中国北方城市污水再生利用系统建设管理模式研究
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摘要
水资源紧缺是世界性问题，中国的水资源不足尤为突出，加之日益严重的水环境污染，使我国水资源的紧张局势进一步加剧，水资源问题已成为我国经济和社会可持续发展的主要瓶颈。污水的再生利用具有资源循环利用和环境质量改善的双重属性，对于解决我国北方地区水资源短缺，缓解水环境污染蕴藏着巨大的潜力，尤其在生态文明建设被列入五位一体的中国特色社会主义建设目标之后，污水再生利用不仅对于解决我国北方地区河流污染具有必要性，而且对增加枯水期河道生态基流、改善城市生态品质具有多重功能。但是，截止2010年我国再生水实际利用率还不足10%，与我国污水再生利用的规划目标（20%）有较大差距，对此，国内尚无系统研究。
本论文结合国家科技重大专项渭河水污染防治专项技术与示范（2009ZX07212-002）课题，首先以实例论证了污水再生资源化对于我国北方河流治理水污染的必要性和保障河道枯水期生态基流以及改善城市生态品质的价值和意义；接着从我国污水再生实际回用率偏低这一事实出发，运用根本原因分析方法（RCA），寻找出主要制约因素；针对制约因素，以实现再生利用为目标导向，有效规避管网和再生水标准不统一的难题，首次提出了适合我国国情的污水再生利用的总体思路、原则和三种可实现的污水再生利用模式；结合再生水生产一次性投资大、需要专业化技术管理的特点，分析了我国污水再生市场化融资模式（BOT模式）中规模设计、投资方案评估、成本核算、设备移交核算等存在的问题，并提出合理的解决办法；最后，就推进我国再生水利用提出了政策性对策建议。论文的主要工作和成果包括以下几个方面：
（1）以渭河和西安浐灞生态区为例，以实证方式论证了污水再生利用不仅是我国北方地区河流治理污染的必要条件，而且通过减少河道取水，补充河水，是保障枯水期河道生态基流的重要措施。通过西安浐灞生态区利用再生水作为水源，增加城市绿地（林草）和湿地，显著提升城市生态品质，改善城市生态环境质量的事实，论证污水再生利用对未来的城市生态建设具有重要意义。
（2）本文首次发现：我国污水再生回用存在两个明显的反差，一是再生水回用的规划值高，实际生产能力低；二是再生水实际生产量又远低于再生水的设计生产能力，即再生水设施运行不足，设备闲置，资源浪费。前者反映了我国水资源紧缺的事实以及污水再生利用的必要性与紧迫性；后者反映了污水再生利用存在着实际困难和障碍。
（3）本文应用根本原因分析方法（RCA），从污水再生利用的过程、影响因素、不同利用领域的利用潜力等三个方面分析了我国污水再生利用率低下的根本原因有三个：一是再生水受管网制约：污水再生利用管网不同于城市给水和污水收集管网，后两者有统一水质输送标准，可以一次性的完成输送任务。再生水利用领域繁多，标准不一，使得再生水输送管网的水质标准和建设标准缺乏依据。二是受生产模式制约，再生水用户需要的是可以直接使用的再生水，而目前再生水利用模式是将达标排放水送至用户，用户自身再次净化处理后使用。再生水不能直接利用必然导致再生水管网工程效益低下。加之管网建设本身的复杂性，最终形成再生水管网建设与再生水生产输送利用相互制约的自锁式互困；三是缺乏再生水用户的用水潜力分析，因而不明确再生水的主要用户和需求方向，无法确定再生水的生产标准和依据，使得再生水的生产与消费之间的平衡问题始终得不到有效解决。
（4）在此基础上，首次提出了直接生产再生水、尽可能简化和回避再生管网、优先用于城市景观水体及工业就近利用的总体思路与原则，结合再生水利用潜力分析，提出了适宜我国国情的三种可实现的再生水利用模式：①集中生产直接用于景观环境模式。即由城市污水处理厂直接生产可以满足城市观赏性景观水体和城市绿化、道路洒扫等城市杂用水质要求的再生水，通过简单的管道直接送入城市人工或者天然湿地、河流、湖泊等景观水体，作为城市生态用水和城市绿化、道路浇洒等杂用水水源。该种模式可以避免复杂的城市再生水管网建设问题，同时有益于城市湿地建设和提升城市生态品质。其主要目标是改善日益增加的城市生态品质提升和环境的生态服务效益。该模式适合于我国北方具有人工或天然水体的城市。②分散自循环利用模式。即在独立小区内，通过污水的自收集、自处理、自回用，借助小区的人工观赏性景观水体与建筑中水管网的结合，达到再生水生产与利用的平衡，实现小区污水环境零排放。其主要目标是用再生水替代高品质的冲厕等杂用新鲜水，达到节水与经济的双重效益。适合北方地区高等学校、大型居住区等独立组团。③工业用水大户就近利用模式。即按照就近原则，由集中式污水处理厂按照用户要求制水，通过简单的管道直接送入用水大户，或者就近从城市污水收集管网取水，自行或者委托专业水务公司生产满足生产需要的再生水，供企业使用。其主要目标是增加企业的经济效益。适合北方地区电厂、化工厂等工业用水大户。
（5）针对再生水生产具有一次性投资大、需要专业化技术管理的特点，研究了目前我国广泛使用的再生水市场化融资模式（BOT方式）中存在的诸如水量水质设计、投资方案比较与评估、成本核算、折旧移交等问题，提出了相应的科学实用的解决方法，以规避和预防因为信息不对称而导致的商业陷阱，为城市污水再生利用BOT模式的市场化健康发展提供了科学依据。
（6）在分析再生水权属的基础上，研究了再生水的定价原则。再生水作为水资源不应当等同于一般资源而忽视其公益性，不能简单地按照国家资源管理办法特批给生产者，由生产者单纯按照市场原则定价。如将再生水作为饮用水之外的主要用水水源，按照公共产品的市场定价原则，应满足下列不等式：
再生水替代水的价格≥再生水价格≥再生水的完全成本（含合理回报）。
（7）就我国与政策密切相关的诸如污水再生回用规划、再生水回用标准、再生水回用强制性政策、城市污水处理厂的提标改造标准等问题，提出了建议。
The shortage of water resource is the worldwide issues. The crisis of waterresource is much more critical in China with the increasingly serious water pollution,which has become a fatal bottle throat of economy and sustainable development of oursociety. The wastewater recycling has double attributes of recycling resource andimproving environment quality. It has great potential on the resolution of the watershortage and pollution in North China,especially when the ecology civilizationconstruction was set as one of the goals of "five-in-one" overall arrangement ofsocialism with Chinese characteristics. Wastewater recycling is not only necessary toresolve the river pollution in North China, but have many functions to increase theecological base flow in dry season and improve city ecological quality. However, therecycling water utilization rate is less than10%by the end of2010, which has a hugegap between the recycling water planning objects ie.20%. There is no systematicresearch in China to such critical issues.
