科马克·麦卡锡西部小说中的边疆意识形态研究
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摘要
作为美国当代文坛的重要作家之一，科马克麦卡锡以其西部小说享誉世界。大部分国内外麦卡锡研究论述了其西部小说中蕴涵的生态意境、西部历史的再现、美国民族神话的消解﹑以及其作品与其它文学作品之间的互文关系，并一致认为其西部小说是反帝国主义书写的文本。这些研究值得肯定，但忽略了其西部小说对边疆意识的再现以及它与麦卡锡反帝国主义书写之间的关系。因此，本论文在现有的麦卡锡研究基础上，将其三部西部小说《血色子午线》（1985）、《骏马》（1992）、《平原上的城市》（1998）解读为社会政治批评文本,并将之放置在美国西部文化﹑社会﹑政治和历史的宏大背景下做考察，通过分析小说中麦卡锡如何运用边疆母题再现、批判和超越边疆意识形态，表达了作家对美国帝国主义的态度经历了一个动态且具有细微差别的过程。
论文由五个部分组成。引言包括相关麦卡锡西部小说的研究文献﹑论文基本框架和边疆意识形态的含义。本论文中边疆意识形态具有两方面的含义。从内涵意义来讲，它是一系列将看作地理区域而存在的19世纪美国西部边疆看做美国民族习性诞生之地的信条﹑价值﹑观念的抽象系统。弗雷德里克杰克逊特纳的“边疆假说”正是19世纪边疆意识形态的集大成之作。从外延意义上讲，边疆意识形态诉诸于一种边疆修辞，建构美国社会现实的无意识幻象，激发美国人进一步拓展边疆的欲望，并在此践行美国民族习性的理想。无论在内涵还是外延意义上，边疆意识形态遮蔽了美国历史进程上的帝国主义﹑种族主义﹑阶级问题和性别问题。
第一章通过分析《血色子午线》，考察麦卡锡对边疆意识形态的再现。本章认为一方面麦卡锡落入了边疆意识形态的窠臼，体现为作家将美墨战争之后美国疯狂地进行边疆扩张的行为理想化。另一方面，麦卡锡质疑了边疆意识形态的合理性，体现在作家对“天定命运”的解构和边疆神话的祛神话。在这两种矛盾的力量中，麦卡锡无意识中屈从于种族主义的“政治无意识”，沿袭了传统西部小说强化美国白人性﹑“强夺复生”和道德重生的叙事模式。因此，麦卡锡对边疆意识形态的重现体现出作家对美国帝国扩张复杂且含混的态度。
第二章以《骏马》为例，分析麦卡锡对边疆意识形态的批判，提出边疆意识形态在20世纪40年代的后边疆时代虽不是一种主导意识形态，但成为一种心理残余。主人公在文化、媒介和家庭意识形态国家机器的“召唤”下，将墨西哥想象为能复制牛仔天堂的“新边疆”，挥马南下墨西哥，受到反帝国主义权力的抵抗和殖民文化的反渗透，帝国梦破碎在“新边疆”。由此，麦卡锡对催生美国人向往浪漫化的边疆生活欲望的意识形态信条进行釜底抽薪，质疑了美国民族“情感结构”的不合理因素。
第三章讨论麦卡锡在《平原上的城市》对边疆意识形态的超越，厘清边疆意识形态是边疆怀旧的动因，引发牛仔病态地向往过式的边疆生活，实践伪牛仔准则，并构成边疆意识形态持续作用的物质存在基础。在边疆意识形态的强力作用下，主人公并非从其在《骏马》中的经历汲取教训，却仰仗美国资本的优越性，发起购买“象征边疆”——墨西哥女性——的商谈。麦卡锡并未让主人公的商业磋商和交易顺利进行，却使之遭受挫折，从而讽刺了美国的新帝国主义。与此同时，麦卡锡通过展望美国帝国逻辑运作的失调，呼吁美国民众再认同边疆的杂糅性，合理面对美国西部尤其是美墨边境的文化异质性和多样性，才能走出美国在其境内外进行帝国扩张的恶性循环，从而消解了边疆意识形态的同质话语。
通过上述分析，本文得出结论：麦卡锡利用传统西部小说中的边疆母题，旨在再现﹑批判和超越以“天定命运”和民族主义之名为美国帝国主义辩护的边疆意识形态。这种意识形态在美国社会的持久存在是家庭﹑文化和媒介等意识行态国家机器高效作用的结果，并“召唤”美国人与浪漫化的边疆生活现实形成一种想象关系，却无意识地激发他们帝国欲望。麦卡锡在不同小说中呈现的边疆意识形态体现了作家对美国帝国主义的态度具有动态且细微的变化，经历了一个含混﹑批判和超越的过程。通过分析麦卡锡西部小说的边疆意识形态，本文试图将其从传统西部小说中脱颖而出，上升为社会政治批评文本，这一上升在一定程度上显示了当代美国西部小说的文学活力性和实用性。
As one of the most important writers in contemporary American literature,Cormac McCarthy is known for his Westerns at home and abroad. Most Chinese andforeign McCarthy studies have analyzed his representation of the history of theAmerican West, his ecological vision, his demythologizing of American nationalmyths, and his works’ intertextual relationship with other literary works. Scholarshave reached a tacit agreement that McCarthy’s Westerns engage with anti-imperialistwriting. While insightful, these studies have largely ignored the representation offrontier ideology and its relation to McCarthy’s anti-imperialist writing approach.Thus, repositioning McCarthy’s Westerns as sociopolitical commentaries within abroader context of American Western culture, society, politics and history, thisdissertation, based on the previous achievements in McCarthy studies, continues todisclose frontier ideology in his three representative Westerns Blood Meridian (1985),All the Pretty Horses (1992) and Cities of the Plain (1998) and analyze howMcCarthy draws on the frontier motif to replay, criticize and transcend frontierideology to express his dynamic yet nuanced authorial attitude toward Americanimperialism.
