根与路：厄德里克的灾难生存书写研究
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摘要
路易丝·厄德里克(Louise Erdrich,1954-)是美国著名的奥吉布瓦作家,也是美国当代最重要的小说家之一。从20世纪80年代在美国文坛崭露头角,截至目前,厄德里克已先后出版了小说13部、儿童读物5部、诗歌集3部和回忆录2部。这些作品为厄德里克赢得了包括美国国家图书奖在内的十余项大奖。国外学界从叙事学、本土文化、后殖民、女性主义、生态主义、谱系学等多个角度切入讨论了其小说的主题与艺术,特别是她1996年之前的小说。本文聚焦于厄德里克1996年之后创作的八部小说,讨论厄德里克小说中的“灾难生存”主题。选择1996年之后的文本,除了想绕避开前期作品研究者众、研究成果多,还有一个重要原因,即,厄德里克与多瑞斯1996年离婚、多瑞斯1997年自杀身亡,这为二人曾在诸多采访中一直津津乐道的“合作式写作”划上了永远的句点。而之所以选择“灾难生存”作为考量厄德里克后期创作的出发点,因为厄德里克曾在采访中强调,“当代土著作家有着与我所提及的其他作家截然不同的任务。鉴于巨大的损失,他们必须讲述当代生存者的故事,这样既能保护又能颂扬灾难之后留存下来的各种文化内核。”
论文分为绪论、1-5章和结语共7个部分：
绪论部分从美国印第安文学复兴与厄德里克的文学创作、厄德里克在美国和中国大陆的研究现状、本论文的基本思路和主要内容三方面展开。
论文的1-4章分别选取了厄德里克的《小无马保留地奇事的最后报告》、《四灵魂》、《彩色鼓》和《踩影游戏》作为研究文本,这四部小说分别呈示了奥吉布瓦人在巨大的宗教灾难、土地灾难、创伤灾难和虚构灾难下的生存策略,对应的分别是跨界与杂糅、对话与融合、记忆与回归、反抗与重塑。透过这些生存策略,我们在看到厄德里克对白人文化的吸纳的同时,更多看到了她对奥吉布瓦本族文化的坚守。
第5章“温迪戈故事：厄德里克的灾难生存书写模式”则主要以厄德里克1996年后创作的八部小说为研究对象,尤其是《羚羊妻》、《鸽灾》和《圆屋》,重点探讨小说中的“温迪戈人物”和“温迪戈口下的生存”。在厄德里克这里,温迪戈既是论文前四章所讨论过的泛化灾难,也是具体的人物再现。通过复兴奥吉布瓦文化中古老的“温迪戈”,厄德里克使自己的当代语境写作同奥吉布瓦传统文化再次发生了联系,实现了除前四章中的奥吉布瓦宗教、土地观复兴之外的奥吉布瓦讲故事传统的复兴。“结语：厄德里克写作的意义”则从“对奥吉布瓦传统文化的复兴”和“走向少数族文学写作”两方面展开,认为厄德里克以一种抗拒主流、抗拒权威、在边缘怒放的姿态写作。在这场怒放式的写作中,厄德里克在为践行自我所言的“保护和颂扬灾难之后留存下来的各种文化内核”的同时,走向了德勒兹和瓜塔里所推崇的“少数族文学”。
本论文标题中的“生存”一词所借用的是美国土著奥吉布瓦族理论家杰拉德·维泽勒(Gerald Vizenor,1934-)的“生存”(survivance)‘概念。在具体文本分析中,论文还将结合奥吉布瓦历史和文化,巴巴的“阈限空间”、克鲁斯和拉卡普拉的创伤理论、哈布瓦赫的“记忆”理论和鲍德里亚的“拟象”对本文解读厄德里克的小说亦有诸多启示意义。研究方法主要是文本细读与比较研究。
厄德里克的小说虽然浓墨于对奥吉布瓦人生存现状的思考和生存途径的探索,但这种思考和探索对于我们这些奥吉布瓦人之外的人同样意义重大。一定程度上,奥吉布瓦人的困境折射出了当代以美国为主导的现代文明进程路上的诸多问题：当代美国社会的日益商业化、人们精神世界的日益平面化、人与人情感的日益淡漠化、人之欲望的越来越膨胀化,正如同奥吉布瓦古老文化中的“温迪戈”一样伺机以待。作为局外人的我们也应时刻谨防“温迪戈”：既不要成为“温迪戈”,也不要被“温迪戈”吃掉。此为厄德里克小说创作的现实意义,也是本论文对其小说中的“灾难生存”进行研究的现实意义。
Louise Erdrich (1954-) is a prominent Ojibway writer as well as one of the most influential contemporary American novelists. A series of her works have been published to date since her debut in the American literary circle in the1980s, including thirteen novels, five children's books, three collections of poems and two memoirs, which have won her the American National Book Award and other ten plus awards. The themes and art of her novels, especially of the ones that she completed before1996have been studied by academia abroad in various perspectives, such as narratology, native culture, feminism, ecologism, genealogy, etc. The present dissertation, on the other hand, focuses on the eight novels she wrote after1996and tries to probe in the theme of "survivance in catastrophes", one of the core values of Erdrich's works. One of the important reasons of selecting those texts, apart from the expectation for initiating a new research field, is that1996was the very year when Erdrich divorced her husband Michael Dorris and the following year witnessed the suicide of the latter; those incidents had actually put a period to the "collaborative writing" claimed repeatedly by the previous couple in some interviews. The focus on "survivance in catastrophe" is also out of the author's emphasizing on the theme of her writing,"contemporary Native American writers have therefore a task quite different from that of other writers I've mentioned. In the light of enormous loss, they must tell the stories of contemporary survivors while protecting and celebrating the cores of cultures lfet in the work of the catastrophe."
This dissertation consists of the foreword, chapter1-5and the conclusion.
The foreword retrospects American Indian literature renaissance and Erdrich's writing career, summarizes the research status of the author, and presents the basic thoughts and main contents of the paper.
The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse, Four Souls, the Painted Drum and Shadow Tag are selected in Chapter1-4as the research texts. The survivance strategies of Ojibwa confronted with catastrophes related to religion, earth, trauma and invention in the four novels are transboundary and hybridity, communication and fusion, memory and return, as well as resistance and remodeling respectively. The introduction of these strategies exposes nothing but the fact that the author holds fast to her native culture more than she assimilates the white culture.
Centering on the "windigo characters" and "the survivance in windigo's mouth", Chapter5analyzes the eight novels Erdrich created after1996, especially the three typical ones, the Antelope Wife, the Plague of Doves, and the Round House. The image of windigo, in the author's eyes, is the general catastrophes discussed in the previous chapters as well as the recurrences of specific characters. Erdrich reconnects her writing in the contemporary context to the traditional Ojibway culture through reviving the ancient "windigo" in that archaic culture; therefore, besides the rejuvenation of the Ojibway religion and their thoughts on earth, the Ojibway tradition of story-telling manages to rejuvenate as well.
The conclusion section summarizes the significance of Erdrich's writing from her "rejuvenating the traditional Ojibway culture" and walking "toward a minor literature". The author is believed to undertake her writing in a posture of opposing the mainstream and the authorities and flourishing in edge. It is by this kind of writing that Erdrich steps forward to the "minor literature" stressed by Deleuze and Guattari while being a practitioner herself in "protecting and celebrating the cores of cultures lfet in the work of the catastrophe".
It is a must to mention that the term "survivance" is from the relevant conception put forward by Gerald Vizenor (1934-), an Ojibway theorist. In the meantime, combined with Ojibway culture and history, a number of theories are referred to in the specific analyses of the texts and contribute to understanding the details of the novels, such as liminal space by Bhabha, trauma theories by Caruth and LaCapra, memory by Halbwachs and simulacra by Baudrillard. The methodology mainly consists of intensive reading of the texts and comparative study.
The reflection of Ojibway current living condition and the exploration of their survivance approaches, which are highlighted in Erdrich's novels, are of significance for many other foreigners like us as well. The dilemma of Ojibwa mirrors, to some degree, the baffling situation the modern civilization comes across, especially in America:the commercialization of the society, the complanation of the spiritual world, the indifference among individuals, the expansion of desires, these are just like the windigo, putting people in jeopardy. Everyone should be cautious about "windigo"—neither become it nor be swallowed. This is no doubt the practical significance of the author's writing, as well as the purpose of research on "survivance in catastrophes" of her novels in this paper.
论文分为绪论、1-5章和结语共7个部分：
绪论部分从美国印第安文学复兴与厄德里克的文学创作、厄德里克在美国和中国大陆的研究现状、本论文的基本思路和主要内容三方面展开。
论文的1-4章分别选取了厄德里克的《小无马保留地奇事的最后报告》、《四灵魂》、《彩色鼓》和《踩影游戏》作为研究文本,这四部小说分别呈示了奥吉布瓦人在巨大的宗教灾难、土地灾难、创伤灾难和虚构灾难下的生存策略,对应的分别是跨界与杂糅、对话与融合、记忆与回归、反抗与重塑。透过这些生存策略,我们在看到厄德里克对白人文化的吸纳的同时,更多看到了她对奥吉布瓦本族文化的坚守。
第5章“温迪戈故事：厄德里克的灾难生存书写模式”则主要以厄德里克1996年后创作的八部小说为研究对象,尤其是《羚羊妻》、《鸽灾》和《圆屋》,重点探讨小说中的“温迪戈人物”和“温迪戈口下的生存”。在厄德里克这里,温迪戈既是论文前四章所讨论过的泛化灾难,也是具体的人物再现。通过复兴奥吉布瓦文化中古老的“温迪戈”,厄德里克使自己的当代语境写作同奥吉布瓦传统文化再次发生了联系,实现了除前四章中的奥吉布瓦宗教、土地观复兴之外的奥吉布瓦讲故事传统的复兴。“结语：厄德里克写作的意义”则从“对奥吉布瓦传统文化的复兴”和“走向少数族文学写作”两方面展开,认为厄德里克以一种抗拒主流、抗拒权威、在边缘怒放的姿态写作。在这场怒放式的写作中,厄德里克在为践行自我所言的“保护和颂扬灾难之后留存下来的各种文化内核”的同时,走向了德勒兹和瓜塔里所推崇的“少数族文学”。
本论文标题中的“生存”一词所借用的是美国土著奥吉布瓦族理论家杰拉德·维泽勒(Gerald Vizenor,1934-)的“生存”(survivance)‘概念。在具体文本分析中,论文还将结合奥吉布瓦历史和文化,巴巴的“阈限空间”、克鲁斯和拉卡普拉的创伤理论、哈布瓦赫的“记忆”理论和鲍德里亚的“拟象”对本文解读厄德里克的小说亦有诸多启示意义。研究方法主要是文本细读与比较研究。
厄德里克的小说虽然浓墨于对奥吉布瓦人生存现状的思考和生存途径的探索,但这种思考和探索对于我们这些奥吉布瓦人之外的人同样意义重大。一定程度上,奥吉布瓦人的困境折射出了当代以美国为主导的现代文明进程路上的诸多问题：当代美国社会的日益商业化、人们精神世界的日益平面化、人与人情感的日益淡漠化、人之欲望的越来越膨胀化,正如同奥吉布瓦古老文化中的“温迪戈”一样伺机以待。作为局外人的我们也应时刻谨防“温迪戈”：既不要成为“温迪戈”,也不要被“温迪戈”吃掉。此为厄德里克小说创作的现实意义,也是本论文对其小说中的“灾难生存”进行研究的现实意义。
Louise Erdrich (1954-) is a prominent Ojibway writer as well as one of the most influential contemporary American novelists. A series of her works have been published to date since her debut in the American literary circle in the1980s, including thirteen novels, five children's books, three collections of poems and two memoirs, which have won her the American National Book Award and other ten plus awards. The themes and art of her novels, especially of the ones that she completed before1996have been studied by academia abroad in various perspectives, such as narratology, native culture, feminism, ecologism, genealogy, etc. The present dissertation, on the other hand, focuses on the eight novels she wrote after1996and tries to probe in the theme of "survivance in catastrophes", one of the core values of Erdrich's works. One of the important reasons of selecting those texts, apart from the expectation for initiating a new research field, is that1996was the very year when Erdrich divorced her husband Michael Dorris and the following year witnessed the suicide of the latter; those incidents had actually put a period to the "collaborative writing" claimed repeatedly by the previous couple in some interviews. The focus on "survivance in catastrophe" is also out of the author's emphasizing on the theme of her writing,"contemporary Native American writers have therefore a task quite different from that of other writers I've mentioned. In the light of enormous loss, they must tell the stories of contemporary survivors while protecting and celebrating the cores of cultures lfet in the work of the catastrophe."
This dissertation consists of the foreword, chapter1-5and the conclusion.
The foreword retrospects American Indian literature renaissance and Erdrich's writing career, summarizes the research status of the author, and presents the basic thoughts and main contents of the paper.
The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse, Four Souls, the Painted Drum and Shadow Tag are selected in Chapter1-4as the research texts. The survivance strategies of Ojibwa confronted with catastrophes related to religion, earth, trauma and invention in the four novels are transboundary and hybridity, communication and fusion, memory and return, as well as resistance and remodeling respectively. The introduction of these strategies exposes nothing but the fact that the author holds fast to her native culture more than she assimilates the white culture.
Centering on the "windigo characters" and "the survivance in windigo's mouth", Chapter5analyzes the eight novels Erdrich created after1996, especially the three typical ones, the Antelope Wife, the Plague of Doves, and the Round House. The image of windigo, in the author's eyes, is the general catastrophes discussed in the previous chapters as well as the recurrences of specific characters. Erdrich reconnects her writing in the contemporary context to the traditional Ojibway culture through reviving the ancient "windigo" in that archaic culture; therefore, besides the rejuvenation of the Ojibway religion and their thoughts on earth, the Ojibway tradition of story-telling manages to rejuvenate as well.
The conclusion section summarizes the significance of Erdrich's writing from her "rejuvenating the traditional Ojibway culture" and walking "toward a minor literature". The author is believed to undertake her writing in a posture of opposing the mainstream and the authorities and flourishing in edge. It is by this kind of writing that Erdrich steps forward to the "minor literature" stressed by Deleuze and Guattari while being a practitioner herself in "protecting and celebrating the cores of cultures lfet in the work of the catastrophe".
It is a must to mention that the term "survivance" is from the relevant conception put forward by Gerald Vizenor (1934-), an Ojibway theorist. In the meantime, combined with Ojibway culture and history, a number of theories are referred to in the specific analyses of the texts and contribute to understanding the details of the novels, such as liminal space by Bhabha, trauma theories by Caruth and LaCapra, memory by Halbwachs and simulacra by Baudrillard. The methodology mainly consists of intensive reading of the texts and comparative study.
The reflection of Ojibway current living condition and the exploration of their survivance approaches, which are highlighted in Erdrich's novels, are of significance for many other foreigners like us as well. The dilemma of Ojibwa mirrors, to some degree, the baffling situation the modern civilization comes across, especially in America:the commercialization of the society, the complanation of the spiritual world, the indifference among individuals, the expansion of desires, these are just like the windigo, putting people in jeopardy. Everyone should be cautious about "windigo"—neither become it nor be swallowed. This is no doubt the practical significance of the author's writing, as well as the purpose of research on "survivance in catastrophes" of her novels in this paper.