In this articles, it demonstrate the resource utilization of recycling water is criticalto improve the river pollution, protect the ecological base flow and ameliorate cityecological quality, through the case analysis of recycling water, with the support ofnational science and technology major project--"Wei River water pollution controland rectification special item and demonstration"(2009ZX07212-002). Further, thearticle use the Root Cause Analysis (RCA) to find the major factors. Consequently, thearticle introduced the general idea and three pragmatic wastewater recycling mode andavoid the conflicts between pipeline standard and recycling water standard. The articleanalyze the issues in the recycling water market mode (BOT): project design, project investment evaluation, cost accounting, business accounting of equipment transfer andprovide the resolution. In conclusion part, the article provide some strategic suggestionon the recycling water utilization.
The articles includes:
(1) In the case of Weihe and Xi'an Chanba ecological zone, the article argues thatthe wastewater recycling is the necessary condition to manage the river pollution inNorth China. The article also claims that reducing water intaking and suppling riverwater is the important method to sustain ecological base flow in dry season. The articleuse the improvement of city ecological quality in Xi'an Chanba ecological zone toconsolidate its argument.
(2) The author found that there are two clear conflict in the field of wastewaterrecycling,ie high planning goal vs. low production capacity and high production vs.low yield. The first conflict shows the necessary and critical of wastewater recycling.The second one shows the real difficulties and barrier of the utilization of recyclingwater.
(3) The article use the Root Cause Analysis (RCA) to reason of the low utilizationrate of recycling water in our country from three aspects: the procedure of recyclingwater, influence factors and utilization potence in different areas. The three rudimentalreasons.1)the limitation of recycling pipeline network. The recycling water pipelinenetwork is different to the water supply and wastewater collecting pipeline networkwhich have respected water transport standard. The standards of recycling water aredifferent to others. There is no regular standard in China so far. The complicatedapplication of recycling water also makes the establishment of recycling waterregulation more difficult.2)With the limitation of production pattern, recycling user,the recycling water would like use water directly. So far, the usages pattern is to deliverthe water to customer, the user will purify the water by them. The complication use ofrecycling water will lead the decline of project efficiency. Eventually, there will be aninternal lock between the construction of recycling water pipeline network andtransportation.