This dissertation consists of five parts. It begins with an introduction thatpresents a working definition of frontier ideology, a literature review of McCarthy’sWesterns and a layout of this dissertation. Frontier ideology discussed in thisdissertation includes two aspects. Connotatively, frontier ideology refers to anabstraction of the system of beliefs, values and concepts that deemed the AmericanWestern frontier of the nineteenth century as the geographical area where theAmerican national character was formed. Frederick Jackson Turner’s Frontier Thesiswas the comprehensive culmination of frontier ideology in the nineteenth century.Denotatively, frontier ideology, resorting to the frontier rhetoric, consists of theunconscious fantasy that constructs American social reality and instructs Americans todesire for a further frontier where they can live up to the ideals of the Americannational character. Frontier ideology at denotative and connotative level covers up American imperialism, racism, sexism and classism in its historical process.
Chapter One focuses on McCarthy’s replaying of frontier ideology by examiningBlood Meridian. It argues that McCarthy, on the one hand, falls into the shackle offrontier ideology in his idealization of American frontier expansion that ran amok inand after the Mexican-American War, and he, on the other hand, interrogates therationale of frontier ideology in his deconstruction of Manifest Destiny and hisdemythologization of the frontier myth. Within the two conflicting forces, McCarthyunwittingly succumbs to the “political unconscious” of racism due to hisreinforcement of American whiteness and glorification of the narrative trope of“regeneration through violence” and moral rebirth inherent in the traditional Westerngenre. Hence, McCarthy’s replaying of frontier ideology reflects a complex andambivalent attitude toward American imperial expansion.
Chapter Two examines McCarthy’s criticism of frontier ideology with a casestudy on All the Pretty Horses. It argues that frontier ideology, though not appearingas the dominant ideology in the post-frontier1940s, becomes a kind of psychicresidue harboring in American society. The protagonist, under the “interpellation” ofthe cultural, family, and communications Ideological State Apparatus (ISA),self-arrogantly imagines Mexico as his “New Frontier” to recreate the cowboyparadise there. He rides southward, only to encounter fierce anti-imperialist resistancein his self-conceived “New Frontier.” McCarthy dismantles his protagonist’s imperialdream by making him reversely penetrated by the culture of the colonized. In doing so,McCarthy criticizes the assumptions of frontier ideology that continues to begetAmericans’ desire for a romanticized vision of the frontier life, and questions theunreasonable aspects of American nation’s “structures of feeling.”