引文
1 鉴于哥伦布当时误以为自己抵达了印度,并将当地人错误地称作“印第安人”,现今美国土著居民多对之弃而不用,而以“土著美国人”(native Americans)代之。不过,在美国国内,仍有一些机构沿用了美国印第安人(American Indian)的称法,如美国伊利诺伊大学厄本那-香槟分校既有Native American House,也有American Indian Program。鉴于国内对美国印第安这一词已十分熟悉,本论文兼用“土著美国人”和“美国印第安人”,均指美国原住民。
2 奥吉布瓦(Ojibwa)、奇帕瓦(Chippewa)和阿尼什纳比(Anishinabe)均指同一个部族。阿尼什纳比是部落人对自己的称呼,奥吉布瓦和奇帕瓦是法国殖民者对部落人的称呼。关于“印第安”一词的更多介绍可参看本论文第四章第一节。
3 Charles Ron, "Four Souls:A Novel", Chiristian Science Monitor,29 June. www.powells.com/review/2004_08_02.html[last
4 路易丝·厄德里克：《爱药》,张廷佺译,南京：译林出版社,2008年,封二
1 陈许：《解读美国西部印第安人小说》,《四川外语学院学报》,2006年第6期,第12页。
2 Connie A. Jacobs, The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People, New York:Peter Lang, c2001, p.3.
3 Ibid.p.2.
1 威尔科姆.E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第女人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第179页
2 1887年,美国政府以改善印第安人生活为由,通过了《单独占有土地法》,即《道斯法案》,其主旨是取消居留地内的部落制度和土地公有制。联邦政府对分配给印第安人使用的部落十地有二十五年的托管权,托管期满后把所有权移交给印第安人；分配给印第安人后余下的土地将归非印第女人所有。《道斯法案》的实施使印第安人丧失了大量土地,史给印第安民族带来了毁灭性的灾难,西奥多·罗斯福(Theodore Roosevelt, 1858-1919,美国第26任总统)在后来给国会的咨文中既尖刻又正确地把这个法令叫作“一部粉碎部族整体的强大粉碎机。”(威尔克姆·E·沃什博思：《美国印第女人》,陆毅译,北京：上午图书馆,1997年,第247-2550。
3 最臭名昭著的寄宿学校是卡莱尔寄宿学校(Carlisle Boarding School,1879年11月1日-1918年秋季),该学校在当时一度被追捧为寄宿学校的典范,很多学校纷纷效尤。卡莱尔寄宿学校通过教育军事化、教育寄宿制、削发、更衣、易名、英语霸权主义、违规惩罚等,强迫学生中断和放弃印第安语言文化传统。此处参考了蔡永良：《语言失落与文化生存：北美印第安语衰亡研究》,上海：上海人民出版社,2010年,第180-223页。
4 David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction:American Indian and the Boarding School Experience,1879-1928, Lawrence, Kan.:University Press of Kansas, c1995, pp.6-21.
5 Ibid. p.277.
1 瓦伊尔教授在与笔者的一次邮件交谈中做了如上观点的表达,邮件原文为,“1967-1980 was a critical time in theAmerican Indian world, but I hesitate to call it the Native American Renaissance. That term was created by a scholar rather than by American Indian people. My second book, Like a Hurricane:The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee, provides an overview of that period. Education played an important role, but so did urbanization and the broader context of American and global civil unrest." (2012年3月24日)
2 李剑鸣：《文化的边疆——美国印第安人与白人文化关系史论》,天津：天津人民出版社,1991年,第183-184页。
3 Elaine Neils, Reservation to City:Indian Migration and Federal Relocation, Chicago:University o Chicago,1971, p.90.
4 Rebecca Tillett, Contemporary Native American Literary, Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, c2007,pp.34-35.
1 丁见民：《1960-1970年代美国“红种人权力”运动与土著族裔意识的复兴》,《福建师范大学学报》,2009年第4期,第157-159页。
2 Louis Owens, Other Destinies:Understanding the American Indian Novel, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1992,p.91.
3 Andrew Wiget, Native American Literature, Boston:Twayne Publishers,1985.p.82.
4 Kenneth Lincoln, Native American Renaissance, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983. p.13.
5 对萸马迪的印第安文学复兴地位的讨论可参见,林肯的《美国印第安复兴》(Native American Renaissance)、雅各布的《厄德里克小说研究：她族裔人的故事》(The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People,p3)和蒂利特的《当代美国土著文学》(Contemporary Native Aemrican Literature,p26)特劳特(Lawana Trout)的《美国土著文学选集》(Native American Literature:An Anthology,ⅹⅹⅲ)。
6 小说的主人公亚伯(Abel)是一位基奥瓦(Kiowa)妇女和一位可能为纳瓦霍(Navajo)男了的私生子。二战后归返保留地,迷失了“文化身份”异常迷茫,后因杀死保留地上患有白化病的Fragua被判入狱7年。亚伯出狱后,在洛杉矶短暂工作期间,被白人警察Martinez骚扰,并同时被同为基奥瓦人的Tosamah嘲笑为无知的野蛮人。痛苦的亚伯酗酒成瘾,丢了工作。后来,亚伯在祖父弥留之际,回到保留地。通过传统仪式,作为个体的亚伯汇入了基奥瓦族群的集体生命之中,最终获得了心灵的平静。
7 David Mitchell, "A Bridge to the Past:Cultural Hegemony and the Native American Past in Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine". Thomas E. Schirer ed., Entering the 90S:The North American Experience:Proceedings from the Native American Studies Conference at Lake Superior University, October 16-17,1987, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.:Lake Superior University Press.1991,p.163.
8 Woodar Charles L.,"Momaday's House Made of Dawn." Explicator 36(1978):27-28.
1 Alan R. Velie, Four American Indian Literary Masters:N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, Leslie Marmon Silko, and Gerald Vizeor, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,1982.
2 Rebecca Tillett, Contemporary Native American Literature, Edingurgh:Edinburgh University Press Ltd.,2007,p33.
3 Larson Charles R. American Indian Fiction. Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1978,p.66.
4 霍根于1978年出版了自己的处女诗歌集《喊我自己回家》(Calling Myself Home).随后又相继发表了诗集《女儿们,我爱你们》(Daughters, I Love You,1981)、《眼望太阳》(Seeing Through Sun,1985)等。直到1990年,霍根才发表了自己的第一部小说《邪灵》(Mean Spirit)。本论文讨论的重心是小说,故将霍根归为印第安文学复兴的第二波。
5 Connie A. Jacobs, The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People, New York:Peter Lang, c2001,pp.12-17.
1 刘克东：《趋十融合——谢尔曼·阿莱克西小说研究》,北京：光明日报出版社,2011年,第3页。
2 Smith Dinitia. "The Indian in literature Is Growing Up:Heroes Now Tend to Be More Edged, Urban and Pop Oriented." New York Times 21 Apr.1997, late ed.:Academic Universe. Online. Lexis-Nexis.14 Aug.1998.
3 下文厄德里克的生平部分主要以Louise Erdrich:A Critical Companion by Lorena L. Stookey (pp.1-11)为脉络和蓝本,此外还融合了The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People by Connie A. Jacobs (pp.53-69)、The Chippewa Landscape of Louise Erdrich edited by Allan Chavkin (pp.1-7)、Contemporary Native American Literature by Rebecca Tillett(pp.69-72)、Louise Erdrich by David Stirrup、Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris edited by Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin和The Art of Fiction No.208。
4 迈克尔·多瑞斯(Michael Dorris,1945.1.30-1997.4.10)是美国当代最著名的印第安人类学家及小说家之一,同时,他还积极推动了人们对胎儿酒精综合症的认识。多瑞斯的回忆录《破裂的脐带》(Broken Cord)描写了自己收养患有胎儿酒精综合症的印第安苏族孩了阿贝尔的故事。该书荣获1989年美国国家图书奖非小说类奖。
5 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin. eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, cl994,p.139.
1 Ibid,p.140.
2 Ibid,pp.27-28.
3 譬如,在《爱药》的首页,厄德里克写道,“没有迈克尔·多瑞斯,我不可能以这种方式来创作这部小说,在写作的过程中,他给予了我诸多他自己的观点、经验和精力。谨以此书献给他,因为他的投入是如此之多。”(I could not have written it this way without Michael Dorris, who gave his own ideas, experiences, and devoted attention to the writing. This book is dedicated to him because he is so much a part of it.)
4 国内有人将其翻译为《最终的射程》(王晨,2011),笔者根据故事内容意译为《恒暖牌柴炉》。"the Range Eternal"在书中是一只柴炉的名字,这只柴炉曾给叙述者“我”无限温暖,随着物质文明的进步,这只柴炉最终退出了使用,被弃掷在荒野中。"the Range Eternal"柴炉后又在《羚羊妻》中出现过。
1 国际IMPAC都柏林文学奖,成立于1996年,足由爱尔兰都柏林市政府主办、都柏林市立图书馆承办、美国企业管理顾问公司IMPAC所赞助的世界性文学奖“国际IMPAC都柏林文学奖”(The International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award),它颁发给英语小说或任何语言有英译本的小说,是现今世界上奖金最高的单一文学奖(得奖者可获10万欧儿,约合新台币400万元)。此文学奖对图书馆界具有特别的意义,因为其参选的图书是由各国首都或主要城市的图书馆向主办单位所推荐的；目前全世界有五十几个国家的一百三十几所公共图书馆或大学图书馆每年经常向主办的都柏林市政当局及市立图书馆推荐优秀的小说作品,最初有一个长名单(Longlist),经过主办单位所荐请的国际性评审委员评选后,十每年三月公布10本以内的入围者名单(Shortlist),五月揭晓最后的得奖者,然后在六月举办颁奖典礼。2012年共有包括厄德里克的《踩影游戏》、德里罗的《终点》(Point Omega)在内的共147奔小说入选长名单。最终,英国作家乔恩·麦格雷戈的《狗亦有道》(Even the Dogs)荣膺殊荣。http://www.impacdublinaward.ie/2012/longlist.htm
2 "An Emissary of the Between-World" http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/01/an-emissary-of-the-between-world/3033
1 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin, eds. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994.p.250.
2 Lisa Halliday, Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208,Paris Review,2010 Winter,p.137.
3 达特茅斯学院,创建于1769年,最初的办学宗旨是要为“培养印第安年轻人和其他种族年轻人”服务。然而,从其创建直至1972年,该校毕业生中只有12名印第安人。Charles Trueheart. "Marriage for Better or Words", Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds.,Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1994,p.116.
1 Wong, Hertha D., "An Interview with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris." In Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin,eds. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson:University Press of Mississippi, c1994, p.33.
2 《女士》(Ms.)是由美国女权主义者、活动家格洛丽亚·斯泰纳姆(Gloria Steinem)同其他一些创刊编辑,如Letty Cottin Pogrebin、Patricia Carbine、Joanne Edgar、Nina Finkelstein、Mary Peacock等人共同创办的美国自由女权主义杂志。最初,1971年时,《女士》作为《纽约》(New York)杂志的插页出现。1972年1月,《女士》独立发行。1972年6月-1987年,杂志定期每月发刊。20世纪70年代,《女士》脍炙人口、如日中天,但它并不总能在自身意识形态思考和经济顾虑间做出调和。自2001年始,杂志由女权主义多数组织基金会(Feminism Majority Foundation)出资发行。
3 艾琳并不是真的救生员,但在小说中,艾琳曾同女儿讨论过自己的救生技巧。同时,在小说的末尾,艾琳下水救自己的丈夫。
1 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,p.233.
2 Ibid,p.12.
3 《圈子》(the Circle)自1980年开始按月发行,目的旨在展示印第安新闻、观点,给以印第安人以平等的发声机会。
1 婚前,多瑞斯于1970年收养了当时3岁的男孩Abel, 1974年收养了当时2岁的男孩Sava,1975年收养了当时
2个月人的女孩Medeline,这三个孩子均是印第安苏族人。三个小孩均患有一定程度的胎儿酒精综合症(Fetal Alcohol Syndrome)。这种病源于母亲在妊娠期间酗酒对胎儿所造成的永久出生缺陷,程度会按母亲喝酒的份量、频率及时间所影响。酒精会进入胎盘,并阻碍胎儿的成长及体重,造成独特的脸部小斑,破坏神经儿及脑部结构,并引起体质、心智或行为等问题。3个孩了中,Abel的病情最为严重,Abel10岁时才上到小学四年级,反应迟钝,无法与人建立联系,并且一生不会辨认交通灯,最终的交通事故原因也是因为他无法辨认交通灯。
Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,p.13.
3 Charles Trueheart, "Marriage for Better or Words." In Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1994,P.115.
4 在这封信中,萨瓦除了对自己的罪责——谋杀女友爱琳(Eileen)做了忏悔,还言语激烈地斥责了这么多年多瑞斯对自己及阿贝尔和玛德琳的虐待：“如果你以为我们大家相安无事,如果你以为你对Abel、Madeline和我所做的一切都己随风而逝,你就大错特错户……你们把自己写得很伟大,事实上,你们糟透了。”萨瓦在该信中继续勒索,要求厄德里克给他￥515,000。
5 多瑞斯是否性虐待了自己的女儿们,一直是个谜,随着作为当事人的多瑞斯的死去,整个案子也就此告结,不再迫查。不过,可以肯定的是,多瑞斯的确虐待了孩子。关于这一点,厄德里克在日后的访谈中有所提及,厄德里克提到自己92年时,曾因为多瑞斯虐待孩子,提出过提婚。一些亲友也对此做了证明。有关多瑞斯之死,以及多瑞斯死后的更多讨论可以参看“一个作家的堕落：悬挂在小说家迈克尔·多瑞斯人生最后几页的疑犯之乌云：自杀可能是他唯一可能的结局”(David Streitfeld, "A Writer's Descent_A Dark Cloud of Suspicion Hung Over The Final Pages of Novelist Michael Dorris' Life:Suicide May Have Been His Only Possible Ending", the Washington Post,July 29,1997.).“迈克尔·多瑞斯的痛苦一生”(Colin Covert, "The Anguished Life of Michael Dorris, Star Tribune, August 3,1997.")、“作家以死叮请尊重而非轰动’'(Rick Lyman, "Writer's Death Brings Plea For Respect, Not Sensation" New York Times,April 18,1997.)
1 Rick Lyman, "Writer's Death Brings Plea For Respect, Not Sensation", New York Times,April 18,1997.
2 Colin Covert, "The Anguished Life of Michael Dorris", Star Tribune, August 3,1997.
1 米兰·昆德拉：《小说的艺术》,董强译,上海：上海译文出版社,2004年,第159页。
2 Rebecca Tillett, Contemporary Native American Literary, Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, c2007,p.69.
3 Peter G Beidler and Gay Barton, eds.,A Reader's Guide to the Novels of Louise Erdirch (Revised and Expanded Edition), Columbia and London:University of Missouri Press,2006,p.1.
4 Allan Chavkin, ed., The Chippewa Landscape of Louise Erdrich, Tuscaloosa and London:the University of Alabama Press,c1999, p.1.
3 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin.eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994.p.230.
6 David Stirrup, Louise Erdrich, Manchester and New York:Manchester University Press,2010, pp.3-4.
7 有关厄德里克的研究论文数量繁多,据不完全统计,美国印第安文学研究、族裔文学研究、妇女研究的权威期刊,《美国印第安文学研究》(Studies in American Indian Literatures)刊发了相关论文33篇；《美国多元族裔文学》(The Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States, MELUS)刊发相关论文10篇；《威卡索,萨评论：美国土著研究》(Wicaszo Sa Review:A Journal of Native American Studies)刊发相关论文8篇；《妇女书评》(The Women s Review of Books)刊发相关论文4篇。还有很多论文刊发在《国际美国研究》(American Studies Internationally)、《美国印第安季刊》(American Indian Quarterly)、《地区与文学》(Religion & Literature)、《今日世界文学》(World Literature Today)、《当代文学》(Contemporary literature)等期刊上。
8 以《爱药》和《踩影游戏》为例。1984年,厄德里克出版了自己的长篇处女作《爱药》,同年,先后有《图书榜单》(Booklist)、《科克斯书评》(Kirkus Review)、《华盛顿邮报》(The Washington Post)、《纽约时报》(New York Times)、《星期六书评》(Saturday Review)、《基督教科学箴言报》(Christian Science Monitor)、《畅销书》(Best Sellers)、《洛杉矶时报》(Los Angeles Times)等报纸杂志刊发相关书评。次年,有12篇与《爱药》相关的评论文章跟进,其中有几篇质量较高,载于《美国印第安文学研究》(Studies in American Indian Studies)、《今日世界文学》(World Literature Today)这样的重要学术期刊上。1986年,有关《爱药》的评论性文章迅速激增到29篇,其中有几篇发表于《美国印第安文学研究》、《美国多元族裔文学》。进入新世纪后,对《爱药》的研究还在继续,《美国印第安文学研究》和《美国多元族裔文学》在2002、2003又刊发了关于《爱药》的大篇幅研究。《踩影游戏》则是另一番光景。2010年《踩影游戏》出版时,有包括《纽约时报》在内的等十多家杂志发表书评,但至今仅有一篇学术性较强的期刊论文(Margaret Noori, Shadow Tag (Review), Studies in American Indian Literatures,22(2010),pp.89-96.)。
1 访谈集一部,《与路易丝·厄德里克和迈克尔·多瑞斯对话》(Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris,1994)。论文集5部,分别为《路易丝·厄德里克作品教学研究》、《路易丝·厄德里克的奇帕瓦风景》(The Chippewa landscape of Louise Erdrich,1999)、《路易丝·厄德里克的<爱药>：一个个案》(Louise Erdrich's Love medicine:a casebook,2000)、《美国本土作家厄德里克的文学成就：15篇评论》(Studies in the Literary Achievement of Louise Erdrich, Native American Writer:Fifteen Critical Essays,2008)和《路易丝·厄德里克：<痕迹>、<小无马保留地奇事的最后报告>和<鸽灾>》(Louise Erdrich:Tracks; the Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse; the Plague of Doves,2011)。5部独立撰写,分别是《路易丝·厄德里克：批评指南》(Louise Erdrich:a critical companion,1999)、《路易丝·厄德里克小说指南》(A Reader's Guide to the Novels of Louise Erdrich,1999)、《路易丝·厄德里克的小说：族人的故事》(The Novels of Louise Erdrich:'Stories of Her People,2001)、《路易丝·厄德里克小说指南》(A Reader's guide to the Novels of Louise Erdrich.2006)和《路易丝·厄德里克》(Louise Erdrich,2010)。
1 Carol Hunter, "Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich", World Literature Today,59 (1985),p.474.
2 Lyons Gene, "In Indian Territory." Rev. of Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich, Newsweek 11 Feb.1985,p.71.