The third reason is the lack of analysis of user potential, therefore the majorcustomers and their needs of reclaimed water are not clear, it’s also impossible to establish the regulation of reused water. Eventually the balance of production andcomsumption of recycling water could not be achieved.
(4) Based on previous research, the article introduces that the method to producerecycling water directly and simplify and circumvent pipeline network construction, touse it to city landscape water. The article provide three recycling method based on ourcurrent situation with potential analysis in our country.
A. Centralized direct recycling mode
Municipal sewage plant provides the reclaimed water for city ornamental water,green watering and city cleaning. Such system could avoid complexity and high cost ofrecycling water pipeline network by providing suitable pipeline network. At the sametime, it could also benefit the city wetland and improve the city ecological quality.The major target is to improve city ecological quality and environmental ecosystemservice benefits. The centralized direct recycling mode is fit for the cities of northernChina with artificial or natural water body.
B. Dispensed self-recycling mode.
In the individual community, The recycling system keeps the balance of waterproduction and reuse by self-collecting, self-disposing, self-reclaiming, supportingartificial ornamental water body and pipeline network, to achieve zero emission of thecommunity. The major target is to replace the fresh water in the kitchen and toilet, toachieve economic benefit. The dispensed self-recycling mode is fit for independentgroup such as university and institute and large residential area.
C. Nearby industrial water user recycling mode
With the principle of proximity, the centralized sewage plant produce wateraccording to customer requirement with simple pipeline construction. The plant couldalso collect wastewater from municipal sewage system and produce reclaimed waterand directly transport it to the industrial water user. The major goal is to increase theprofit of industry. Such mode is fit for the power plant, chemical industry etc.
(5) The recycling water production has huge one-time investment and needsprofessional management. The article studies the issues of BOT mode in water qualitydesign, investment, cost analysis and depreciation in domestic wastewater constructionand management. The article provides practical resolution to circumvent and prevent commercial trap caused by information asymmetry, providing scientific basis forhealthy development of wastewater in recycling BOT mode.
(6) Based on reclaimed water authority, the article studies the pricing of reclaimedwater. The author think that the reclaimed water should not identify as the publicresource and ignore its public welfare. Therefore, we could not simply authorize theproducer in accordance with administrative measures of national resources and letthem to set price purely as market price. Even though the recycling water becomes themain water resource, according to the pricing principal of public product, its priceshould meet the equation: the price of reclaimed water (potable reuse)≥Reclaimedwater (non-portable reuse)≥overall cost of reclaimed water (includes reasonableprofit)