Chapter Three discusses how McCarthy transcends frontier ideology in Cities of thePlain. This chapter bases its argument on the idea that frontier ideology is the rootcause of frontier nostalgia in the post-frontier1950s as embodied by cowboys’pathological fascination with the obsolete frontier life and their practices ofquasi-cowboy codes which provide material existence for the continued operation offrontier ideology. Under the effective influence of frontier ideology, the protagonist, instead of drawing lesson from his experience in All the Pretty Horses, imagines hispossible possession of the “symbolic frontier” represented by a Mexican woman. Bytaking advantage of American capital, the protagonist initiates commercial negotiationon buying his “symbolic frontier.” By highlighting failed commercial negotiation andexchange, McCarthy makes irony on the concept of America’s new imperialism.Meanwhile, McCarthy, by envisioning the dysfunction of American imperial logic,urges Americans to re-identify with the hybridized frontier, so as to properly face thecultural heterogeneity and diversity in the American West, particularly in theMexican-American borderlands. In doing so, Americans can dismantle thehomogenous discourse of frontier ideology and step out the vicious circle of Americanimperial domination within and beyond American territory.
The concluding part summarizes the main points discussed in this dissertationand concludes that McCarthy’s appropriation of the frontier motif inherent in thetraditional Western genre aims at replaying, criticizing and transcending frontierideology which，in the name of Manifest Destiny and nationalism, has justifiedAmerican imperialism. It also reaches the conclusion that the persistence of frontierideology in American society is due to the efficient and effective function of thefamily, cultural and communications ISA which jointly “interpellate” Americans toform an imaginary relationship to the real condition of the existence of the idealizedfrontier life. But frontier ideology unconsciously spurs many Americans’ imperialdesire. Furthermore，McCarthy’s representations of frontier ideology in his differentWesterns enable us to see that his attitude toward American imperialism experiences adynamic yet nuanced process in which his initial ambivalence gives way to criticismand transcendence. The analysis of frontier ideology in McCarthy’s Westerns attemptsto disengage them from the traditional Western genre and speaks to the viability andutility of contemporary American Western as a paradigm of sociopoliticalcommentary.
论文由五个部分组成。引言包括相关麦卡锡西部小说的研究文献﹑论文基本框架和边疆意识形态的含义。本论文中边疆意识形态具有两方面的含义。从内涵意义来讲，它是一系列将看作地理区域而存在的19世纪美国西部边疆看做美国民族习性诞生之地的信条﹑价值﹑观念的抽象系统。弗雷德里克杰克逊特纳的“边疆假说”正是19世纪边疆意识形态的集大成之作。从外延意义上讲，边疆意识形态诉诸于一种边疆修辞，建构美国社会现实的无意识幻象，激发美国人进一步拓展边疆的欲望，并在此践行美国民族习性的理想。无论在内涵还是外延意义上，边疆意识形态遮蔽了美国历史进程上的帝国主义﹑种族主义﹑阶级问题和性别问题。
第一章通过分析《血色子午线》，考察麦卡锡对边疆意识形态的再现。本章认为一方面麦卡锡落入了边疆意识形态的窠臼，体现为作家将美墨战争之后美国疯狂地进行边疆扩张的行为理想化。另一方面，麦卡锡质疑了边疆意识形态的合理性，体现在作家对“天定命运”的解构和边疆神话的祛神话。在这两种矛盾的力量中，麦卡锡无意识中屈从于种族主义的“政治无意识”，沿袭了传统西部小说强化美国白人性﹑“强夺复生”和道德重生的叙事模式。因此，麦卡锡对边疆意识形态的重现体现出作家对美国帝国扩张复杂且含混的态度。
第二章以《骏马》为例，分析麦卡锡对边疆意识形态的批判，提出边疆意识形态在20世纪40年代的后边疆时代虽不是一种主导意识形态，但成为一种心理残余。主人公在文化、媒介和家庭意识形态国家机器的“召唤”下，将墨西哥想象为能复制牛仔天堂的“新边疆”，挥马南下墨西哥，受到反帝国主义权力的抵抗和殖民文化的反渗透，帝国梦破碎在“新边疆”。由此，麦卡锡对催生美国人向往浪漫化的边疆生活欲望的意识形态信条进行釜底抽薪，质疑了美国民族“情感结构”的不合理因素。
第三章讨论麦卡锡在《平原上的城市》对边疆意识形态的超越，厘清边疆意识形态是边疆怀旧的动因，引发牛仔病态地向往过式的边疆生活，实践伪牛仔准则，并构成边疆意识形态持续作用的物质存在基础。在边疆意识形态的强力作用下，主人公并非从其在《骏马》中的经历汲取教训，却仰仗美国资本的优越性，发起购买“象征边疆”——墨西哥女性——的商谈。麦卡锡并未让主人公的商业磋商和交易顺利进行，却使之遭受挫折，从而讽刺了美国的新帝国主义。与此同时，麦卡锡通过展望美国帝国逻辑运作的失调，呼吁美国民众再认同边疆的杂糅性，合理面对美国西部尤其是美墨边境的文化异质性和多样性，才能走出美国在其境内外进行帝国扩张的恶性循环，从而消解了边疆意识形态的同质话语。
通过上述分析，本文得出结论：麦卡锡利用传统西部小说中的边疆母题，旨在再现﹑批判和超越以“天定命运”和民族主义之名为美国帝国主义辩护的边疆意识形态。这种意识形态在美国社会的持久存在是家庭﹑文化和媒介等意识行态国家机器高效作用的结果，并“召唤”美国人与浪漫化的边疆生活现实形成一种想象关系，却无意识地激发他们帝国欲望。麦卡锡在不同小说中呈现的边疆意识形态体现了作家对美国帝国主义的态度具有动态且细微的变化，经历了一个含混﹑批判和超越的过程。通过分析麦卡锡西部小说的边疆意识形态，本文试图将其从传统西部小说中脱颖而出，上升为社会政治批评文本，这一上升在一定程度上显示了当代美国西部小说的文学活力性和实用性。