3 Robert Silberman, "Opening the Text:Love Medicine and the Return of the Native American Woman", Gerald Vizenor ed., Narrative Chance:Postmodern Discourse on Native American Literatures, Albuquerque:U of New Mexico P,1989. p.104.
4 Packard Wingate, "Strong Parts Don't Add up in New Erdrich Novel" Rev. of AW, Seattle Times,14 June 1998:M2.
5 Kakutani Michikio, "Myths of Redemption amid a Legacy of Loss." Rev. of AW. New York Times 24 Mar.1998:C18.
6 Lydia A. Schultz, "Fragments and Ojibwe stories:Narrative strategies in Louise Erdrich's 'Love Medicine'' Teahcing Minority Literatures, Oct.(1991),p.80.
1 Robert Rosenberg, "Ceremonial Healing and the Multiple Narrative Tradition in Louise Erdrich's Tales of Burning Love", MELUS,27(2002), pp.113-131.
2 Moser Janette Irene, " Balancing the World:Spatial Design in Contemporary Native American Novels"[D],The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,1992.
3"trickster”的意思较多：开无伤大雅玩笑的人；唆使人相信非真实事件的人；淘气的超自然存在。其中,第三种超自然的存在多见于许多原住民的民间传说。国内有论者将‘'trickster"翻译为“千面人物”(见李靓,《论路易斯·厄德里克的千面人物重构》,当代外国文学,2010年第4期)、“恶作剧精灵”(见陈文益,《詹姆斯·韦尔奇<血中冬季>中恶作剧者形象解读》,沈阳农业大学学报,2009年第1期；《<他们眼望上苍>中的恶作剧精灵意象解读》,秦苏珏,国外文学,2008年第3期)、“恶作剧者”(见《印第安传统文学初探之二——印第安恶作剧者多层面形象的再解读》,邹慧玲,徐州师范大学学报,2005年第6期)、“弄笑者”(见杨燕怡的《论<力士参孙>中参孙的弄笑者形象》,湖南师范大学2004年硕士论文)或者“魔法师”(见《故事与梦想传统与未来——<亚利桑那菲尼克斯意味着什么>中的“魔法师”形象》,刘克东,外国文学,2007年第6期)。本文将其翻译为“变形者”,意图突出厄德里克作品中的此类人物在多种文化的夹缝中,不断遁形变身,僭越文化的边疆,求得生存。
4 奥吉布瓦神话中的那那波什,半是人类,半是神灵,可以随意改变自己的形状,集圣洁和人性的弱点于一身。那那普什这个人物在《痕迹》、《四灵魂》、《报告》中均有现身。
5 J. James Iovannone,"'Mix-ups,Messes,Confinements, and Double-dealings':Transgendered Performances in Three Novels by Louise Erdrich", Studies in American Indian Literature,21 (2009),pp.38-68.
6 5篇学位论文分别是,Maria DePriest, "Necessary Fictions:the Re-visioned Subjects of Louise Erdrich and Alice Walker"[D].University of Oregon,1991; Smith Jeanne Rosier, "The Trickster Aesthetic Narrative Strategy and Cultural Identity in the Works of Three Contemporary United States Women Writers:Maxine Hong Kingston, Louise Erdrich, and Toni Morrison"[D].Tufts University,1994; Sean Fullerton, "Trickster Changer:Louise Erdrich's Polymorphous Trickster Tales"[M].University of Alaska Anchorage,1998; Gay Barton, "Pattern and Freedom in the North Dakota Novels of Louise Erdrich:Narratvie Techque as Survival" [D].Baylor University,1999; Laurie L. Ferguson, "Trickster Shows the Way:Homor, Resilence, and Growth in Modern Native American Literature"[D] Wright Institute,2002 [D],2002. 论文以厄德里克的“北达科他”四部曲、《炙爱集》、《篝灯》、《欲望的洗礼》等为文本,梳理了变形者的定义、历史、奥吉布瓦文化中的变行者,讨论了所论文本中的变形者形象、传统变形人在当代印第安文学中的继续存活、小说叙事形式上的自由变形等。
1 印第安女诗人罗斯(Wendy Rose)的诗歌”Naaywva Taawi" in Hal/breed Chronicles,将“白性”(whiteness)阐释为一种掩盖了男性中心主义、欧洲中心主义、种族主义、现代性、进步中的毁灭性等的生活方式与权力体系,而不仅仅是欧洲人的祖先。在温迪眼中,所有的人,白人或者非白人,都是“白性”的牺牲品。更多讨论见本论文第五章第二节。
2 Jeana DelRosso, Writing Catholic Women:Contemporary International Catholic Girlhood Narratives, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005.
3 Catherine Rainwater, "Reading between Worlds:Narrativity in the Fiction of Louise Erdrich", American Literature,62 (1990),pp.405-422.
4 Julie Barak, "Un-becoming White:Identity Transformation in Louise Erdrich's the Antelope Wife", Studies in American Indian Literature,13 (2001),pp.1-23.
5 Deirdre Keenan, "Unrestricted Territory:Gender, Two Spirits, and Louise Erdrich's the Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,30 (2006).pp.1-15.
1 Kristin Ann Girard,"Mother/Cultures and New World Daughters:Ethnic Identity Formation and the Mother-daughter Relationships in Contemporary American Literature"[D],Stony Brook University,2006.
2 Diane M. Dixon, "Maternal Matrix:Ethical and Spiritual Dynamics of Mothers' Subjectivity in Contemporary American Fiction"[D], Indiana University of Pennsylvania,2000.
3 Beidler Peter G "'The Earth Itself Was Sobbing':Madness and the Environment in Novels by Leslie Marmon Silko and Louise Erdrich", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,26 (2002), pp.113-24.
1 Kristy A. Bryant-berg, "'No Longer Haunted'? Cultural Trauma and Traumatic Realism in the Novels of Louise Erdrich and Toni Morrison"[D], University of Oregon,2009.
2 Reginald Dyck, "When Love Medicine is not Enough:Class Conflict and Work Culture on and off the Reservation" American Indian Culture and Research Journal 30 (2006), pp.23-43.
1 Jacqueline E. Scoones, "Dwelling Poetically:Environmental Ethnics in Contemporary Fiction"[D],University of California, Irving,2000.
2 Holly Wells, Jennifer Marie, "The Construction of Midwestern Literary Regionalsim in Sinclair Lewis's and Louise Erdrich's Novels:Regional and Cultural Influences on Carol Kennicott and Fleur Pillager"[D], Drew University,2009.
3 Wayne Lee Gay, "Jeans, Boots, and Starry Skies:Tales of a Gay Country-and-western Bar and Places Nearby"[D],University of North Texas,2010.
1 圣劳伦斯河(Saint Lawrance River),是北美洲中东部的大水系。连接美国明尼苏达州圣路易河的源头和加拿大东端通往大西洋的卡伯特海峡,流经北美内陆约4,000公里。圣罗伦斯水系对於美国和加拿大都有地理和经济上的极大重要性。可分为三大段：上游是五大湖区,有狭窄水道连接各大湖广阔的湖面。中游从加拿大京斯敦市旁的安大略湖东部出口至魁北克市以下的奥尔良岛,此段水道比较正常,常被称为圣罗伦斯河。
2 http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Le-Pa/Ojibwa.html#b.
3 Richard Asa Yarnell, Aboriginal Relationships between Culture and Plant Life in the Upper Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan,1964,p.144.
4 Harold Hickson,"The Sociohistorical Significance of Two Chippewa Ceremonials," American Anthropologist, 65(1963), p.68.
1 Charles A. Bishop, The Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade:An Historical and Ecological Study, Toronto:Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, c1974,p.11.
2 Ibid,p.255.
3 1819年,美国通过1821年到1842年间,美国皮毛公司从与奥吉布瓦人的皮毛贸易中攫取大量财富,同时耗尽了当地的猎物,威斯康辛和明尼苏达的奥吉布瓦人都沦为依附。1825年,Treaty of Prairie du Chien在奥吉布瓦人和达科他人的居住区建立了一条边界线,奥吉布瓦人和达科他人为了草原的富足猎物和威斯康辛的阔叶林开始明争暗斗。奥吉布瓦人完全丧失了主权,美国取而代之,美国在Sault Ste.建立了美国陆军部苏必利尔湖印第安局。1824年,印第安事务局成为美国陆战部的一部分。1833年时,美国白人政府将奥吉布瓦人从伊利诺伊的北部移除；第二年,美国印第安贸易法案(U.S. Indian Intercourse Act)建立了一种机构,控制印第安人的贸易。白人进入奥吉布瓦人的区域,印第安人进入了毁灭性的土地割让期,通过各种条约,他们失去了土地,得到了年给养和未来安全的空头承诺。1836年,奥吉布瓦人放弃了马尼图林岛。1837年,明尼苏达和威斯康辛的奥吉布瓦人在圣·彼得条约(the Treaty of St. Peter's)中割让了自己的第一块土地。1840年,苏必利尔湖南岸发现了大量的铜,美国又把奥吉布瓦人驱赶到了密西西比河以西的奥吉布瓦人。1842年的一个条约中,奥吉布瓦人割让了威斯康辛和密歇根的苏必利尔湖南岸,1847年的两份条约拿走了奥吉布瓦人在明尼苏达的更多土地,紧随其后的是1849年的一份失败的移除命令。1854年的La Pointe条约(Treaty of La Pointe),奥吉布瓦人又割让了土地,并被迁往密歇根、明尼苏达、威斯康辛的保留地,这代表着奥吉布瓦人所遭遇的第一次土地分配(allotment treaty)。美国奥吉布瓦人也因此被分成两部分,苏必利尔湖奥吉布瓦人和密西西比奥吉布瓦人。每一部分都有各自不同的条约权力。政府为每一个纯种的或者混血奥吉布瓦人提供80亩土地,同时规定,并且政府对土地具有监管的权力。倘若在这些土地上发现了矿藏,可以重新分配给他们新的土地。1863-1864的其它条约创立了Red Lake保留地。1867年,开始有了白土地保留地。
1 1906年的U.S. Clapp Act允许有二分之一血统的奥吉布瓦售卖他们分配所的土地,这一法案导致许多生活在贫困线上的奥吉布瓦人白动出售了土地。这一法案还宣称,到了1931年,分配的土地将要征税,如果土地的主人不能交税,土地就要被没收。美国历史上,只有1934年的再重组法案(Reorganization Act)阻止奥吉布瓦人的土地落入投机商和政府手中。1936年,大多数奥吉布瓦人都同意了,这一法案禁止了未来的十地分配和十地售卖,除非整个部族同意。并且,,这个法案还批准为印第安人买十地,允许印第安人个体把十地归还给部落。
2 Patsy J Daniels,The Voice of the Oppressed in the Language of the Oppressor:a Discussion of Selected Postcolonial Literature from Ireland, Africa, and America. New York:Routledge,2001,p7.
1 Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses:Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and presence. Lincoln:University of Nebraska press,1998,p.15.
2 Gerald Vizenor, Hiroshima Bugi:Atomu 57, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003,p.36.
3 Karl Kroeber, "Why It's a Good Thing:Gerald Vizenor is not an Indian", Gerald Vizenor ed., Su Native Presence, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c2008,p.25.
4 Ernest Stromberg, ed., American Indian Rhetorics and Survivance:Word Medicine, Word Magic,Pittsburg:University of Pittsburgh Press,2006. p.1.
5 原文“生存”(survivance)是斜体强调。Clifford Geertz, Available Light,Princeton NJ:Princeton University Press,2000.p.250.
6 Geroge Steiner, After Babel:Aspects of Language and Translation,3rd editon, New York:Oxford University Press,1998, p.ⅹⅳ.The word "survivance" was not used in the first edition.
1 Peggy Kampf, ed., A Derrida Reader:Between the Blind, New York:Columbia University Press,1991, p.59.
2 德里达曾在论文访谈集《磋商：干预与访谈》(Negotiations:Interventions and Interviews)中使用过这个词。当时,访谈员就马克思和马克思主义询问德里达,如果共产主义,或者把它称作其它别的,以其他形式回归,他是否会觉得奇怪?德里达作答,“我认为共产主义小会以党派的形式回归(总体上说,毫无疑问,党派形式正在消失,但结果证明,‘遗产’(survivance)或许会多活一些时间)……”。Jacques Derrida, Negotiations:Interventions and Interviews, Standford CA:Standford University Press,2002,pp.111-12.《档案热》(Archive Fever)再次用到这个词,他把“从过去归来的幽灵”比作“生命的胜利”,因为“来世(遗产)不再意味着死亡,幽灵的归来是额外生命的继续存在,抵制灭绝。”(Jacques Derrida, Archive Fever:A Freudian Impression,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1996, p.60.)
3 Joe Lockard, "Facing the Windigo:Gerald Vizenor and Primo Levi", Gerald Vizenor, ed., Survivance:Narratives of Native Presence, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c2008,p.211.
4 Gerald Vizenor and A. Robert Lee, Postindian Conversations, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c1999,p.38.
1 Louise Erdrich, "Where I Ought to Be:A Writer's Sense of Place", Wong, Hertha D. Sweet ed., Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine:A Casebook, New York, NY; Oxford UP; 2000, p.48.
1 《圣经》中的《出埃及》第三章“燃烧的荆棘”中,上帝让摩西把以色列人从埃及领出来。摩西对上帝说,“我到以色列人那里,对他们说,你们祖宗的神打发我到你们这里来。他们若问我,他叫什么名字,我要对他们说什么呢。”上帝对摩西说,“我是自有永有。(IAM WHOIAM.)";又说,“这样你可以对以色列的子孙们说,‘自有永有(1 AM)派我来到这里。’"(New American Standard Bible, Anaheim, California:Foundation Publications, INC,1997,p.42.)
1 成廉布拉德福德1623年12月19日函,见塞缪尔·埃利奥特·莫里森编《关十普利茅斯种植园,620-1647》,纽约1952年版,第374-375页。转引威尔科姆-E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第122。
2 威尔科姆.E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第122页。
3 许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年,第87页。
4 此处对奥吉布瓦教的梳理与归纳主要参考了Vecsey Christopher, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983.; Ruth Landes,Ojibwa Religion and the Midewiwin. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press,1968; Joel W. Martin, Native American Religion, New York:Oxford University Press,1999
5 Hultkrantz, A ke, Conceptions of the Soul among North American Indians:a Study in Religious Ethnology, Stockholm: Ethnographical Museum of Sweden,1953.pp.241-245.
1 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.60.
2 Frances Densmore,Chippewa Customs,Washington, D.C.:U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,1929,pp.52-53.
3 Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Algic Researches, Comprising Inquiries Respecting the Mental Characteristics of the American Indians. First series. Indian tales and legends,New York:Harper,1839, p.42.
4 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.62.
5 A. Irving Hallowell, "Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere," American Anthropologist,28(1926), pp.45-46.
6 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,pp.72-82.
1 Ibid.pp.91-94.
2 许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年,第87页。
3 天主教对奥吉布瓦人传教的三次高潮分期是沿用了克里斯多夫在《传统奥吉布瓦教与它的历史变化》中的分期。具体参见Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,pp.26-45.
1 Ruth Craker, First Protestant Mission in the Grand Traverse Region, Leland, Mich., The Leelanau enterprise, 1935,p.15.
2 John Hopkins Kennedy, Jesuit and savage in New France, New Haven:Yale University Press,1950,pp.30-33.
3 Norton Sister Mary Aquinas, Catholic Missionary Activities in the Northwest,1818-1864, Washington, D. C.:The Catholic university of America,1930, pp.7-45.