(7) The article provides strategical suggestion on recycling water plan, standard,compulsory policy on reuse water, municipal sewage water plant constructionstandard.
本论文结合国家科技重大专项渭河水污染防治专项技术与示范（2009ZX07212-002）课题，首先以实例论证了污水再生资源化对于我国北方河流治理水污染的必要性和保障河道枯水期生态基流以及改善城市生态品质的价值和意义；接着从我国污水再生实际回用率偏低这一事实出发，运用根本原因分析方法（RCA），寻找出主要制约因素；针对制约因素，以实现再生利用为目标导向，有效规避管网和再生水标准不统一的难题，首次提出了适合我国国情的污水再生利用的总体思路、原则和三种可实现的污水再生利用模式；结合再生水生产一次性投资大、需要专业化技术管理的特点，分析了我国污水再生市场化融资模式（BOT模式）中规模设计、投资方案评估、成本核算、设备移交核算等存在的问题，并提出合理的解决办法；最后，就推进我国再生水利用提出了政策性对策建议。论文的主要工作和成果包括以下几个方面：
（1）以渭河和西安浐灞生态区为例，以实证方式论证了污水再生利用不仅是我国北方地区河流治理污染的必要条件，而且通过减少河道取水，补充河水，是保障枯水期河道生态基流的重要措施。通过西安浐灞生态区利用再生水作为水源，增加城市绿地（林草）和湿地，显著提升城市生态品质，改善城市生态环境质量的事实，论证污水再生利用对未来的城市生态建设具有重要意义。
（2）本文首次发现：我国污水再生回用存在两个明显的反差，一是再生水回用的规划值高，实际生产能力低；二是再生水实际生产量又远低于再生水的设计生产能力，即再生水设施运行不足，设备闲置，资源浪费。前者反映了我国水资源紧缺的事实以及污水再生利用的必要性与紧迫性；后者反映了污水再生利用存在着实际困难和障碍。
（3）本文应用根本原因分析方法（RCA），从污水再生利用的过程、影响因素、不同利用领域的利用潜力等三个方面分析了我国污水再生利用率低下的根本原因有三个：一是再生水受管网制约：污水再生利用管网不同于城市给水和污水收集管网，后两者有统一水质输送标准，可以一次性的完成输送任务。再生水利用领域繁多，标准不一，使得再生水输送管网的水质标准和建设标准缺乏依据。二是受生产模式制约，再生水用户需要的是可以直接使用的再生水，而目前再生水利用模式是将达标排放水送至用户，用户自身再次净化处理后使用。再生水不能直接利用必然导致再生水管网工程效益低下。加之管网建设本身的复杂性，最终形成再生水管网建设与再生水生产输送利用相互制约的自锁式互困；三是缺乏再生水用户的用水潜力分析，因而不明确再生水的主要用户和需求方向，无法确定再生水的生产标准和依据，使得再生水的生产与消费之间的平衡问题始终得不到有效解决。
（4）在此基础上，首次提出了直接生产再生水、尽可能简化和回避再生管网、优先用于城市景观水体及工业就近利用的总体思路与原则，结合再生水利用潜力分析，提出了适宜我国国情的三种可实现的再生水利用模式：①集中生产直接用于景观环境模式。即由城市污水处理厂直接生产可以满足城市观赏性景观水体和城市绿化、道路洒扫等城市杂用水质要求的再生水，通过简单的管道直接送入城市人工或者天然湿地、河流、湖泊等景观水体，作为城市生态用水和城市绿化、道路浇洒等杂用水水源。该种模式可以避免复杂的城市再生水管网建设问题，同时有益于城市湿地建设和提升城市生态品质。其主要目标是改善日益增加的城市生态品质提升和环境的生态服务效益。该模式适合于我国北方具有人工或天然水体的城市。②分散自循环利用模式。即在独立小区内，通过污水的自收集、自处理、自回用，借助小区的人工观赏性景观水体与建筑中水管网的结合，达到再生水生产与利用的平衡，实现小区污水环境零排放。其主要目标是用再生水替代高品质的冲厕等杂用新鲜水，达到节水与经济的双重效益。适合北方地区高等学校、大型居住区等独立组团。③工业用水大户就近利用模式。即按照就近原则，由集中式污水处理厂按照用户要求制水，通过简单的管道直接送入用水大户，或者就近从城市污水收集管网取水，自行或者委托专业水务公司生产满足生产需要的再生水，供企业使用。其主要目标是增加企业的经济效益。适合北方地区电厂、化工厂等工业用水大户。
（5）针对再生水生产具有一次性投资大、需要专业化技术管理的特点，研究了目前我国广泛使用的再生水市场化融资模式（BOT方式）中存在的诸如水量水质设计、投资方案比较与评估、成本核算、折旧移交等问题，提出了相应的科学实用的解决方法，以规避和预防因为信息不对称而导致的商业陷阱，为城市污水再生利用BOT模式的市场化健康发展提供了科学依据。
（6）在分析再生水权属的基础上，研究了再生水的定价原则。再生水作为水资源不应当等同于一般资源而忽视其公益性，不能简单地按照国家资源管理办法特批给生产者，由生产者单纯按照市场原则定价。如将再生水作为饮用水之外的主要用水水源，按照公共产品的市场定价原则，应满足下列不等式：
再生水替代水的价格≥再生水价格≥再生水的完全成本（含合理回报）。
（7）就我国与政策密切相关的诸如污水再生回用规划、再生水回用标准、再生水回用强制性政策、城市污水处理厂的提标改造标准等问题，提出了建议。
The shortage of water resource is the worldwide issues. The crisis of waterresource is much more critical in China with the increasingly serious water pollution,which has become a fatal bottle throat of economy and sustainable development of oursociety. The wastewater recycling has double attributes of recycling resource andimproving environment quality. It has great potential on the resolution of the watershortage and pollution in North China,especially when the ecology civilizationconstruction was set as one of the goals of "five-in-one" overall arrangement ofsocialism with Chinese characteristics. Wastewater recycling is not only necessary toresolve the river pollution in North China, but have many functions to increase theecological base flow in dry season and improve city ecological quality. However, therecycling water utilization rate is less than10%by the end of2010, which has a hugegap between the recycling water planning objects ie.20%. There is no systematicresearch in China to such critical issues.