As one of the most important writers in contemporary American literature,Cormac McCarthy is known for his Westerns at home and abroad. Most Chinese andforeign McCarthy studies have analyzed his representation of the history of theAmerican West, his ecological vision, his demythologizing of American nationalmyths, and his works’ intertextual relationship with other literary works. Scholarshave reached a tacit agreement that McCarthy’s Westerns engage with anti-imperialistwriting. While insightful, these studies have largely ignored the representation offrontier ideology and its relation to McCarthy’s anti-imperialist writing approach.Thus, repositioning McCarthy’s Westerns as sociopolitical commentaries within abroader context of American Western culture, society, politics and history, thisdissertation, based on the previous achievements in McCarthy studies, continues todisclose frontier ideology in his three representative Westerns Blood Meridian (1985),All the Pretty Horses (1992) and Cities of the Plain (1998) and analyze howMcCarthy draws on the frontier motif to replay, criticize and transcend frontierideology to express his dynamic yet nuanced authorial attitude toward Americanimperialism.
This dissertation consists of five parts. It begins with an introduction thatpresents a working definition of frontier ideology, a literature review of McCarthy’sWesterns and a layout of this dissertation. Frontier ideology discussed in thisdissertation includes two aspects. Connotatively, frontier ideology refers to anabstraction of the system of beliefs, values and concepts that deemed the AmericanWestern frontier of the nineteenth century as the geographical area where theAmerican national character was formed. Frederick Jackson Turner’s Frontier Thesiswas the comprehensive culmination of frontier ideology in the nineteenth century.Denotatively, frontier ideology, resorting to the frontier rhetoric, consists of theunconscious fantasy that constructs American social reality and instructs Americans todesire for a further frontier where they can live up to the ideals of the Americannational character. Frontier ideology at denotative and connotative level covers up American imperialism, racism, sexism and classism in its historical process.
Chapter One focuses on McCarthy’s replaying of frontier ideology by examiningBlood Meridian. It argues that McCarthy, on the one hand, falls into the shackle offrontier ideology in his idealization of American frontier expansion that ran amok inand after the Mexican-American War, and he, on the other hand, interrogates therationale of frontier ideology in his deconstruction of Manifest Destiny and hisdemythologization of the frontier myth. Within the two conflicting forces, McCarthyunwittingly succumbs to the “political unconscious” of racism due to hisreinforcement of American whiteness and glorification of the narrative trope of“regeneration through violence” and moral rebirth inherent in the traditional Westerngenre. Hence, McCarthy’s replaying of frontier ideology reflects a complex andambivalent attitude toward American imperial expansion.
Chapter Two examines McCarthy’s criticism of frontier ideology with a casestudy on All the Pretty Horses. It argues that frontier ideology, though not appearingas the dominant ideology in the post-frontier1940s, becomes a kind of psychicresidue harboring in American society. The protagonist, under the “interpellation” ofthe cultural, family, and communications Ideological State Apparatus (ISA),self-arrogantly imagines Mexico as his “New Frontier” to recreate the cowboyparadise there. He rides southward, only to encounter fierce anti-imperialist resistancein his self-conceived “New Frontier.” McCarthy dismantles his protagonist’s imperialdream by making him reversely penetrated by the culture of the colonized. In doing so,McCarthy criticizes the assumptions of frontier ideology that continues to begetAmericans’ desire for a romanticized vision of the frontier life, and questions theunreasonable aspects of American nation’s “structures of feeling.”