4 ChristopherVecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.28.
1 Father Alban Fruth, A Century of Missionary Work among the Red Lake Chippewa Indians 1858-1958, Redlake, Minn., St. Mary's Mission,1958, pp.8-18.
2 Maeder Father Tobias, "St. John's among the Chippewa", The Scriptorium,1962(21), p.59.
3 Fruth Father Alban, A Century of Missionary Work among the Red Lake Chippewa Indians 1858-1958, Redlake, Minn., St. Mary's Mission,1958,pp.87-103.
4 Vecsey Christopher., Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes. Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p30.
2 Lisa Halliday, "Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208", Paris Review.Winter (2010),, pp.139-140.
1 "An Emissary of the Between-world" http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/01/an-emissary-of-the-between-world/3033/
2 许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年,第86-87页。
1 《报告》中的喀什帕是《爱药》中的喀什帕外公(Nector Kashpaw)的父亲。《报告》中,耐克特·喀什帕年纪尚幼时,其父把他送到达米安神父的教堂,希望通过耐克特的亲身经历检测天主教信仰是否有助于奥吉布瓦人。
2 达米安神父(Father Damien)是《报告》中的一个关键人物。小说中共有一真一假两个达米安神父。真正的男达米安神父死于洪灾。后来,白人女孩艾格尼丝(Agnes)充当男达米安神父在小无马保留地传教八十余年。下文第三节将对艾格尼丝扮演达米安神父的过程进行细致分析。本论文中凡是涉及到保留地上的达米安神父,均是指艾格尼丝所扮演的达米安神父。
3 Sister Mary Aquinas.Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities in the Northwest,1818-1864, Washington, D. C:The Catholic university of America,1930, pp.46-52.
1 S.K.图姆斯：《病患的意义：医生和病人不同观点的现象学探讨》,邱鸿钟等译,青岛：青岛出版社,2000年,第85页。
2"quill"既表示翎(鸟的翅膀或尾部的大羽毛),也表示(豪猪的)棘刺。此处为了兼顾quill"一词本身意义的多重性,英译为“奎忧”。
1 George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians: Minneapolis:Ross & Haines,1965, p.245.
2 Lisa Halliday, "Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208", Paris Review, Winter (2010), p.140.
3 林郁编：《尼采如是说——处在痛苦中的人没有悲观的权力》,北京：中国友谊出版公司,1993年,第67页。
1 Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976,p.23.有关“大地母亲”的更多内容可参看本论文第二章第一节。
2 原文整段都是英语,但此处用的是奥吉布瓦语"chimooks",笔者手中所有的奥吉布瓦词典并无此词。根据上下文语境,此处应该是指“白人”。另外,“白人”在奥吉布瓦语中是"gichi-mookomaan"或"chimookomanag",它们都有相同的部分"chimook"。
3 Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976,p.19.
1 Robert Mitchell Torrance, The Spiritual Quest:Transcendence in Myth, Religion, and Science, Berkeley:University of California Press, c1994,p.243.
2 "Mashkiigikwe"系奥吉布瓦语,笔者手中有限的奥吉布瓦词典中没有该词,只查到与之十分相似的词"Mashkikiiwikwe",意思是女护士。鉴于姐姐常常在刺出现不安时帮助她,笔者猜测,此处拼写可能是厄德里克笔误。厄德里克也多次在小说的后记中声称,自己小说中的奥吉布瓦语拼写错误,与她的奥吉布瓦老师无关,是她自己学艺不精。
3 海登·怀特：《后现代历史叙事学》,陈永国、张万娟译,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第237页。
1 Mark St. Pierre and Tilda Long Soldier, Walking in the Sacred Manner:Healers, dreamers, and Pipe Carriers: Medicine Women of the Plains Indians, New York:Simon & Schuster, c1995, p.9.
2 Sybil Steinberg, "PW Talks with Louise Erdrich, Publisher Weekly,29 Jan.2001,p.64.
1 福柯·米歇尔：“水与疯狂”,杜子真等编《福柯集》,上海：上海远东出版社,1998年,第10页。
2 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London:Routledge,1994,p.3.
3 "Fleisch",德语词,意思：①(人和动物)的肌肉；②(食用)肉；③果肉；④[印](活字的)字肩；⑤[转](人的)肉体(跟精神相对)。(《新德汉词典》,上海译文出版社,1999年,第407页。
1 Alison A.Chapman, "Rewriting the Saints' Lives:Louise Erdrich's The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse", Critique.48 (2007), p.155.
1 卡拉瓦乔(Caravaggio,1571-1610年)意大利文艺复兴时期的一著名画家,意大利杰出的现实主义画家,曾师从米兰画家培德查诺学画,惯以街上的痞子、娼妓为模特,常对裸体的圣徒们做色情描绘,被认为是巴洛克画派。
2 Dee Home, "'I Meant to Have but Modest Needs':Louise Erdrich's The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse", Brajesh Sawhney, ed., Studies in the Literary Achievement of Louise Erdrich, Native American Writer:Fifteen Critical Essays. Lewiston, NY:Edwin Mellen Press,2008, p.278.
1 此处土地并不仅指土壤,而是采纳了美国“现代环保之父”阿尔多·李奥帕德(Aldo Leopold,1887-1948)在其著作《沙郡年记》(A Ssand County Almanac)中的“土地”范畴,李奥帕德将土地看作是包括了“土壤、水源、植物和动物”的“社群”、“生态有机体”。(阿尔多·李奥帕德：《沙郡年记》,岑月译,上海：上海三联书店,2011年,第189-203页。)
1 苗力田编：《古希腊哲学》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,1989年,第8页。
2 尤金·哈格洛夫：《环境伦理学基础》,杨通进译,重庆：重庆出版社,2007年,第28页。
3 例如,柏拉图曾经把遭受人类毁坏的土地比作“一位病人留下的骨髂”；亚里士多德的学生奥菲拉斯特斯“对导师理论中关于自然目的论(动植物和地球的存在的目的是为了人类)的观点进行批驳,虽然他没有完全拒绝自然论,但却认识到它们的存在绝对不是为了人类的利益,而是本身的延续。”对于此的更多论述,可参见付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2012年,第43-44页。
4 Huges Donald, Ecology in Ancient Civilizations, Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1975,p.92.
1 吴高军：《古希腊城邦经济初探》,《求是学刊》,1991年第1期,第92-95页。
2 当下,对《圣经·川约》“创世纪”的解读有两种,一种是“人类中心主义”的,人为卜帝创造好了一切,最后才创造人类,为的就是准各好了一切来迎接人类,卜帝把地卜所有的动植物均赐福于人类,人类独立十自然之外,对自然享有统治的权力：第一种是“托管”协议,人及其它任何物种都是由十地做的,人并小高级于其他物种,上帝也没有赋予人类以统治权,只是把守护和托管自然的责任交给了人类。尽管中世纪时,圣徒阿西西的圣弗朗西斯的思想己经有了托管理论的雏形,但是托管理论的真正发展却是20世纪以后的事情,美国林务员和水文家罗德米尔克是用托管理论解释人与自然的第一人。(付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,2012年,北京：社会科学文献出版社,第36页。)
3 杨通进：《基督教思想中的人与自然》,《首都师范大学学报》(社会科学版),1994年第3期,第78页。
4 大卫·雷·格里芬：《后现代精神》,王成兵译,北京：中央编译出版社,1998年,第5页。
1 大卫·雷·格里芬：《后现代精神》,王成兵译,北京：中央编译出版社,1998年,第67页。
2 http://www.amazon.com/wiki/Indian_reservation#cite_note-1
3 Donald Hughes. North American Indian Ecology, Texas Western Press,1996, p.61.
4 Dave Aftandilian, "What Other Americans Can and Cannot Learn from Native American Environmental Ethics", Worldviews 15(2011),p.233.
5 Vine Jr.Deloria, God Is Red:A Native View of Religion,2nd ed. Golden, CO:Fulcrum Publishing,1992, p.122.
6 J Basil ohnston, Honour Earth Mother,Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003,p.ⅹⅶ.
1 Johnston Basil, Ojibwa Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976,p.21.
2 弗里乔夫·卡普拉：《转折点：社会、科学和正兴起的文化》,卫飒英、李四南译,成都：四川科学技术出版社,1988年,第43页。
Donald Hughes, North American Indian Ecology, Texas Western Press,1996, p.121.
4 Johnston Basil, Ojibwa Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976, pp.23-26.
5 Johnston Basil. Honour Earth Mother. Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003.p.xi.
6 Brown Joseph Epes and Emily Cousins,Teaching Spirits:Understanding Native American Religious Traditions, Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2001,p.92.
7 Johnston Basil, Honour Earth Mother, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003,pp.111-12.
8 Brown Joseph Epes and Emily Cousins. Teaching Spirits:Understanding Native American Religious Traditi Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2001, p.98.
1 J. Baird Callicott and Michael P. Nelson, American Indian Environmental Ethics:An Ojibwa Case Study, Upper Saddle River, Nj:Perarson Prentice Hall,2004, p.113.
2 《天地父母：印第安神话》,樊英译,北京：中国青年出版社,2006年,第120页。
3 在这次迁移过程中,最著名的是1838-1839年彻罗基族的“泪水之旅”(Trail of Tears),共有大致约15,000名彻罗基族人被迫从他们居住的美国东南部迁往今天的俄克拉荷马州(Oklahoma)的东部地区,有约4,000人因暴晒、疾病、饥饿而丧命于迁移的途中。Nancy C.Curtis, Black Heritage Sites. United States:ALA Editions,1996,p.543.
4 此法授权总统解散印第安人保留地,废除原保留地内实行的部落土地所有制,将土地直接分配给居住在保留地内外的印第安人：每户户主160英亩,18岁以上的未婚成年人每人80英亩,儿童每人40英亩；受地人在25年内不得转让土地所有权；分配的土地先由联邦政府托管,待印第安人具备自理能力后交还本人或其继承人；接受份地的印第安人即为美国公民,受法律保护并尽公民义务；原保留地中的剩余土地由联邦政府公开拍卖。从1887年到1934年间,由于执行道斯法案,约有百分之六十的土地从印第安人手中丧失。有6000万英亩(通过道斯法案时,印第安人有1.38亿英亩的土地)印第安人土地被宣布为超过其需要的剩余土地而被卖给了白人。分配给印第安人个人并由政府托管25年的土地,有2700万英亩(即分配给印第安人的土地的三分之二)在1887年到1934年间通过售卖而丧失了。(Wilcomb E. Washburn, Red man's land/white man's law:a Study of the Past and Present Status of the American Indian. New York, Scribner,1971, p.145.)
1 此处可以参看前注第26页3。
2 1854年的La Pointe条约(Treaty of La Pointe)中,奥吉布瓦人又割让了十地,被迫迁往密歇根的Keweenaw、 Ontanagon,明尼苏达的Fond du Lac和Grand Portage,威斯康辛的Bad River、 Lac Court Oreilles和Red Cliff,这代表着奥吉布瓦人所遭遇的第一次十地分配(allotment treaty)。当时,政府为每一个纯种的或者混血奥吉布瓦人提供80亩十地,同时规定政府对土地具有监管权,倘若在这些土地卜发现了矿藏,可以重新分配给他们新的土地。1855年,政府又制定了另一个条约,规定分配的土地豁免税务、买卖和没收。
3 Louise Erdrich, "Where I Ought to Be:A Writer's Sense of Place", Wong, Hertha D. Sweet ed., Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine:A Casebook. New York, NY:Oxford UP,2000,p.43.
4 威廉·克罗农：《土地的变迁：新英格兰的印第安人、殖民者和生态》,鲁奇、赵欣华译,北京：中国环境科学出版社,2012年,第90页。
5 转引付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2012年,第164页
1 同上,第166-67页。
2 Michelle M. Steen-Adams, Nancy Langston and David J. Mladenoff, "White Pine in the Northern Forests:an Ecological and Management History of White Pine on the Bad River Reservation of Wisconsin," Environmental History 12 (2007), p.595.
1 亨利·梭罗：《瓦尔登湖》,张知遥译,天津：天津教育出版社,2005年,第173页。
2 同上,第178页。
3 Louise Owens, Bone Game:a novel, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, c1994,p.6.
1 Basil Johnston, Ojibwa Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976, p.23.
2 查伦·斯普瑞特奈克：《生态女权主义哲学中的彻底的非二元论》,李惠国：《冲突与解构：当代西方学术叙语》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2001年,第65页。
1 金莉：《生态女权主义》,《外国文学》,2004年第5期,第58-60页。
2 Gerald Vizenor, Wordarrows:Native States of Literary Sovereignty, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003. pp.89-90.
3 Daniel Francis, Battle for the West:Fur Trade and the Birth of Western Canada, Edmonton:Hurtig, c1982, p.64.
4 张翎：《金山》,北京：十月文艺出版社,2009年,第93页。
1 David Adams Wallace, Education for Extinction:American Indian and the Boarding School Experience,1879-1928, Lawrence, Kan.:University Press of Kansas, c1995,p.21.
2 Ibid,pp.21-24.
3 最臭名昭著的寄宿学校是卡莱尔寄宿学校(Carlisle Boarding School,1879年11月1日-1918年秋季),该学校在当时一度被追捧为寄宿学校的典范,很多学校纷纷效尤。卡莱尔寄宿学校通过教育军事化、教育寄宿制、削发、更衣、易名、英语霸权主义、违规惩罚等,强迫学生中断和放弁印第安语言文化传统。此处参考了蔡永良,语言失落与文化生存：北美印第安语衰亡研究,上海：上海人民出版社,2010年,第四章第180-223页。
4 Ibid,p.277.
1 Irene Wanner, "Four Souls:Love and Revenge and Too Many Voices", The Seattle Times July 25,2004.
1 Summer Harrison, "The Politics of Metafiction in Louise Erdrich's Four Souls", MUSE,23 (2011), p40,42.
2 Leslie Marmon Silko, "Here's an Odd Artifact for the Fairy-tale Shelf." Studies in American Indian Literatures 10 (1986), p.179.
3 Johns Malcolm. "Life, Art Are One for Prize Novelist", Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Interview. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson:UP of Missippi,1994, p.4.
1 Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs. Washington, U.S.:Govt. Print. Off.,1929, p.30.
2 http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/frontiers/v023/23.2youngbird.html
3 有关芙乐与熊的关系、芙乐与matchimanito湖的关系,可以阅读厄德里克的《痕迹》和《彩色鼓》。
1 Ruth Landes, The Ojibwa Woman, New York:Columbia University Press,1971, pp.8-9.
2 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.125.
3 Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York:Colubmbia UP,1976,p.119.
1 奥吉布瓦人会用很多草本植物治病,如雪松枝用来净化空气；鼠尾草用以治疗感染病；硬灌木用来洗手,擦洗锅具等。Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs, Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,1929,pp.46-47.
2 Summer Harrison, "The Politics of Metafiction in Louise Erdrich's Four Souls", MUSE,23(2011), p.40,59.
3 鉴于天主教比奥吉布瓦教晚,此处将之视为一种现代仪式。有关天主教对奥吉布瓦人的传教历史可参见本论文第一章第一节。
1 Robert Rosenberg, "Ceremonial Healing and the Multiple Narrative Tradition in Louise Erdrich's Tales of Burning Love", MELUS,27(2002),pp.113-131.
1 伯德罗(Peter G Beidler)指出,当下,美国教授土著文学课的老师常会遇到这样一个难题,有些学生倾向于认为“土著人是破坏他们土地的白人征服者的受害者”,伯德罗更愿意将印第安人视为“白人破坏自然环境的受害者”。Peter G Beidler, "The Earth Itself is Sobbing:Madness and the Environment in Novels by Leslie Marmon Silko and Louise Erdrich", American Indian and Research Journal,26(2002), p.114.
1 Carlos Montezuma, "Changing is not Vanishing" in Parker Robert Dale ed., Changing is not vanishing:a collection of early American Indian Poetry to 1930., Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, c2011,p.287.
1 Chavkin Allan and Chavkin Nancy Feyl eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994, p.14.
1 World Health Oragnization, ICD-10:The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorder:diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva:World Health Organization,1993.
