian Novel, p.20.
414Graham Huggan&Helen Tiffin, Postcolonial Ecocriticism: Literature, Animals, Environment, p.168.
415[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第181页。
416[美]卡洛琳·麦茜特：《自然之死》，第199页。
417Desmond M. Clarke, Descartes’ Philosophy of Science, Manchester: Manchester University Press,1982, p.182.
418See James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth CenturyAmerica, Westwood: Greenwood Press,1981,(1981):3-40.尽管加利福利亚的淘金潮在1848年已开始，于1869年完工的横贯大陆的铁路激发了人们向西移民的新兴趣。
419James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth CenturyAmerica, pp.4-5.
420See Thomas A. Lund, American Wildlife Law, Berkeley: University of California Press,1980, pp.8-10.
421原有野牛的数目不等，四千万头是保守数目。关于野牛的数目估算的详细介绍, see Frank Gilbert Roe, TheNorth American Buffal: A Critical Study of the Species in Its Wild State, Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1951, pp.334-520.
422野牛猎手以捕杀的野牛战利品数量为自豪。例如，野牛比尔·科德（Baffalo Bill Code）声称他在为“联邦太平洋铁路”（Union Pacific Railroad）工作的短短十二个月中，杀了4280头野牛（see Peter Matthiessen, Wildlifein America, NewYork: Penguin,1959, p.149）。一些评论家相信，铁路的建成导致“对于野牛的最后疯狂袭击”（seePeter Matthiessen, Wildlife in America, p.148）。不仅因为铁路允许猎手从行进的火车上无止境地射杀猎物，它也提供了一个向东部市场运送皮革的前所未有的方式（See Peter Matthiessen, Wildlife in America, p.149.）大约不到三十年，几乎所有的四千万头野牛在平原上倒下死去。一些历史学家估计在1870年代早期，每年杀戮五百万头野牛, See James B. Trefethen, An American Crusade for Wildlife, New York: Boone&Crockett Club,1975, p.15.
423在新的黄石国家公园，在保护区内估计只有约二十头动物处于安全状态（See Peter Matthiessen, Wildlifein America, NewYork: Penguin,1959, pp.150-51）。怀俄明州在1890年通过了为期十年的禁捕野牛季决定，黄石公园的野牛在这样的保护下数量增长。在1908年，在蒙大拿建立了国家野牛区（National Bison Range），由于这些有限的储备，美国的野牛侥幸逃脱灭绝的命运，数千万头野牛急剧减少为二十头野牛（See James A.Tober, WhoOwns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth Century America, pp.3-40,97-102）。
424Frank Gilbert Roe, The North American Buffalo, Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1951, p.602.
425[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第167页。
426James A. Tober, Who Owns the Wildlife? The Political Economy of Conservation in Nineteenth CenturyAmerica, p.9.
427Roderick Frazier Nash, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics, Madison: University ofWisconsin Press,1989, p.175.
428豁免权条款中定义的生活物资包括为满足当地人的生活需求，在阿拉斯加的村镇贩卖鱼和野生动物的可食用部分，而且仅仅限于阿拉斯加地区（See “Title I—Endangered Species Act of1988, Public Law100-478-Oct.,7,1988,100th Congress,” Dec.1988,8June2013.
429“Predatory Mammals and Endangered Species: Hearings Before Subcommittee on Fisheries and WildlifeConservation and the Environment of the House Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries,”92nd Cong.,2d Sess.143,1972(See “United States v. Bille”, No.87-8038-Cr-Paine (667F. Supp.1485)(S.D. Fla. August24,1987”,14Sept.2001,2Dec.2013
430关于自哥伦布发现新大陆后对美国印第安宗教的压迫，See Walter Echo-Hawk, Loopholes in ReligiousLiberty: The Need for Federal Law to Protect Freedom of Worship for Native Peope,16Native Am. Rts. Legal Rev.7(Summer1991).