Chapter Three discusses how McCarthy transcends frontier ideology in Cities of thePlain. This chapter bases its argument on the idea that frontier ideology is the rootcause of frontier nostalgia in the post-frontier1950s as embodied by cowboys’pathological fascination with the obsolete frontier life and their practices ofquasi-cowboy codes which provide material existence for the continued operation offrontier ideology. Under the effective influence of frontier ideology, the protagonist, instead of drawing lesson from his experience in All the Pretty Horses, imagines hispossible possession of the “symbolic frontier” represented by a Mexican woman. Bytaking advantage of American capital, the protagonist initiates commercial negotiationon buying his “symbolic frontier.” By highlighting failed commercial negotiation andexchange, McCarthy makes irony on the concept of America’s new imperialism.Meanwhile, McCarthy, by envisioning the dysfunction of American imperial logic,urges Americans to re-identify with the hybridized frontier, so as to properly face thecultural heterogeneity and diversity in the American West, particularly in theMexican-American borderlands. In doing so, Americans can dismantle thehomogenous discourse of frontier ideology and step out the vicious circle of Americanimperial domination within and beyond American territory.
The concluding part summarizes the main points discussed in this dissertationand concludes that McCarthy’s appropriation of the frontier motif inherent in thetraditional Western genre aims at replaying, criticizing and transcending frontierideology which，in the name of Manifest Destiny and nationalism, has justifiedAmerican imperialism. It also reaches the conclusion that the persistence of frontierideology in American society is due to the efficient and effective function of thefamily, cultural and communications ISA which jointly “interpellate” Americans toform an imaginary relationship to the real condition of the existence of the idealizedfrontier life. But frontier ideology unconsciously spurs many Americans’ imperialdesire. Furthermore，McCarthy’s representations of frontier ideology in his differentWesterns enable us to see that his attitude toward American imperialism experiences adynamic yet nuanced process in which his initial ambivalence gives way to criticismand transcendence. The analysis of frontier ideology in McCarthy’s Westerns attemptsto disengage them from the traditional Western genre and speaks to the viability andutility of contemporary American Western as a paradigm of sociopoliticalcommentary.
引文
1In Gunfighter Nation: the Myth of Frontier in Twentieth Century (1992), Richard Slotkin points out that thefrontier myth has accomplished the “ideological task” of validating American imperial expansion and racismwithin and beyond American territory since the colonial times onwards (10).
2In Cormac McCarthy’s Western Novels (2002), Barcley Owens reassesses violence and literary naturalism inBlood Meridian and examines Western myths and thematic motif in Border Trilogy (xii). She reaches theconclusion that McCarthy engages us with a susceptible look at the founding myth of American nation and itspresent imperialism.
3Francis Walker first charted the frontier in “Progress of the Nation”, which appeared in his1874Statistical Atlasof the United States. Walker created the technical concept of the frontier to track American national settlement inthe West. Latter, Henry Gannett further adopted the frontier to stratify the nation’s land by simple populationdensity. The specific evolution of the frontier as technical concept can be seen in “From Maps to Myth: the Census,Turner, and the Idea of the Frontier” by Deborah Epstein Popper, Robert E. Lang and Frank J. Popper.
4This statistics is made based on Dianna C. Luce’s Cormac McCarthy: A Bibliography and other research resultsfrom reliable academic databases like Project Muse, Jastor, Ebasco, and CNKI.
5“Perspective of estrangement” is originally used by Irving Howe in Decline of the New which laments the loss ofcritical distance between culture and the world (203). Simply put, by distancing themselves from the actual world,aesthetic works might reevaluate society from a detached perspective with relative autonomy.
6“Strategies of containment” is the means that denies the intolerable contradictions lying hidden beneath the socialsurface and constructs on the very ground cleared by such denial a substitute truth that makes existence at leastpartly tolerable. Those contradictions are as intolerable as that Necessity that spawns the relations of domination inhuman society. The function of “strategies of containment” is to allow “what can be thought to seem internallycoherent in its own terms” while repressing the unthinkable which “lies beyond its boundaries”(Jameson, ThePolitical53).