2 《爱药》中,琼与白人男子性交易失败,琼冻死在回家的路上；亨利在越战中遭俘,重获自由后以溺水的方式自戕。《甜菜女王》中,姐弟三人遭到乘观光飞机逃走的母亲的遗弃。《痕迹》中,那那普什、芙乐的亲人在疾病中丧身：芙乐在小镇被白人男子强奸；宝琳亲手结果了白己的情夫。《羚羊妻》中,女儿躲在车中窒息而亡：理查德·白心珠(Richard Heart Beads)在前妻再婚婚宴的当晚自杀。《报告》中,玛阴的父母双双罹难：父母离世后,玛丽被拿破仑的强奸。《俱乐部》中,菲德里斯(Fidelis)和塞浦路斯(Cyprian)分别效力于德、美两军,后侥幸活命；菲德里斯的好友死于一战战场；菲德里斯的4个儿子又分别效力十二战的德美两军,其中两儿了死于战场,一儿子被美军俘虏：菲德里斯的妻子罹患癌症,不治身亡。《鸽灾》中,一家数口除一女婴外均被灭口：位印第女人被自人施以绞刑：女子在身体与精神两方面遭到丈夫比利(Billy Peace)的禁锢。《踩影游戏》中,艾琳的前夫吉尔强奸了她；三个孩子被艾琳和吉尔以溺水身亡的方式遗弃。《圆屋》中,杰拉尔丁(Geraldine)遭到白人男了强奸并险遭焚烧：杰拉尔丁13岁的儿子同伙伴正法了白人男了后却噩梦连连。
3 Cathy Caruth, Trauma:Explorations in Memory, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1995, p.153.
1 Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience:Trauma, Narrative, and History,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.pp.4-5.
2 《宠儿》中,塞丝的手锯结束了宠儿在现实世界中的生命,宠儿的鬼魂不断返回现实世界,永无餍足地索求母爱,并肆无忌惮地破坏塞丝一家人的生活。宠儿的鬼魂并不是一个真实的存在,它是一种心理苦难的象征,所象征的是奴隶制未曾解决的创伤,鬼魂不过是这种未曾解决的创伤的一种具体化和可视化。
3 《爱药》中,琼受白人男子安迪(Andy)的诱惑,与之共饮并行男女之事,以期换来他送自己回家。事毕,安迪睡着,琼只得独自一人走回家,最终冻死在回家的路上。(LM,1-7)安迪后来变身为杰克(Jack),在《燃情炙爱集》中出场：暴风雪之夜,杰克在车里看到了已死的琼,琼等待杰克送自己回家,迷路的杰克自身难保,杰克转而看见琼在车前引领他回家。(TB,377-387)《爱药》中的安迪凭借自己的经济优势(有钱为琼买酒、有车可以送琼回家)拥有了权力优势,从而胁迫了琼从事自己非自愿的性行为,这是一种隐性的性暴力。杰克遇难的这一晚与琼遇难的那一晚,在天气上很相似,均为冬天且寒冷异常。厄德里克让琼的鬼魂在一个对于杰克而言似曾相识的时刻出现,这显然是一种文学的刻意,既能让读者对当初琼的劣势处境掬以更多同情,也能激起对杰克/安迪的性暴力行为的更多指责。
1 Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, London:Fontana,1996,p.61.
1 Cathy Caruth, Trauma:Explorations in Memory, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1995,p.4.
2 Anne Whitehead, Trauma Fiction, Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, c2004, p.5.
3 陶家俊：《创伤》,《外国文学》,2011年第4期,第117页。
1 LaCapra Dominick, History and Memory after Auschwitz, Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1998,p.21.
2 张琼：《族裔界限的延展与消散：<手绘鼓>》,《外国文学》,2009年第6期,第93页。
3 Raphael Beverley, When disaster Strikes:How Individuals and Communities Cope with Catastrophe, New York: Basic Books, c1986,pp.90-91.
1 Bonnie C.Winsbro, Supernatural Forces:Belief, Difference, and Power in Contemporary Works by Ethnic Women, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, c1993,p.71.
1 石海军：《破碎的镜子：“流散”的拉什迪》,《外国文学评论》,2006年第4期,第6页。
1 John Carlos Rowe, "Buired Alive:the Native American Political Unconscious in Louise Erdrich's Fiction", Postcolonial Studies,7(2004),p.202.
2 “伤膝谷”(Wounded Knee),美国南达科他州西南部的村庄名和小河名,是苏族印第安人与美国政府代表两次发生冲突的地点。1890年,操苏语的印第安人认为举行鬼舞道门仪式(ghost dance),白人就会消失,原有土地会失而复得,野牛会死而复生。结果他们的行为招致了联邦军队的干涉。12月29日,由于一名年轻的印第安人战士的步枪而发生了扭打,该印第安战士被解除了武装。从扭打的人群中响了一枪,一名骑兵应声倒地。骑兵们开始向印第安人射击,有200多名印第安男女和30名骑兵被杀,其中死亡的印第安人中有大半数都是手无寸铁的妇女和儿童。1973年,美国印第安人运动的约200名成员,以武力占领了保留区村庄,宣布成立独立国,同时宣誓要坚持下去,除非政府答应印第安人的要求。联邦法院立刻包围了这批印第安人,知道印第安人在得到同意谈判的许诺后投降。
3 哈布瓦赫：《论集体记忆》,上海世纪出版集团、上海人民出版社,2002年,第69页。
1 哈布瓦赫：《论集体记忆》,上海世纪出版集团、上海人民出版社,2002年,第45页。
1 Bessel Van Der Kolk and Onno Van Der Hart, "The Intrusive Past:The Flexibility of Memory and the Engraving of Trauma", Cathy Caruth ed., Trauma:Explorations in Memory, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1995,p.163.
1 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.44.
5 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.143.
0 http://suite101.com/article/carlisle-indian-school-a20733.
1 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.81.
2 Frances Densmore, Menominee Music, New York, Da Capo Press,1972,p.151.
3 Ibid, pp.92-93.
1 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.61.
2 Ibid, p.136.
1 威尔科姆·E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第229页。
1 王明珂：《华夏边缘：历史记忆与族群认同》。北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006年,第18页。
2 Jean Wyatt, "Storytelling, Melancholy, and Narrative Structure in Louise Erdrich's the Painted Drum",MELUS, 36(2011),p.27.
1 Susan Scarberry-Garcia, "Beneath Creaking Oaks:Spirits and Animals in Tracks", Greg Sarris, Connie A. Jacobs, and James R. Giles eds.,Approaches to Teaching the Works of Louise Erdrich, New York:MLA.2004, p.46.
2 Susan Scarberry-Garcia, Landmarks of Healing:a Study of House Made of Dawn, Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, c1990,p.40.
3 Richard Scott Lyons, X-marks:Native Signatures of Assent, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010,p.4.
1 Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop:Recovering the Feminine American Traditions, Boston:Beacon Press, c1986,p.26.
1 乔治·凯特林(Geroge Catlin,1796-1872),美国画家、作家和旅行家。幼时其母为其讲述了许多美国西部边疆故事以及她自己孩提时为一印第安部落所掳的故事,这些使得凯特林对印第安无比着迷,终其一生,深入西部,以印第安部落、文化、人等为素材作画。他的西部经历后来成书(《关于北美印第安人的风俗、习惯和环境的信札与笔记》)出版。
2 1970年,鲍德里亚出版了《消费社会》。在专著的结论“论当代异化或与魔鬼协议的终结”的“布拉格的大学生”中,鲍德里亚讲述：一位贫穷却壮志凌云的大学生,迫不及待地想过上好日子,他用自己的镜中影像同魔鬼进行金钱交易。变得富有的大学生发现自己的镜中影像被魔鬼唤醒进入了流通的现实世界。影像与大学生相伴相随,甚至取代大学生进行行动。当大学生对自己的影像变得忍无可忍时,他举枪瞄准自己的影像,镜子破碎,镜中的影像消失,大学生杀死了自己,临死之前,他抓起镜子的碎片,他发现自己又能从中看见自己。(让·鲍德里亚：《消费社会》,刘成富、全志钢译,南京：南京大学出版社,2000年,第219-223页。)
1 Chavkin Allan and Chavkin Nancy Feyl eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,pp.ⅹⅱ-ⅹⅲ.
2 “死去的印第安人才是好印第安人”(A good Indian is a dead Indian)的说法来自一位将军,虽然原话并非如此,但经过演变,变成了现在大家所熟悉的这句。1867年12月,美国内战时期的史瑞丹将军(General Philip Sheridan)监督一部分阿拉帕霍人(Arapahos)、夏安人(Cheyennes)和卡其曼人(Comanches)投降。当一名叫图萨维(Tosawi)的印第安人被人介绍给史瑞丹时,图萨维对这位将军说,“图萨维,好印第安人。”史瑞丹却回答,“我看见的唯—的好印第安人死了。”(The only good Indians I ever saw were dead.) Utter Jack, American Indians Answers to Today Questions. Lake Ann, Mich.:National Woodlands Pub.,1993,p.181.
3 James Cihlar, "Review", Western American Literature,45(2010), pp.219-221.
1 显性态度(manifest manners),维泽勒的术语,更多论述见本章第三节。
2 Gerald Vizenor, Postindian Conversations, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c1999,p.84.
3 Jack Utter, American Indians Answers to Today's Questions, Lake Ann, Mich.:National Woodlands Pub.,1993,p.25.
4 lbid,p.26.
1 David R. Wrone and S. Nelson, Jr.Russel, eds., Who's the Savage:A Documentary History of the Mistreatment of the Native North Americans, Fawcett Publications, Inc. Greenwich, Conn.1973,p.35.
2 Jack Utter, American Indians Answers to Today's Questions. Lake Ann, Mich.:National Woodlands Pub.,1993, pp.95-98.
1 Anna Lee Stensland, Literature by and about the American Indian:an Annotated Bibliography.,Urbana, Ill.:National Council of Teachers of English, c1979,p.11.
2 Paul Chatt Smith, Everything You Know about Indians is Wrong, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2009,p.4.
3 茨格内·查勒尔：《印第安人》,武汉：湖北教育出版社,2010年版,第11页。
4 《天地父母：印第安神话》,樊英译,北京：中国青年出版社,2006年,第2页。
1 以建于1824年的朝圣大厅博物馆(Pilgrim Hall Museum)中所收藏的一幅1621年感恩节图画为例：辽阔的旷野中,一群白人环绕长桌坐着,桌旁一神父站着,带领众人祷告,桌的前方一位白人妇女侍弄着三个小女孩,离长桌稍远的后方一群土著人坐在地上,面色呆滞地看着白人；桌子及桌边的白人占据了整幅画的核心部位(约占整幅画的四分之一),侍弄小女孩的妇女占据了整幅画的前端(约占整幅画的五分之一),土著人占据整幅画的一个小角(约占整幅画的二十分之一)。
2 O'Neill Catherine Grace,1621:A New Look at Thanksgiving, Washington, D.C.:National Geographic Society, c2001,p.21.
3 Scott Richard Lyons, X-marks:Native Signatures of Assent, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010,p.24.
4 Ibid,p.24.
5 Anna Lee Stensland, Literature by and about the American Indian:an Annotated Bibliography, Urbana,111.:National Council of Teachers of English, c1979,pp.11-19.
6 邹慧玲：《19世纪美国白人文学经典中的印第安形象》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第5期,第45-51页。关晶：《北美殖民时期主流文学与印第安人形象》,《东北师大学报》,2011年第2期,第123-127页。
1 Papazien Gretchen, "Razing Little Houses or Re-envisionary History:Louise Erdrich's Story of the American "Frontier" in The Birchbark House and the Game of Silence", Sawhney Brajesh etc. eds., Studies in the Literary Achievement of Louise Erdrich, Native American Writer, Lewiston, N.Y.:Edwin Mellen Press, c2008, p.188.
2 朗费罗：《海华沙之歌》,王科一译,上海译文出版社,1981年,第283页。
3 Laura Ingalls Wilder, the Little House on the Prairie, New York:Harper & Row, c1953,pp.138-233.
1 Smulders Sharon,"'The Only Good Indian':History, Race and Representation in Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie", Children's Literature Association Quarterly,27(2003),p.191.
2 曼丹人(mandan),北美平原印第安民族,讲苏语诸语言,居住在今北达科他州西南部的密苏里河沿岸。曼丹人住圆顶土房,聚成村落,围以栅栏。种植玉米、豆类、南瓜及向日葵,猎捕野牛,制陶编筐。举行复杂的仪式,包括太阳舞和熊仪式(一种治疗和备战的仪式)。有按年龄分类的各种武士会,以及巫医、妇女团体。曼丹艺术家把英雄功绩绘在水牛皮长袍上。到19世纪中期,因天花而人数骤减的曼丹人已迁至北达科他州保留区,现人口约1,000人。
1 更多内容可以阅读Paul Doris Atkinson, The Navajo Code Talkers, Philadelphia, Dorrance,1973.
1 George Catlin, Letters and notes on the manners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians(Vol.1) Philadelphia:J.W. Bradley,1965,p.26,29,38,199.
2 Ibid,p.142.
3 Joshua David Bellin, Medicine Bundle:Indian Sacred Performance and American Literature,1824-1932, Philadelphia, Pa.:University of Pennsylvania Press, c2008, p.54.
4 Ibid,p.53.
1 陈榕：《凝视》,赵一凡主编：《西方文论关键词》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2011年,第349页。
2 吴生：《乔治·凯特林和他的印第安人肖像》,《书屋》,2004年第10期,第42页。
3 同上,第43页。
1 此处的维泽勒对照片这种艺术形式展开,在论者看来,凯特林和吉尔的画像,在创作期间,并不考虑所画人物的情感,所以和维洋勒所谈论的摄影并无二致。
2 Gerald Vizenor,"Ishi Bares His Chest", Lucy R. Lippard ed., Partial Recall, New York:The New York Press,1992, p.67.
1 Jean Baudrillard, "The Procession of Simulacra." Simulacra and Simulation, translated by Shelia Faria Glaser,1-42. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,1994.p2.
2 Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,1929, pp.52-53.
1 蒋道超：《消费社会》,赵一凡主编：《西方文论关键词》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2011年,第602页。
2"kitsch"一词自20世纪末进入中国,译法颇多,如“媚俗”、“媚美”、“奇俗”、“刻奇”等。本文此处译法采用了国内学者张法在“媚世(kitsch)和堪鄙(camp):从美学范畴体系的角度看当代两个美学新范”一文中的观点,译作“媚世”,包含“媚钱”、“媚众”、“媚权”以及“自媚”的特点。(张法：《媚世(kitsch)和堪鄙(camp):从美学范畴体系的角度看当代两个美学新范》,《当代文坛》,2011年第1期,第4-11页。)
1 Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners:Postindian Warriors ofSurvivance, Hanover:University Press of New England, 1994,pp.4-5.
2 水下大神杀了那那波什的狼弟,那那波什从翠鸟处知道了这一切。于是,那那波什伪装成一截树桩,弄伤了水下大神。地上横发大水,一段时间后,水又退去。那那波什遇到了为水下大神疗伤的女巫医,他把女巫医杀掉,代替她假意照顾水下大神,最终伺机下手杀死水下大神,为自己的狼弟报了仇。之后,一场更大的洪灾淹没了整个世界。那那波什派出各种不同的动物潜至水底寻找泥土,只有麝鼠找到了泥土。那那波什用麝鼠的爪子里攥到的一星点泥十创造了一个岛屿,这个岛屿又长成为陆地。自此,那那波什调控这个新世界的自然和生命。
3 Jones William, Ojibwa Texts, New York:AMS P.,1974, p.301,307,313,319.
4 Ibid,p.103,169.
1 Victor Barnouw, Wisconsin Chippewa Myths and Tales and Their Relation to Chippewa Life, Madison:U of Wisconsin P.,1977,p.80-81.
1 Thomas King, The Truth about Stories:a native narrative, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,2005,p.92.
1 小说中的艾琳发现了吉尔的画作成为拟象,取代了真正的自己。(详细可参见文章开头的引文)据此,笔者推断,艾琳应该也明白文字的虚构也足以成为拟象。
2 小说中艾琳的名字"Irene"是她父亲给她取的,当时她父亲听到一首歌,就给她取了这个名字。艾琳的父亲并没有听完这首歌,歌的结尾部分,歌中的“艾琳”溺水而死。小说中艾琳的溺水而死,从一个侧面反映了加附在3 名字”之上的各种叙事若不被解构和颠覆,将会给被命名者本身所造成的影响。厄德里克本人对名字和名字背后的叙事也相当关注,她曾因此而改名为"Louise":厄德里克之前的名字是"Karen",后来她又改名为"Louise",其原因是,她发现叫"Louise"的作家很多,而叫"Karen"的却很少。联系厄德里克的改名,以及小说中艾琳的溺水而死,不难看出,对于厄德里克而言,反抗加附在“印第安”这一名字之后的各种“强势仿真”分外重要和急迫。
3 Karl Kroeber, "Why is a Good Thing Gerald Vizenor is Not an Indian", Gerald Vizenor, ed., Surviance:Narrtatives of Native Presence, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c2008, p.30.