431Susan Landon,“Indians Want Equity In Religious Freedom, Navajo President Says,” Albuqueque Journal,23Nov.1991, p.21.
432John A. Murray,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan,”10May2008,7Aug.2013
433[英]詹姆斯·乔治·弗雷泽：《金枝：巫术与宗教之研究》，徐育新等译，北京：大众文艺出版社，1998年，第479页。
434Camille Colatosti,“Holding a World in Balance,”9Feb.1997,11Dec.2012,
435Lawrence Buell, Writing for an Endangered World: Literture, Culture, and Environment in the U.S. and Beyond,Belknap: Press of Harvard University Press,2001, p.239.
436Jerry Mander, In the Absence of Sacred: The Failure of Technology and the Survival of the Indian Nations, SanFrancisco: Sierra Club,1992, p.257.
437Donelle N. Dreese,“The Terrestrial and Aquatic Intelligence of Linda Hogan”, Studies in American IndianLiterature,2nd Ser., Vol.11, No.4,winter1999, p.15.
438Greta Gaard,“Ecofeminism and Wilderness,” Environmental Ethics,19, Spring,1997, p.12.
439Camille Colatosti,“Holding a World in Balance,”4September2002,11/Aug.2012.
440Giovanna Di Chiro,“Nature as Community: The Convergence of Environmental and Social Justice,”Uncommon Ground: Rethinking the Human Place in Nature, ed. William Cronon, New York: W. W. Norton,1996,p.311.
441Ramachandra Guha&J. Martinez-Alier, Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South, London:Earthscan,1997, p.107.
442[美]奥尔多·利奥波德：《沙乡年鉴》，第168-169页。
443See “Florida panther,” from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, Jan.2001,12Dec.2013
444Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’s Power,”p.162.
445David Maehr, The Florida Panther: Life and Death of a Vanishing Carnivore, Washington, D.C.: Island Press,1997, p. xi.
446David Maehr, The Florida Panther: Life and Death of a Vanishing Carnivore, p.225.
447Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
448Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World, p.108.
449Linda Hogan, Dwellings: A Spiritual History of the Living World, p.83
450Linda Hogan, The Woman Who Watches Over the World: A Native Memoir, New York: W.W. Norton&Co.,2001, p.59.
451Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
452Greta Gaard,“Strategies for a Cross-Cultural Ecofeminist Ethics: Interrogating Tradition, Preserving Nature,”New Essays in Ecofeminist Literary Criticism, ed. Glynnis Carr, Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press,2000, p.93.
453Carrie Bowen-Mercer,“Dancing the Chronotopes of Power: The Road to Survival in Linda Hogan’ Power,”From the Center of Tradition: Critical Perspectives on Linda Hogan, ed. Barbara J. Cook, Boulder: University Press ofColorado,2003, p.168.
454Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
455Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan.”4561871年，根据3月3日的印第安租借法案（the Indian Appropriation Act），政府停止签订协约。Felix S.Cohen, Handbook of Federal Indian Law, Lexisnexis,1942, p.33..