7The concept of “political unconscious” is central to Jameson’s political reading of literary texts. What he meansby “political unconscious” is the repressed elements existing in a troubled and antagonistic relation to those overstructures like ideology and culture that manage or check their threatening eruptions (Dowling36-37). Here, the“political unconscious” of racism in this study refers to the repressed racial overtone or the latent meaning lyingfor centuries beneath the open or expressed or manifest assertion that America is not a racialist society. Even ifprejudices against the non-white and coercive and even violent means used to quell racial conflicts exist, thereasonable footing for such an existence is to improve their situations.
8The term “ideologeme” is a kind of minimal unit around which a class discourse is organized. Jameson draws onthe notion of the phoneme in linguistics as the minimal phonological unit that creates a word or changes itsmeaning, as the sound represented by “p” changes “bad” into “pad”(Dowling132).
9“Ressentiment,” for Jameson, is invoked as the smallest ideological unit by a nineteenth-century bourgeoisie andits intelligentsia. It refers to “the mindless and destructive envy that the have-nots of society always anduniversally feel toward the haves, thus utterly denying the origins in economic exploitation of all discontent frombelow” and inventing the imaginary resolutions to the class conflicts (Dowling134).
10John Wayne Syndrome is featured by feelings of guilt for failures to take heroic actions on protecting othersfrom harm. When analyzing its influence on American soldiers in Vietnam War, Robert Jay Lifton, in Home fromthe War: Vietnam Veterans, neither Victims nor Executioners (1985) observes that John Wayne, as a famous actorin Hollywood Westerns, imparts fallacious concepts of war onto Americans, like courage, undoubted faith, noblemilitary races and arrogance, desire for war and heroic killings and fights (219).
11Original in Spanish meaning “Grandma…Cann’t you hear me?”
12By “new imperialism,” this dissertation mainly draws on David Harvey’s elaboration on this concept. For DavidHarvey, new imperialism, unlike imperialism that was an extension of the sovereignty of nation-states outside theirown territories, does not establish territorial center of power, nor does it depend on fixed territorial barriers. Rather,it encompasses the entire globe within its open and expanding frontiers by tearing down the territorial limits andaccumulating capital in time and space. Thus, new imperialism for David Harvey means a specific form ofprimitive accumulation or “imperialism as accumulation by dispossession”(137-82). In case of America, its newimperialism gains momentum via paths for surplus absorption, particularly the enforcement of NAFTA which hasenabled America to open subordinate economy of Mexico and increase its vulnerability to American imperialcapital. Cities of the Plain was published in the year of1998witnessing the ever-increasing impacts on Mexicaneconomy by the enforcement of NAFTA. McCarthy might observe such influences and hence insinuates Americannew imperialism of the1990s in his incorporation of American cowboys’ naive action of resolving disputes viatheir resort to American capital.
13Inspired by John F. Kennedy’s “New Frontier”, John Hellmann creatively adopts the “symbolic frontier” todesignate the open landscape of challenge and possibility in metaphorical dimensions (36). In this “symbolicfrontier”, Americans would regenerate their traditional values defined by American frontier experience whileserving future progress. Likewise, Annette Kolodny, in The Lay of the Land (1975) and The Land before Her
(1984), clarifies the symbolic semblance between woman and land in the frontier literature. From this perspective,male possession of women is equal to that of the “symbolic frontier” to be explored and conquered. Thus, in thisdissertation, we call Magdalena the “symbolic frontier” for which John Grady intends to possess at whatever cost.
14“No Country for Old Men” is the title of McCarthy’s novel published in2005.
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2In Cormac McCarthy’s Western Novels (2002), Barcley Owens reassesses violence and literary naturalism inBlood Meridian and examines Western myths and thematic motif in Border Trilogy (xii). She reaches theconclusion that McCarthy engages us with a susceptible look at the founding myth of American nation and itspresent imperialism.
3Francis Walker first charted the frontier in “Progress of the Nation”, which appeared in his1874Statistical Atlasof the United States. Walker created the technical concept of the frontier to track American national settlement inthe West. Latter, Henry Gannett further adopted the frontier to stratify the nation’s land by simple populationdensity. The specific evolution of the frontier as technical concept can be seen in “From Maps to Myth: the Census,Turner, and the Idea of the Frontier” by Deborah Epstein Popper, Robert E. Lang and Frank J. Popper.