1 张德明：《<藻海无边>的身份意识与叙事策略》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第3期,第79页。
2 Jodi A Byrd,The Transit of Empire,Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2011, p.ⅹⅹ.
3 Gerald Vizenor, Postindian Conversations, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c1999, pp.84-85.
1 印第安传统文化中,儿乎每个部落都有自己的“变形者”故事,如,西南部印第女部落的变形者是草原狼、西北沿海部落是鸟鸦。奥吉布瓦文化中最著名的变形者是那那波什,他是“生命之主……诡计多端,但也人智大慧懂得如何求生”。(France Densmore, Chippew Customs, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press,1979,p.97.)那那波什最重要的武器足变形——伪装自己攻击敌人,“随心所欲……一种新的形式、模样和存在。这一秒足个人,下一秒就变成一块石头,一阵风,一朵云,一枝花或者一只癞蛤蟆”。(Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York: Columbia University Press,1976,pp.19-20.)
2 Gerald Vizenor, Manifest manners postindian warriors ofSurvivance, Hanover:University Press of New England, 1994,p.66.
3 Ibid,p.5.
4 诗人里尔是历史上的里尔·路易丝(Riel Louis,1844-1885),梅蒂人,有八分之一印第安血统,其祖母是法国－奥吉布瓦混血儿。里尔是老师,也是加拿大西北叛乱的领袖,加拿人中南部地区曼尼托巴省的创立者。他是加拿大历史最富有争议的人物之一,有关他的评论,莫衷一是。梅蒂人视他为英雄、他们自我愿望的代言人；西部加拿人的人部分移居民则视他为恶棍。当下,他被看作是抵制加拿大中部各种政治、经济统治运动的先驱。里尔这个人物不止一次出现在厄德坐克的小说世界。《鸽灾》中,里尔的图片曾I司美国总统约翰F·肯尼迪、教皇约翰十三世的图片共同贴在埃维莉娜(Evelina)外祖父家的墙上。里尔被埃维莉娜的祖父们视作民族英雄,在他们看 来,“如果里尔赢了,我们的父辈就会待在加拿大,整个民族。不会分开。”“如果里尔赢了,我们可能就会受人尊敬了。”(PoD,33-34)小说中,里尔的父亲吉尔与里尔是远亲。艾琳为女儿取名为"Riel",这一行为既将女儿与其族谱上的远亲联系了起来,又把她和奥吉布瓦历史上的这位虽败犹荣的民族英雄联系在了一起,里尔的存在也因此具有了超越个体、家庭、家族的意义,她担负着拯救整个民族的使命。
1 此处,里尔用狗代替马,不能被简单地视为是孩子的荒唐游戏,因为在印第安的一些部落语言中,马(horse)的表达与狗(dog)相关。比如,在克里语(Cree)中,马是“1mistatim",意指大狗(big dog);在苏族语(Sioux)中,是‘'sunkakhan",意指“神秘的狗或者神圣的狗”(mystery dog or holy dog);在阿西尼博因语(Assiniboine)中,是‘'shunga tonga",意指“大狗”(big dog);在黑脚族语(blackfoot)中,是‘'ponoka-mita",意指“麇鹿狗”(elk dog).
2 Paula Gunn Allen, ed., Spider Woman s Granddaughters,New York:Fawcett Columbine,1989, p.19.
3 Ibid, p.21.
1 Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop, Boston:Bacon Presss,1986,p.101.
2 Paula Gunn Allen, ed., Spider Woman's Granddaughters, New York:Fawcett Columbine,1989, p.25.
1 整首诗具体如下：小子,你知道我来这儿就是为了找你,/当水壶跳进火焰。/毛巾在挂钩上扑打,/狗爬出来,痛苦地呻吟,/爬向森林的最深处。//干刷子一样的狗颈毛突然发出微微的笑声。/母亲训斥锅里的食物,温起来,滑起来/喊你来吃。/而我在寒冷的树林里说：/臭小子,我来就是为了你,孩童的皮肤,一动不动地躺着。//漆树在风中推搡酸臭的红果子。/铜壶在原木中燃烧/你看见我拖着步子走向你。/噢,摸摸我,我喃喃自语,舔你脚上的鞋底/你把双手放入我苍白的、正在融化的毛里//我把你偷走了,一个庞然大物钻进我发怒的盔甲。/暖流滚过我冰冷的臂膀,每片树叶都颤抖/我们穿过灌木丛/直到它们立起来,一丝不挂,象刮干净了肉的鱼骨一样铺开//然后你温暖的手嗡嗡作响,它们自己开始铲,/全是冰和雪。我将变黑,然后溢出来/整个晚上流个不停,直到最后早晨打破这个冰冷的地球/我把你带回家/一条河在阳光下晃动。(Louise Erdrich, Jacklight:poems, New York:Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, c1984,p.79.)
1 Basil Johnston, "How Do We Learn Language? What Do We Learn?", Laura J. Murray and Keren Rice eds.,Talking on the Page:Editing Aboriginal Oral Texts,Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1999, pp.48-49.
2 说阿尔纲纪语的部族包括奥吉布瓦、克里、黑脚族等,这些人居住在加拿大滨海诸省、西北区和魁北克北部地区、安大略湖区、马尼托巴湖区、萨斯咯彻温省和亚伯达省。
3 John Robert Colombo ed.,. Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,pp.2-3.
4 Basil Johnson, The Manitous:The Spiritual World of the Ojibway, Toronto:KeyPorter Books,1995,p.222.
5 John Robert Colombo.ed.,. Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, cl982,p.3.
1 'Howard Norman, Where The Chill Came From:Cree Windigo Tales and Journeys, San Francisco:North Point Press, 1982,p.3.
2 John Robert Colombo, Windigo an Anthology of Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,pp.125-126.
3 Herbert T. Schwarz, Windigo and Other Tales of the Ojibways, Toronto McClelland and Stewart 1978, c1969, p.11.
4 Margaret Atwood,Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature,Oxford:Clarendon.1995.p.66.
1 John Robert Colombo ed, Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982, p.128.
2 Hadley Louise Friedland, "The Wetiko (Windigo) Legal Principles:Responding to Harmful People in Cree, Anishinabek and Saulteaux Societies—Past, Present and Future Uses, with a Focus on Contemporary Violence and Child Victimization Concerns"[D], Universtity of Alverta,2009,p.69.
3 Morton Teicher, "Windigo Psychosis:A Study of a Relationship between Belief and Behavior among the Indians of Northeastern Canada" in Verne F. Ray, ed., Proceedings of the 1960 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnological Society, Seattle:University of Washington,1960,p.64.
4 Ibid,p.81.
5 Hadley Louise Friedland. "The Wetiko (Windigo) Legal Principles:Responding to Harmful People in Cree, Anishinabek and Saulteaux Societies—Past, Present and Future Uses, with a Focus on Contemporary Violence and Child Victimization Concerns"[D], Universtity of Alverta,2009,pp.55-63.
6 John Robert Colombo.ed., Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c 1982, p.128.
7 Margaret Atwood,Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature. Oxford:Clarendon.1995,p.67.
8 A. Irving Hallowell, Contributions to Anthropology:Selected Papers of A. Irving Hallowell, Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1976, p.360.
1 Legends and Stories:Part of an Oral History, Ottawa:Indian Affairs and Northern Development,1998,p.68.
2 Joe Lockard, "Facing the Windigo", Gerald Vizenor ed., Survivance:Narratives of Native Presence, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, c2008, p.210.
3 Isernhagen Hartwig. Momaday, Vizenor, Armstrong, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,1999,p.85.
4 Gerald Vizenor. Chancers, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,2000,p.57.
5 Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners:Postindian Warriors of Survivance, Hanover:University Press of New England, 1994. p.Viii.
5 Margaret Atwood, Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature. Oxford:Clarendon,1995,p.67.
7 Ibid,p.69.
8 Ibid,pp.73-74.
1 《俱乐部》的前43页关乎第一次世界人战,小说的45-338页勾勒了一战之后到二战之前这一时间段里小镇阿古斯人的生活场景图,整个场景既有人情的单薄、冷漠,小说的338-372关乎第二次世界人战及战后。45-338页是厄德里克对战争本身的思考。战争从何而来?小说第43页,厄德里克用了近一页的篇幅对此做了告白,一切源于人性之恶。厄德里克对战争本质的思考可以在俄国哲学家尼古拉·别尔嘉耶人处找到回音,别尔嘉耶夫在《俄罗斯的命运》中指出,“战争不是恶的源泉,而是恶的反映,内在的恶和病态之存在的符号。……它是派生的,而非原生的。战争的是人类内在疾病的标志……世界大战、世界性的敌视、仇恨和相互摩擦,早就在精神现实的深处开始了。”(尼古拉·别尔嘉耶少、：《俄罗斯的命运》,汪剑钊译。南京：译林出版社,2009年,第151页。)对于厄德里克而言,这种“恶”是隐匿在战争并没有发生之前的人性的沦丧,因此厄德里克强调人性的复苏,恰如温迪戈通过袭击部落以重建人性。
2 Sidney L. Harring, "The Enforcement of the Extreme Penalty:Canadian Law and the Ojibwa-Cree Spirit World", Sidney L. Harring, ed., White Man's Law:Native People in Nineteenth-Centry Canadian Jurisprudence,Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1998,p.237.
3 Helen Jaskoski, "From the Time Immemorial:Native American Traditions in Contemporary Short Fiction." Loren Logsdon and Charles W. Mayer eds., Since Flannery O Cornnor:Essays on the Contemporary American Short Story, Macomb:Western Illinois UP.,1987,pp.54-71.
4 Annette Van Dyke, "Questions o f the Spirit:Bloodlines in Louise Erdrich's Chippewa Landscape", Studies in American Indian Literatures 4(1992).pp.15-27.
5 Elisabeth Mermann-Jozwiak, "'his grandfather ate his own wife':Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine as a contemporary windigo Narrative'", The North Dakota Quarterly 64 (1997),pp.44-54.
1 Julie Tharp, "Windigo Ways:Eating and Excess in Louise Erdrich's the Antelope Wife", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,27 (2004),pp.117-31.
2 Casey A. G Maude, "Finding Old Windigo Ways and New Medicine in the Works of Lousie Erdrich" [Master Thesis]. University of Arkansas,2006.
3 Gerald Vizenor, Chancers, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,2000,p.57.
1 Candice Savage, ed., The World of Wetiko:Tales from the Woodland Cree, as told by Marie Merasty, Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College,1974, p.3.
2 《四灵魂》中,小说透过那那普什的叙述告诉读者奢奢波娶了5那普什的小姐姐之后,对小姐姐多有虐待。后来,一个饥饿的冬天里,小姐姐消失了。那那普什还有其他的族人都断定在饥不果腹的日子里,奢奢波波吃掉了小姐姐。
3 John Robert Colombo eds., Windigo:an Anthology of Fact and FantasticFiction. Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,p.167.
1 Margaret Atwood, Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature, Oxford:Clarendon.1995,p.74.
2 冥王镇(Pluto),小说《鸽灾》的故事发生地,最初印第安人居住于此,后来白人迁至于此,最终,冥王镇成为一个印第安人居住地内的白人聚集地。因此,冥王镇的印白通婚现象比较多,而此地的印白冲突也较为严重。《圆屋》的故事发生地同于《鸽灾》,并且,故事人物也大体同于《鸽灾》,不过,冥王镇这一地名不再出现,另一地名“箍舞蹈之地”(Hoopdance)出现,印第安人居住在这里。
1 弗洛伊德在“悲伤与忧郁”,《弗洛伊德著作选》,贺明明译,四川人民出版社,1986年,第170页。
2 弗洛伊德在“悲伤与忧郁”一文中指出,“抑郁表现出一些在悲伤中没有的东西。极度地陷入自重,自我极度匮乏。悲伤时,世界变得贫乏空虚,抑郁时则是自我变得贫乏空虚。在我们看来病人的自我表现为毫无价值,无法作任何努力,在道义上是卑鄙的。他谴责自己,辱骂自己,希望自己被抛弃被惩罚。他在每个人面前贬低自己,并且怜悯自己的亲属与自己这个没有价值的人联系在一起。他并没有意识到在自己身上发生了什么变化,只是把自我批判扩展到过去,宣称他从来也不比现在更好些。这种妄想式的自我贬低主要是道义上的,它是在心理特征明显的失眠、厌食、抛弃本能之后形成的,这种本能维持着每一种生物的生命。(弗洛伊德,“悲伤与忧郁”,《弗洛伊德著作选》,贺明明译,四川人民出版社,1986年,第173页。)”
3 论者对“抑郁型温迪戈”的分类基于科伦坡的一个温迪戈故事：一个美丽的女子,被邪恶的男巫师黑天(DarkSky)看上了,女子的父亲拒绝把自己的女儿嫁给这个妻了己经很多的黑天。黑天作法,把女子变成了温迪戈,女子吃掉了自己的家人。黑天把女子带回自己的营地,用火烤她,让她变回了人形,但是她对自己的过去一无所知。黑天极其宠爱她,她总是问自己的过去,从哪里来。黑天烦透了,告诉了她真相,她为自己过去的所作所为异常懊悔和痛苦。她也不再得宠,此外,黑天的其他妻子从一开始就排挤她。她在自责和痛苦中,又一点点变回温迪戈,不过在食人灾难发生之前,她自杀了。科伦坡认为这个故事涉及到“记忆”(“过去”)的问题：当过去重返时,女了为自己的罪责所吞噬,在创伤中难以自拔,又变回温迪戈。(John Robert Colombo eds., Windigo:an Anthology of Fact and FantasticFiction,Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,pp.195-196.)
4 Howard Norman, Where The Chill Came From:Cree Windigo Tales and Journeys, San Francisco:North Point Press, 1982.p.2.
1 Rose Wendy, The Half Breed Chronicles &other Poems, Los Angeles, CA:West End Press,1985, p.34.
2 “蓝草原女/地球的另一端”均为同一个奥吉布瓦女性,她之前的名字叫做“蓝草原女”,后来老罗伊所在的白人骑兵团入侵了她所在的村落,她因遗失爱女而心痛抑郁,后来一萨满为其看病并为其命名“地球的另一端”。根据小说原文的解释,“一旦她被以她所行走过的地方命名,这位年轻的母亲就可以同时身处两地了”。(AM,14)
1 关于小乌鸦战役的概述可以参见Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee:An Indian History of the American West, New York:Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,1971.
1 米兰·昆德拉,《小说的艺术》,董强译,上海：上海译文出版社,2004年,第231页。
2 Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Mask, Charles Lam Markmann trans., London:Pluto,2008, p.9.
3 France Winddance Twine. "Brown-skinned white girls:class, culture, and the construction of white identity in suburban communities", Frankenberg Ruth Durham e., Displacing whiteness:Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism, NC:Duke University Press,1997,p.239.
1 付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,北京：社会科学出版社,2012年,第201页。
2 同上,第199页。.