457Coggins&Modrcin, Native American Indians and Federal Wildlife Law,31Stan. L. Rev.,1979,p.379.; D.Getches&C. Wilkinson, Federal Indian Law,1986,p.269. Nation一词可译为国族或族群。早期印第安社会往往把自己视为国族(nation)，这一概念并不是现代意义上的民族/国家(nation/state)，而是(因具体人际关系和职责关系连接在一起的)人民的同义词。在前殖民时期，这种国族间的关系被理解为人民与人民之间的关系。后来美国人称印第安人为“族群”(一般用来指称不同于主体居民的人们，脱离母体的非本土族体)，因为欧洲人在美洲大陆以主人自居，把印第安人和其他移民通称为异己的“族群”(详见朱伦《西方的‘族体’概念系统——从‘族群’概念在中国的应用错位说起》，载《中国社会科学》2005年第4期，第86页)印第安学者德罗里亚也认为，国族概念是早期(前殖民时期和美国独立后一段时期)土著人与欧洲人之间关系的延续，这种主权意识仍然是土著部落的主导思想。18世纪后期，美国与印第安人所建立的条约关系(印第安部落以独立主权国家身份来签署条约)只能说是印第安人的精神遗产，而不是实际意义上的政治或物质遗产，因为它从来都不是美国联邦政府制定印第安政策和立法的主要依据，这种政治话语也一直主导着文化话语(See Vine Deloria,ed.,American Indian Policy in theTwentieth Century, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,1992,p.10.)转引自王建平《后殖民语境下的美国土著文学——路易丝·厄德里齐的<痕迹>》，载《国外文学》2006年第4期，第31页。
458关于围绕协约权的辩护，See United States v. Dion,476U.S.734(1986)(Yankton Sioux1858treaty); UnitedStates v. Fryberg,622F.2d1010(9th Cir.1980)(Tulalip-Treaty of Point Elliot)等。
459United States v. Dion,762F.2d674(8th Cir.1985); United States v. L. Top Sky,547F.2d483(9th Cir.1976).
460Richard Blow,“The Great American Whale Hunt,” Mother Jones, p.8, September/October1998,6Oct2013,
461Greta Gaard,“Tools for a Cross-Cultural Feminist Ethics: Exploring Ethical Contexts and Contents in theMakah Whale Hunt,” Hypatia: A Journal of Feminist Philophy, Vol.16No.1,2001, p.4.
462Linda Hogan, Deena Metzger&Brenda Peterson, eds., Intimate Nature: The Bond Between Women Animals,New York: Fawcett Books,1998, p.102.
463Brenda Peterson,“Who Will Speak for the Whales? Elders Call for a Spiritual Dialogue on Makah Tribe’sWhaling Proposal,” The Seattle Times,22Dec.1996, B-7-8.
464Quted in Linda Hogan,“Silencing Tribal Grandmothers: Traditions, Old Values at Heart of Makah’s ClashOver Whaling,” B-9-10.
465Linda Hogan,“Silencing Tribal Grandmothers, Old Values at Heart of Makah’s Clash over Whaling,” SeattleTimes15, Dec.1996: B9.
466Quted in Linda Hogan,“Silencing Tribal Grandmothers: Traditions, Old Values at Heart of Makah’s ClashOver Whaling,” B-8.
467Linda Hogan&Brenda Peterson, eds., Sightings: The Gray Whales’ Mysterious Journey, Washington, D.C.:National Geographic Society,2002, p.154.
468Linda Hogan&Brenda Peterson, eds., Sightings: The Gray Whales’ Mysterious Journey, p.153.
469Greta Gaard,“Tools for a Cross-Cultural Feminist Ethics: Exploring Ethical Contexts and Contents in theMakah Whale Hunt,” p.4.
470Linda Hogan&Brenda Peterson, eds., Sightings: The Gray Whales’ Mysterious Journey, p.154.
471Karsten Fitz,“Native and Christian: Religion and Spirituality as Transcultural Negotiation in American IndianNovels of the1990s,” American Indian Culture and Research Journal, Vol.26, No.2,2002, p.13.
473Amy Aronson,“Interviews of Linda Hogan,” Dec.2009,9Oct.2013,
474Linda Hogan,“Of Panthers and People: An Interview with American Indian Author Linda Hogan”.
475王腊宝：《流亡、思乡与当代移民文学》，载《外国文学评论》2005年第1期，第113页。
476Linda Hogan, Deena Metzger&Brenda Peterson, eds. Intimate Nature: The Bond Between Women andAnimals, New York: Fawcett Books,1998, p.11.
4774是印第安神圣数字，参见Buckland, A.W.“Four as a Sacred Number,” Vol.25,1896, p.96。
478Linda Hogan,“Creations (Ria Lagartos and Ria Celestin, Yucatan, Mexico),” Heart of the Land: Essays onLast Great Places, ed. Joseph Barbato&Lisa Weinerman, New York: Pantheon Books,1994, p.108.
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