In this articles, it demonstrate the resource utilization of recycling water is criticalto improve the river pollution, protect the ecological base flow and ameliorate cityecological quality, through the case analysis of recycling water, with the support ofnational science and technology major project--"Wei River water pollution controland rectification special item and demonstration"(2009ZX07212-002). Further, thearticle use the Root Cause Analysis (RCA) to find the major factors. Consequently, thearticle introduced the general idea and three pragmatic wastewater recycling mode andavoid the conflicts between pipeline standard and recycling water standard. The articleanalyze the issues in the recycling water market mode (BOT): project design, project investment evaluation, cost accounting, business accounting of equipment transfer andprovide the resolution. In conclusion part, the article provide some strategic suggestionon the recycling water utilization.
The articles includes:
(1) In the case of Weihe and Xi'an Chanba ecological zone, the article argues thatthe wastewater recycling is the necessary condition to manage the river pollution inNorth China. The article also claims that reducing water intaking and suppling riverwater is the important method to sustain ecological base flow in dry season. The articleuse the improvement of city ecological quality in Xi'an Chanba ecological zone toconsolidate its argument.
(2) The author found that there are two clear conflict in the field of wastewaterrecycling,ie high planning goal vs. low production capacity and high production vs.low yield. The first conflict shows the necessary and critical of wastewater recycling.The second one shows the real difficulties and barrier of the utilization of recyclingwater.
(3) The article use the Root Cause Analysis (RCA) to reason of the low utilizationrate of recycling water in our country from three aspects: the procedure of recyclingwater, influence factors and utilization potence in different areas. The three rudimentalreasons.1)the limitation of recycling pipeline network. The recycling water pipelinenetwork is different to the water supply and wastewater collecting pipeline networkwhich have respected water transport standard. The standards of recycling water aredifferent to others. There is no regular standard in China so far. The complicatedapplication of recycling water also makes the establishment of recycling waterregulation more difficult.2)With the limitation of production pattern, recycling user,the recycling water would like use water directly. So far, the usages pattern is to deliverthe water to customer, the user will purify the water by them. The complication use ofrecycling water will lead the decline of project efficiency. Eventually, there will be aninternal lock between the construction of recycling water pipeline network andtransportation.
The third reason is the lack of analysis of user potential, therefore the majorcustomers and their needs of reclaimed water are not clear, it’s also impossible to establish the regulation of reused water. Eventually the balance of production andcomsumption of recycling water could not be achieved.
(4) Based on previous research, the article introduces that the method to producerecycling water directly and simplify and circumvent pipeline network construction, touse it to city landscape water. The article provide three recycling method based on ourcurrent situation with potential analysis in our country.
A. Centralized direct recycling mode
Municipal sewage plant provides the reclaimed water for city ornamental water,green watering and city cleaning. Such system could avoid complexity and high cost ofrecycling water pipeline network by providing suitable pipeline network. At the sametime, it could also benefit the city wetland and improve the city ecological quality.The major target is to improve city ecological quality and environmental ecosystemservice benefits. The centralized direct recycling mode is fit for the cities of northernChina with artificial or natural water body.
B. Dispensed self-recycling mode.
In the individual community, The recycling system keeps the balance of waterproduction and reuse by self-collecting, self-disposing, self-reclaiming, supportingartificial ornamental water body and pipeline network, to achieve zero emission of thecommunity. The major target is to replace the fresh water in the kitchen and toilet, toachieve economic benefit. The dispensed self-recycling mode is fit for independentgroup such as university and institute and large residential area.
C. Nearby industrial water user recycling mode
With the principle of proximity, the centralized sewage plant produce wateraccording to customer requirement with simple pipeline construction. The plant couldalso collect wastewater from municipal sewage system and produce reclaimed waterand directly transport it to the industrial water user. The major goal is to increase theprofit of industry. Such mode is fit for the power plant, chemical industry etc.
(5) The recycling water production has huge one-time investment and needsprofessional management. The article studies the issues of BOT mode in water qualitydesign, investment, cost analysis and depreciation in domestic wastewater constructionand management. The article provides practical resolution to circumvent and prevent commercial trap caused by information asymmetry, providing scientific basis forhealthy development of wastewater in recycling BOT mode.
(6) Based on reclaimed water authority, the article studies the pricing of reclaimedwater. The author think that the reclaimed water should not identify as the publicresource and ignore its public welfare. Therefore, we could not simply authorize theproducer in accordance with administrative measures of national resources and letthem to set price purely as market price. Even though the recycling water becomes themain water resource, according to the pricing principal of public product, its priceshould meet the equation: the price of reclaimed water (potable reuse)≥Reclaimedwater (non-portable reuse)≥overall cost of reclaimed water (includes reasonableprofit)
(7) The article provides strategical suggestion on recycling water plan, standard,compulsory policy on reuse water, municipal sewage water plant constructionstandard.
引文
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