3 Mari Sandoz, The Beaver Men:Spearheads of Empire, New York:Hastings House, c1964,p.137.
4 茨格内·蔡勒尔：《印第安人》,马立东译,武汉：湖北教育出版社,2009年,第39-40页。
5 N. Scott Momaday, The Names:a Memoir, New York:Harper & Row, c1976,p.Ⅰ.
6 Lisa Halliday, "Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208",Paris Review, Winter (2010),p.141
7 Bial Raymond, The Ojibwe, New York:Benchmark,2000,p.58.
1 Herbert T. Schwarz, Windigo and Other Tales of the Ojibways, Toronto McClelland and Stewart 1978, c1969,p.11.
1 美国总统艾森豪威尔于1953年当任,这一年也是美国“印第安人重新安置”的正式开始。1953年,美国第83届国会通过了《108号两院共同决议》(House Concurrent Resolution 108),该决议后来被称作“终止政策”(terminationpolicy),它“使印第安人……服从于同美国其他人一样的法律,给予印第安人……同其他人一样的特权和职责……结束他们作为和众国被监护者的地位……授予他们属于美国公民所有的一切权利和特权”。(Francis Paul Prucha (exl.), Documents of the United States Indian Policy,P.234.转引自胡锦山：《二十世纪美国印第安人政策之演变与印第安人事务的发展》,《世界民族》,2004年第2期,第27页。)诚然,联邦政府的印第安人重新安置计划有助于印第安人获得自由、平等的美国公民权力,但实际上,联邦政府所觊觎的仍是印第安人的土地。二战带来了美国国内农场主、伐木场主和牧场主经营规模的扩大,他们渴望更多的土地和资源。美国印第安史史学家菲克斯克(Donald L. Fixico)指责到,“一些印第安人保留地上的石油和其他资源是终止法的真正动机。”(Donald L. Fixico, Termination and Relocation:Federal Indian Policy,1945-196, Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1986,p.76.)同时,二战之后,一座座城镇拔地而起,城镇发展又急需大量劳动力,把印第安人重新安置进城市可以说一箭双雕：既腾出了土地,又扩大了劳动力。旨在废除保留地、解散部落的这一决议为全国范围内推行印第安人重新安置计划行了方便,并寻求到了法律依据。早在1952年2月,联邦政府已经尝试将第一批的442名印第安人安置在芝加哥、丹佛、洛杉矶,该年共安置了868名印第安人；1953年,重新安置计划为1470名印第安人安排了长期工作；1954年,重新安置计划又安置了2553人；1955、1956、1957分别安置3459人、5119人和6964人。这样,仅在1952年-1957年间,联邦政府就安置了20433人。此后的10多年中,安置计划从未停止。截止1972年,重新安置计划共把约14万人移出了保留地,让他们迁居城市。(1953-1974年联邦政府的财政预算。转引李晓岗：《美国政府对印第安人的重新安置及其城市化》,《世界历史》,1992年第4期,第6页。)
1 论者将此处拉马丁吃沾有自己鲜血的面包解读为拉马丁受到战争创伤的毒害,行为古怪冷漠,成了一只食人温迪戈。不过,国内亦有论者给出了另类解读,“最后一段‘面包与血”的描写更加强调了这段场景宗教和文化的含义。这段描写既暗示西方白人文化已经渗入到了小亨利的血液和灵魂的深处,又隐射了基督教的传统仪式。”(蔡俊：《超越生态印第安》,南京大学博士论文,2012年,第108页。)
2 Bonnie C.Winsbro, Supernatural Forces:Belief, Difference, and Power in Contemporary Works by Ethnic Women, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, c1993,p.58.
1 Paul E.Rivard, A New Order of Things:How the Textile Industry Transformed New England. Hanover, NH:Unviersity Press of New England,2002,p.72.
2 Nancy C.Curtis, Black Heritage Sites. United States:ALA Editions.1996.p.543.
3 http://www.shadowwolf.org/cherokee_tear_dress.html
4 张德明：《藻海无边的身份意识与叙事策略》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第3期,第82页。
1 李忠尚：《新马克思主义析要》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,1987年,第78页。
2 Terry Eagleton, Marxism and Literary Criticism, Berkeley and Los Angels:Unviersity of California Press,1976,p.31.
1 陈龙：《霸权理论”与电视意识形态宰制论》,《新闻与传播研究》,2003年第1期,第60页。
1 Bonnie C.Winsbro, Supernatural Forces:Belief, Difference, and Power in Contemporary Works by Ethnic Women, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, c1993,p.58.
1 Hadley Louise Friedland, "The Wetiko (Windigo) Legal Principles:Responding to Harmful People in Cree, Anishinabek and Saulteaux Societies" (Master Thesis), University of Alberta,2009,pp.83-105.
1 德罗瑞亚在其记录出版的《达科塔文本》(Dakota Texts,1932) (Deloria, Ella. Dakota Texts.1932. Reprinted in "Appendix 1:Translations from the Dakota Texts" in Julian Rice, Deer Woman and Elk Men, the Lakota Narratives of Ella Deloria, Albuquerque:U of NMP,1992,pp.161-96.)中提供了许多拉科塔(Lakota)版本的“鹿女”故事(Deer Woman stories)。鹿女美丽优雅,是男子爱欲的对象,有巨大的性能力和繁殖能力。“传统的鹿女精神是一种孩提时代长者们警而告之的精神,这种精神会蛊惑那些易沉溺于性喜好(sexual favor)的人,这些人会因之离开自己的家庭和部族,进入到性能量的滥用中。”(Dunn, Carolyn and Carol Comfor,"Introduction." Through the Eye of the Deer, An Anthology of Native American Women Writers. Carolyn Dunn and Carol Comfort ed. San Francisco:Aunt Lute,1999.pⅹⅰ)鹿女故事通常被用以帮助部族成员理解各种与爱欲有关的性行为,尤其是求偶期、新婚期的性行为。男男女女均不可以屈从于个人情感。相反,他们需要建立起各种有助于部族稳定的性关系。男人不能因沉迷于爱欲的实施而放弃打猎或者保护族人,女人也不能因此而偏离各种女性劳作,诸如食物采集、制作等。印第安人常常以讲故事的方式教育后代,拉科塔儿童从小就会听到各种“鹿女”故事,孩子们通过这些故事建立“与同伴交往的合适表达方式”(Rice Julian, Deer Women and Elk Men:The Lakota Narratives of Ella Deloria, Albuquerque:U ofNMP,1992,p.120.)。
2 印第安妇女杰拉尔丁被白人男子林登强奸,因为事发时,杰拉尔丁被蒙住了头,所以她并不知道确切的事发地。根据白人法律,对于印第安案件,事发地异常重要,它决定着什么样的法律将适用于这起案件。案件若发生在保留地,适用的将是部落法；若在保留地之外,适用的则是州法或是联邦法。若发生在保留地之内,但事发地的土地已经卖给了白人,案件的审理将更加复杂。此外,若案犯是白人,部落法则又变得不适用。诚实的杰拉尔丁无法编造一个事发地,因此林登游走并逍遥于州法/联邦法与部落法的边缘。
1 Jace Weaver, That the People Might Live:Native American Literatures and Native American Community, New York: Oxford University Press,1997, p.Xiii.
1 Jack D Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals:the Wetiko Disease of Exploitation, Imperialism, and Terrorism. Brooklyn:Autonomedia,1992, p.10.
2 Harvey Arden and Wall Steve, Travels in a Stone Canoe:the Return to the Wisdomkeepers, New York:Simon & Schuster,1998,p.299.
1 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,p.230.
2 Kimberly Blaeser, "The Vocies We Carry", Kate Sontag and David eds., After Confession:Poetry as Autobiography. Graham. St Paul, MN:Graywolf Press,2001,p.269.
1 Anne M. Dunn etc. eds., Winter Thunder:Retold Tales, Duluth, Minn.:Holy Cow Press,2001.p.9.
1 Scott Richard Lyons, X-marks:Native Signatures of Assent, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010,p.4.
2 Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses:Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and Presence, Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press,1998,p.15.
1 Scott Richard Lyons, X-marks:native signatures of assent. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010.p4.
2 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari,Kafka:Toward a Minor Literature, Dana Polan trans., Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c1986,p.18.
3 Ibid.pp.16-18.
4 事实上,得益于厄德里克的法国、德国血统,厄德里克在小说中还引入了少量法语词和德语词,鉴于法语、德语和英语同属印欧语系,本论文不对法语、德语词的引入意义做探讨。
5 Lisa Halliday," Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208",Paris Review, Winter(2010),p.139.
1 早期从事毛皮贸易的法国男人与印第安女人(主要是克里人、苏族那科他人和奥吉布瓦族人)的混血儿被称为“梅蒂人”(Metis)。梅蒂人所讲的语言做称为“梅蒂语”(Michif)。这种语言主要由克里语和法语组成,它是加拿大法语的一种变体,另外还从英语、原著语(奥吉布瓦族语、阿西尼博因语)中借来大量词汇。
1 Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses:Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and presence. Lincoln:University of Nebraska press,1998,15.
2 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari,Kafka:Toward a Minor Literature, Dana Polan trans., Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c1986,p.17.
3 塞浦路斯(Cyprian),一战老兵,《四灵魂》中奎忧临死前提到的拉马丁家族人,混血儿。塞浦路斯本身又是双性恋者。在这个意义上,塞浦路斯成为了性别跨界生存者。
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李晓岗：《美国政府对印第安人的重新安置及其城市化》,《世界历史》,1992年第4期。
李忠尚：《新马克思主义析要》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,1987年。
列维-布留尔：《原始思维》,丁由译。北京：商务印书馆,1985年。
米兰·昆德拉,《小说的艺术》,董强译,上海：上海译文出版社,2004年。
尼古拉·别尔嘉耶夫：《俄罗斯的命运》,汪剑钊译,南京：译林出版社,2009年。
乔键编著：《印第安人的诵歌》,桂林：广西师范大学出版社,2004年。
秋浦主编：《萨满教研究》,上海：上海人民出版社,1985年。
让·鲍德里亚：《消费社会》,刘成富、全志钢译,南京：南京大学出版社,2000年。
任一鸣：《后殖民：批评理论与文学》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2008年。
石海军：《破碎的镜子：“流散”的拉什迪》,《外国文学评论》,2006年第4期。
陶家俊：《创伤》,《外国文学》,2011年第4期。
王晨：《桦树皮上的随想曲：路易丝·厄德里克小说研究》,北京：中央编译出版社, 2011年。
王宏刚、于晓飞：《北方萨满文化：大漠神韵》,成都：四川文艺出版社,2007年。
王明珂：《华夏边缘：历史记忆与族群认同》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006年。
威尔科姆·E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年。
威廉·克罗农：《土地的变迁——新英格兰的印第安人、殖民者和生态》,北京：中国环境出版社,2012年。
吴生：《乔治·凯特林和他的印第安人肖像》,《书屋》,2004年第10期。
徐炳勋主编：《美洲印第安人与中国北方民族文化对比研究》,呼和浩特：内蒙古大学出版社,2003年。
许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年。
张德明：《<藻海无边>的身份意识与叙事策略》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第3期。
张法：《媚世(kitsch)和堪鄙(camp):从美学范畴体系的角度看当代两个美学新范》,《当代文坛》,2011年第1期。
张翎：《金山》,北京：十月文艺出版社,2009年。
张琼：《族裔界限的延展与消散：<手绘鼓>》”,《外国文学》,2009年第6期。
邹慧玲：《19世纪美国白人文学经典中的印第安形象”》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第5期。
2 奥吉布瓦(Ojibwa)、奇帕瓦(Chippewa)和阿尼什纳比(Anishinabe)均指同一个部族。阿尼什纳比是部落人对自己的称呼,奥吉布瓦和奇帕瓦是法国殖民者对部落人的称呼。关于“印第安”一词的更多介绍可参看本论文第四章第一节。
3 Charles Ron, "Four Souls:A Novel", Chiristian Science Monitor,29 June. www.powells.com/review/2004_08_02.html[last
4 路易丝·厄德里克：《爱药》,张廷佺译,南京：译林出版社,2008年,封二
1 陈许：《解读美国西部印第安人小说》,《四川外语学院学报》,2006年第6期,第12页。
2 Connie A. Jacobs, The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People, New York:Peter Lang, c2001, p.3.
3 Ibid.p.2.
1 威尔科姆.E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第女人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第179页
2 1887年,美国政府以改善印第安人生活为由,通过了《单独占有土地法》,即《道斯法案》,其主旨是取消居留地内的部落制度和土地公有制。联邦政府对分配给印第安人使用的部落十地有二十五年的托管权,托管期满后把所有权移交给印第安人；分配给印第安人后余下的土地将归非印第女人所有。《道斯法案》的实施使印第安人丧失了大量土地,史给印第安民族带来了毁灭性的灾难,西奥多·罗斯福(Theodore Roosevelt, 1858-1919,美国第26任总统)在后来给国会的咨文中既尖刻又正确地把这个法令叫作“一部粉碎部族整体的强大粉碎机。”(威尔克姆·E·沃什博思：《美国印第女人》,陆毅译,北京：上午图书馆,1997年,第247-2550。
3 最臭名昭著的寄宿学校是卡莱尔寄宿学校(Carlisle Boarding School,1879年11月1日-1918年秋季),该学校在当时一度被追捧为寄宿学校的典范,很多学校纷纷效尤。卡莱尔寄宿学校通过教育军事化、教育寄宿制、削发、更衣、易名、英语霸权主义、违规惩罚等,强迫学生中断和放弃印第安语言文化传统。此处参考了蔡永良：《语言失落与文化生存：北美印第安语衰亡研究》,上海：上海人民出版社,2010年,第180-223页。
4 David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction:American Indian and the Boarding School Experience,1879-1928, Lawrence, Kan.:University Press of Kansas, c1995, pp.6-21.
5 Ibid. p.277.
1 瓦伊尔教授在与笔者的一次邮件交谈中做了如上观点的表达,邮件原文为,“1967-1980 was a critical time in theAmerican Indian world, but I hesitate to call it the Native American Renaissance. That term was created by a scholar rather than by American Indian people. My second book, Like a Hurricane:The Indian Movement from Alcatraz to Wounded Knee, provides an overview of that period. Education played an important role, but so did urbanization and the broader context of American and global civil unrest." (2012年3月24日)
2 李剑鸣：《文化的边疆——美国印第安人与白人文化关系史论》,天津：天津人民出版社,1991年,第183-184页。
3 Elaine Neils, Reservation to City:Indian Migration and Federal Relocation, Chicago:University o Chicago,1971, p.90.
4 Rebecca Tillett, Contemporary Native American Literary, Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, c2007,pp.34-35.
1 丁见民：《1960-1970年代美国“红种人权力”运动与土著族裔意识的复兴》,《福建师范大学学报》,2009年第4期,第157-159页。
2 Louis Owens, Other Destinies:Understanding the American Indian Novel, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, 1992,p.91.
3 Andrew Wiget, Native American Literature, Boston:Twayne Publishers,1985.p.82.
4 Kenneth Lincoln, Native American Renaissance, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983. p.13.
5 对萸马迪的印第安文学复兴地位的讨论可参见,林肯的《美国印第安复兴》(Native American Renaissance)、雅各布的《厄德里克小说研究：她族裔人的故事》(The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People,p3)和蒂利特的《当代美国土著文学》(Contemporary Native Aemrican Literature,p26)特劳特(Lawana Trout)的《美国土著文学选集》(Native American Literature:An Anthology,ⅹⅹⅲ)。
6 小说的主人公亚伯(Abel)是一位基奥瓦(Kiowa)妇女和一位可能为纳瓦霍(Navajo)男了的私生子。二战后归返保留地,迷失了“文化身份”异常迷茫,后因杀死保留地上患有白化病的Fragua被判入狱7年。亚伯出狱后,在洛杉矶短暂工作期间,被白人警察Martinez骚扰,并同时被同为基奥瓦人的Tosamah嘲笑为无知的野蛮人。痛苦的亚伯酗酒成瘾,丢了工作。后来,亚伯在祖父弥留之际,回到保留地。通过传统仪式,作为个体的亚伯汇入了基奥瓦族群的集体生命之中,最终获得了心灵的平静。
7 David Mitchell, "A Bridge to the Past:Cultural Hegemony and the Native American Past in Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine". Thomas E. Schirer ed., Entering the 90S:The North American Experience:Proceedings from the Native American Studies Conference at Lake Superior University, October 16-17,1987, Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.:Lake Superior University Press.1991,p.163.
8 Woodar Charles L.,"Momaday's House Made of Dawn." Explicator 36(1978):27-28.
1 Alan R. Velie, Four American Indian Literary Masters:N. Scott Momaday, James Welch, Leslie Marmon Silko, and Gerald Vizeor, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,1982.
2 Rebecca Tillett, Contemporary Native American Literature, Edingurgh:Edinburgh University Press Ltd.,2007,p33.
3 Larson Charles R. American Indian Fiction. Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1978,p.66.
4 霍根于1978年出版了自己的处女诗歌集《喊我自己回家》(Calling Myself Home).随后又相继发表了诗集《女儿们,我爱你们》(Daughters, I Love You,1981)、《眼望太阳》(Seeing Through Sun,1985)等。直到1990年,霍根才发表了自己的第一部小说《邪灵》(Mean Spirit)。本论文讨论的重心是小说,故将霍根归为印第安文学复兴的第二波。
5 Connie A. Jacobs, The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People, New York:Peter Lang, c2001,pp.12-17.
1 刘克东：《趋十融合——谢尔曼·阿莱克西小说研究》,北京：光明日报出版社,2011年,第3页。
2 Smith Dinitia. "The Indian in literature Is Growing Up:Heroes Now Tend to Be More Edged, Urban and Pop Oriented." New York Times 21 Apr.1997, late ed.:Academic Universe. Online. Lexis-Nexis.14 Aug.1998.