4This statistics is made based on Dianna C. Luce’s Cormac McCarthy: A Bibliography and other research resultsfrom reliable academic databases like Project Muse, Jastor, Ebasco, and CNKI.
5“Perspective of estrangement” is originally used by Irving Howe in Decline of the New which laments the loss ofcritical distance between culture and the world (203). Simply put, by distancing themselves from the actual world,aesthetic works might reevaluate society from a detached perspective with relative autonomy.
6“Strategies of containment” is the means that denies the intolerable contradictions lying hidden beneath the socialsurface and constructs on the very ground cleared by such denial a substitute truth that makes existence at leastpartly tolerable. Those contradictions are as intolerable as that Necessity that spawns the relations of domination inhuman society. The function of “strategies of containment” is to allow “what can be thought to seem internallycoherent in its own terms” while repressing the unthinkable which “lies beyond its boundaries”(Jameson, ThePolitical53).
7The concept of “political unconscious” is central to Jameson’s political reading of literary texts. What he meansby “political unconscious” is the repressed elements existing in a troubled and antagonistic relation to those overstructures like ideology and culture that manage or check their threatening eruptions (Dowling36-37). Here, the“political unconscious” of racism in this study refers to the repressed racial overtone or the latent meaning lyingfor centuries beneath the open or expressed or manifest assertion that America is not a racialist society. Even ifprejudices against the non-white and coercive and even violent means used to quell racial conflicts exist, thereasonable footing for such an existence is to improve their situations.
8The term “ideologeme” is a kind of minimal unit around which a class discourse is organized. Jameson draws onthe notion of the phoneme in linguistics as the minimal phonological unit that creates a word or changes itsmeaning, as the sound represented by “p” changes “bad” into “pad”(Dowling132).
9“Ressentiment,” for Jameson, is invoked as the smallest ideological unit by a nineteenth-century bourgeoisie andits intelligentsia. It refers to “the mindless and destructive envy that the have-nots of society always anduniversally feel toward the haves, thus utterly denying the origins in economic exploitation of all discontent frombelow” and inventing the imaginary resolutions to the class conflicts (Dowling134).
10John Wayne Syndrome is featured by feelings of guilt for failures to take heroic actions on protecting othersfrom harm. When analyzing its influence on American soldiers in Vietnam War, Robert Jay Lifton, in Home fromthe War: Vietnam Veterans, neither Victims nor Executioners (1985) observes that John Wayne, as a famous actorin Hollywood Westerns, imparts fallacious concepts of war onto Americans, like courage, undoubted faith, noblemilitary races and arrogance, desire for war and heroic killings and fights (219).
11Original in Spanish meaning “Grandma…Cann’t you hear me?”
12By “new imperialism,” this dissertation mainly draws on David Harvey’s elaboration on this concept. For DavidHarvey, new imperialism, unlike imperialism that was an extension of the sovereignty of nation-states outside theirown territories, does not establish territorial center of power, nor does it depend on fixed territorial barriers. Rather,it encompasses the entire globe within its open and expanding frontiers by tearing down the territorial limits andaccumulating capital in time and space. Thus, new imperialism for David Harvey means a specific form ofprimitive accumulation or “imperialism as accumulation by dispossession”(137-82). In case of America, its newimperialism gains momentum via paths for surplus absorption, particularly the enforcement of NAFTA which hasenabled America to open subordinate economy of Mexico and increase its vulnerability to American imperialcapital. Cities of the Plain was published in the year of1998witnessing the ever-increasing impacts on Mexicaneconomy by the enforcement of NAFTA. McCarthy might observe such influences and hence insinuates Americannew imperialism of the1990s in his incorporation of American cowboys’ naive action of resolving disputes viatheir resort to American capital.
13Inspired by John F. Kennedy’s “New Frontier”, John Hellmann creatively adopts the “symbolic frontier” todesignate the open landscape of challenge and possibility in metaphorical dimensions (36). In this “symbolicfrontier”, Americans would regenerate their traditional values defined by American frontier experience whileserving future progress. Likewise, Annette Kolodny, in The Lay of the Land (1975) and The Land before Her
(1984), clarifies the symbolic semblance between woman and land in the frontier literature. From this perspective,male possession of women is equal to that of the “symbolic frontier” to be explored and conquered. Thus, in thisdissertation, we call Magdalena the “symbolic frontier” for which John Grady intends to possess at whatever cost.
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