3 下文厄德里克的生平部分主要以Louise Erdrich:A Critical Companion by Lorena L. Stookey (pp.1-11)为脉络和蓝本,此外还融合了The Novels of Louise Erdrich:Stories of Her People by Connie A. Jacobs (pp.53-69)、The Chippewa Landscape of Louise Erdrich edited by Allan Chavkin (pp.1-7)、Contemporary Native American Literature by Rebecca Tillett(pp.69-72)、Louise Erdrich by David Stirrup、Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris edited by Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin和The Art of Fiction No.208。
4 迈克尔·多瑞斯(Michael Dorris,1945.1.30-1997.4.10)是美国当代最著名的印第安人类学家及小说家之一,同时,他还积极推动了人们对胎儿酒精综合症的认识。多瑞斯的回忆录《破裂的脐带》(Broken Cord)描写了自己收养患有胎儿酒精综合症的印第安苏族孩了阿贝尔的故事。该书荣获1989年美国国家图书奖非小说类奖。
5 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin. eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, cl994,p.139.
1 Ibid,p.140.
2 Ibid,pp.27-28.
3 譬如,在《爱药》的首页,厄德里克写道,“没有迈克尔·多瑞斯,我不可能以这种方式来创作这部小说,在写作的过程中,他给予了我诸多他自己的观点、经验和精力。谨以此书献给他,因为他的投入是如此之多。”(I could not have written it this way without Michael Dorris, who gave his own ideas, experiences, and devoted attention to the writing. This book is dedicated to him because he is so much a part of it.)
4 国内有人将其翻译为《最终的射程》(王晨,2011),笔者根据故事内容意译为《恒暖牌柴炉》。"the Range Eternal"在书中是一只柴炉的名字,这只柴炉曾给叙述者“我”无限温暖,随着物质文明的进步,这只柴炉最终退出了使用,被弃掷在荒野中。"the Range Eternal"柴炉后又在《羚羊妻》中出现过。
1 国际IMPAC都柏林文学奖,成立于1996年,足由爱尔兰都柏林市政府主办、都柏林市立图书馆承办、美国企业管理顾问公司IMPAC所赞助的世界性文学奖“国际IMPAC都柏林文学奖”(The International IMPAC Dublin Literary Award),它颁发给英语小说或任何语言有英译本的小说,是现今世界上奖金最高的单一文学奖(得奖者可获10万欧儿,约合新台币400万元)。此文学奖对图书馆界具有特别的意义,因为其参选的图书是由各国首都或主要城市的图书馆向主办单位所推荐的；目前全世界有五十几个国家的一百三十几所公共图书馆或大学图书馆每年经常向主办的都柏林市政当局及市立图书馆推荐优秀的小说作品,最初有一个长名单(Longlist),经过主办单位所荐请的国际性评审委员评选后,十每年三月公布10本以内的入围者名单(Shortlist),五月揭晓最后的得奖者,然后在六月举办颁奖典礼。2012年共有包括厄德里克的《踩影游戏》、德里罗的《终点》(Point Omega)在内的共147奔小说入选长名单。最终,英国作家乔恩·麦格雷戈的《狗亦有道》(Even the Dogs)荣膺殊荣。http://www.impacdublinaward.ie/2012/longlist.htm
2 "An Emissary of the Between-World" http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/01/an-emissary-of-the-between-world/3033
1 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin, eds. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994.p.250.
2 Lisa Halliday, Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208,Paris Review,2010 Winter,p.137.
3 达特茅斯学院,创建于1769年,最初的办学宗旨是要为“培养印第安年轻人和其他种族年轻人”服务。然而,从其创建直至1972年,该校毕业生中只有12名印第安人。Charles Trueheart. "Marriage for Better or Words", Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds.,Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1994,p.116.
1 Wong, Hertha D., "An Interview with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris." In Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin,eds. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson:University Press of Mississippi, c1994, p.33.
2 《女士》(Ms.)是由美国女权主义者、活动家格洛丽亚·斯泰纳姆(Gloria Steinem)同其他一些创刊编辑,如Letty Cottin Pogrebin、Patricia Carbine、Joanne Edgar、Nina Finkelstein、Mary Peacock等人共同创办的美国自由女权主义杂志。最初,1971年时,《女士》作为《纽约》(New York)杂志的插页出现。1972年1月,《女士》独立发行。1972年6月-1987年,杂志定期每月发刊。20世纪70年代,《女士》脍炙人口、如日中天,但它并不总能在自身意识形态思考和经济顾虑间做出调和。自2001年始,杂志由女权主义多数组织基金会(Feminism Majority Foundation)出资发行。
3 艾琳并不是真的救生员,但在小说中,艾琳曾同女儿讨论过自己的救生技巧。同时,在小说的末尾,艾琳下水救自己的丈夫。
1 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,p.233.
2 Ibid,p.12.
3 《圈子》(the Circle)自1980年开始按月发行,目的旨在展示印第安新闻、观点,给以印第安人以平等的发声机会。
1 婚前,多瑞斯于1970年收养了当时3岁的男孩Abel, 1974年收养了当时2岁的男孩Sava,1975年收养了当时
2个月人的女孩Medeline,这三个孩子均是印第安苏族人。三个小孩均患有一定程度的胎儿酒精综合症(Fetal Alcohol Syndrome)。这种病源于母亲在妊娠期间酗酒对胎儿所造成的永久出生缺陷,程度会按母亲喝酒的份量、频率及时间所影响。酒精会进入胎盘,并阻碍胎儿的成长及体重,造成独特的脸部小斑,破坏神经儿及脑部结构,并引起体质、心智或行为等问题。3个孩了中,Abel的病情最为严重,Abel10岁时才上到小学四年级,反应迟钝,无法与人建立联系,并且一生不会辨认交通灯,最终的交通事故原因也是因为他无法辨认交通灯。
Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,p.13.
3 Charles Trueheart, "Marriage for Better or Words." In Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1994,P.115.
4 在这封信中,萨瓦除了对自己的罪责——谋杀女友爱琳(Eileen)做了忏悔,还言语激烈地斥责了这么多年多瑞斯对自己及阿贝尔和玛德琳的虐待：“如果你以为我们大家相安无事,如果你以为你对Abel、Madeline和我所做的一切都己随风而逝,你就大错特错户……你们把自己写得很伟大,事实上,你们糟透了。”萨瓦在该信中继续勒索,要求厄德里克给他￥515,000。
5 多瑞斯是否性虐待了自己的女儿们,一直是个谜,随着作为当事人的多瑞斯的死去,整个案子也就此告结,不再迫查。不过,可以肯定的是,多瑞斯的确虐待了孩子。关于这一点,厄德里克在日后的访谈中有所提及,厄德里克提到自己92年时,曾因为多瑞斯虐待孩子,提出过提婚。一些亲友也对此做了证明。有关多瑞斯之死,以及多瑞斯死后的更多讨论可以参看“一个作家的堕落：悬挂在小说家迈克尔·多瑞斯人生最后几页的疑犯之乌云：自杀可能是他唯一可能的结局”(David Streitfeld, "A Writer's Descent_A Dark Cloud of Suspicion Hung Over The Final Pages of Novelist Michael Dorris' Life:Suicide May Have Been His Only Possible Ending", the Washington Post,July 29,1997.).“迈克尔·多瑞斯的痛苦一生”(Colin Covert, "The Anguished Life of Michael Dorris, Star Tribune, August 3,1997.")、“作家以死叮请尊重而非轰动’'(Rick Lyman, "Writer's Death Brings Plea For Respect, Not Sensation" New York Times,April 18,1997.)
1 Rick Lyman, "Writer's Death Brings Plea For Respect, Not Sensation", New York Times,April 18,1997.
2 Colin Covert, "The Anguished Life of Michael Dorris", Star Tribune, August 3,1997.
1 米兰·昆德拉：《小说的艺术》,董强译,上海：上海译文出版社,2004年,第159页。
2 Rebecca Tillett, Contemporary Native American Literary, Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, c2007,p.69.
3 Peter G Beidler and Gay Barton, eds.,A Reader's Guide to the Novels of Louise Erdirch (Revised and Expanded Edition), Columbia and London:University of Missouri Press,2006,p.1.
4 Allan Chavkin, ed., The Chippewa Landscape of Louise Erdrich, Tuscaloosa and London:the University of Alabama Press,c1999, p.1.
3 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin.eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994.p.230.
6 David Stirrup, Louise Erdrich, Manchester and New York:Manchester University Press,2010, pp.3-4.
7 有关厄德里克的研究论文数量繁多,据不完全统计,美国印第安文学研究、族裔文学研究、妇女研究的权威期刊,《美国印第安文学研究》(Studies in American Indian Literatures)刊发了相关论文33篇；《美国多元族裔文学》(The Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States, MELUS)刊发相关论文10篇；《威卡索,萨评论：美国土著研究》(Wicaszo Sa Review:A Journal of Native American Studies)刊发相关论文8篇；《妇女书评》(The Women s Review of Books)刊发相关论文4篇。还有很多论文刊发在《国际美国研究》(American Studies Internationally)、《美国印第安季刊》(American Indian Quarterly)、《地区与文学》(Religion & Literature)、《今日世界文学》(World Literature Today)、《当代文学》(Contemporary literature)等期刊上。
8 以《爱药》和《踩影游戏》为例。1984年,厄德里克出版了自己的长篇处女作《爱药》,同年,先后有《图书榜单》(Booklist)、《科克斯书评》(Kirkus Review)、《华盛顿邮报》(The Washington Post)、《纽约时报》(New York Times)、《星期六书评》(Saturday Review)、《基督教科学箴言报》(Christian Science Monitor)、《畅销书》(Best Sellers)、《洛杉矶时报》(Los Angeles Times)等报纸杂志刊发相关书评。次年,有12篇与《爱药》相关的评论文章跟进,其中有几篇质量较高,载于《美国印第安文学研究》(Studies in American Indian Studies)、《今日世界文学》(World Literature Today)这样的重要学术期刊上。1986年,有关《爱药》的评论性文章迅速激增到29篇,其中有几篇发表于《美国印第安文学研究》、《美国多元族裔文学》。进入新世纪后,对《爱药》的研究还在继续,《美国印第安文学研究》和《美国多元族裔文学》在2002、2003又刊发了关于《爱药》的大篇幅研究。《踩影游戏》则是另一番光景。2010年《踩影游戏》出版时,有包括《纽约时报》在内的等十多家杂志发表书评,但至今仅有一篇学术性较强的期刊论文(Margaret Noori, Shadow Tag (Review), Studies in American Indian Literatures,22(2010),pp.89-96.)。
1 访谈集一部,《与路易丝·厄德里克和迈克尔·多瑞斯对话》(Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris,1994)。论文集5部,分别为《路易丝·厄德里克作品教学研究》、《路易丝·厄德里克的奇帕瓦风景》(The Chippewa landscape of Louise Erdrich,1999)、《路易丝·厄德里克的<爱药>：一个个案》(Louise Erdrich's Love medicine:a casebook,2000)、《美国本土作家厄德里克的文学成就：15篇评论》(Studies in the Literary Achievement of Louise Erdrich, Native American Writer:Fifteen Critical Essays,2008)和《路易丝·厄德里克：<痕迹>、<小无马保留地奇事的最后报告>和<鸽灾>》(Louise Erdrich:Tracks; the Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse; the Plague of Doves,2011)。5部独立撰写,分别是《路易丝·厄德里克：批评指南》(Louise Erdrich:a critical companion,1999)、《路易丝·厄德里克小说指南》(A Reader's Guide to the Novels of Louise Erdrich,1999)、《路易丝·厄德里克的小说：族人的故事》(The Novels of Louise Erdrich:'Stories of Her People,2001)、《路易丝·厄德里克小说指南》(A Reader's guide to the Novels of Louise Erdrich.2006)和《路易丝·厄德里克》(Louise Erdrich,2010)。
1 Carol Hunter, "Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich", World Literature Today,59 (1985),p.474.
2 Lyons Gene, "In Indian Territory." Rev. of Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich, Newsweek 11 Feb.1985,p.71.
3 Robert Silberman, "Opening the Text:Love Medicine and the Return of the Native American Woman", Gerald Vizenor ed., Narrative Chance:Postmodern Discourse on Native American Literatures, Albuquerque:U of New Mexico P,1989. p.104.
4 Packard Wingate, "Strong Parts Don't Add up in New Erdrich Novel" Rev. of AW, Seattle Times,14 June 1998:M2.
5 Kakutani Michikio, "Myths of Redemption amid a Legacy of Loss." Rev. of AW. New York Times 24 Mar.1998:C18.
6 Lydia A. Schultz, "Fragments and Ojibwe stories:Narrative strategies in Louise Erdrich's 'Love Medicine'' Teahcing Minority Literatures, Oct.(1991),p.80.
1 Robert Rosenberg, "Ceremonial Healing and the Multiple Narrative Tradition in Louise Erdrich's Tales of Burning Love", MELUS,27(2002), pp.113-131.
2 Moser Janette Irene, " Balancing the World:Spatial Design in Contemporary Native American Novels"[D],The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,1992.
3"trickster”的意思较多：开无伤大雅玩笑的人；唆使人相信非真实事件的人；淘气的超自然存在。其中,第三种超自然的存在多见于许多原住民的民间传说。国内有论者将‘'trickster"翻译为“千面人物”(见李靓,《论路易斯·厄德里克的千面人物重构》,当代外国文学,2010年第4期)、“恶作剧精灵”(见陈文益,《詹姆斯·韦尔奇<血中冬季>中恶作剧者形象解读》,沈阳农业大学学报,2009年第1期；《<他们眼望上苍>中的恶作剧精灵意象解读》,秦苏珏,国外文学,2008年第3期)、“恶作剧者”(见《印第安传统文学初探之二——印第安恶作剧者多层面形象的再解读》,邹慧玲,徐州师范大学学报,2005年第6期)、“弄笑者”(见杨燕怡的《论<力士参孙>中参孙的弄笑者形象》,湖南师范大学2004年硕士论文)或者“魔法师”(见《故事与梦想传统与未来——<亚利桑那菲尼克斯意味着什么>中的“魔法师”形象》,刘克东,外国文学,2007年第6期)。本文将其翻译为“变形者”,意图突出厄德里克作品中的此类人物在多种文化的夹缝中,不断遁形变身,僭越文化的边疆,求得生存。
4 奥吉布瓦神话中的那那波什,半是人类,半是神灵,可以随意改变自己的形状,集圣洁和人性的弱点于一身。那那普什这个人物在《痕迹》、《四灵魂》、《报告》中均有现身。
5 J. James Iovannone,"'Mix-ups,Messes,Confinements, and Double-dealings':Transgendered Performances in Three Novels by Louise Erdrich", Studies in American Indian Literature,21 (2009),pp.38-68.
6 5篇学位论文分别是,Maria DePriest, "Necessary Fictions:the Re-visioned Subjects of Louise Erdrich and Alice Walker"[D].University of Oregon,1991; Smith Jeanne Rosier, "The Trickster Aesthetic Narrative Strategy and Cultural Identity in the Works of Three Contemporary United States Women Writers:Maxine Hong Kingston, Louise Erdrich, and Toni Morrison"[D].Tufts University,1994; Sean Fullerton, "Trickster Changer:Louise Erdrich's Polymorphous Trickster Tales"[M].University of Alaska Anchorage,1998; Gay Barton, "Pattern and Freedom in the North Dakota Novels of Louise Erdrich:Narratvie Techque as Survival" [D].Baylor University,1999; Laurie L. Ferguson, "Trickster Shows the Way:Homor, Resilence, and Growth in Modern Native American Literature"[D] Wright Institute,2002 [D],2002. 论文以厄德里克的“北达科他”四部曲、《炙爱集》、《篝灯》、《欲望的洗礼》等为文本,梳理了变形者的定义、历史、奥吉布瓦文化中的变行者,讨论了所论文本中的变形者形象、传统变形人在当代印第安文学中的继续存活、小说叙事形式上的自由变形等。
1 印第安女诗人罗斯(Wendy Rose)的诗歌”Naaywva Taawi" in Hal/breed Chronicles,将“白性”(whiteness)阐释为一种掩盖了男性中心主义、欧洲中心主义、种族主义、现代性、进步中的毁灭性等的生活方式与权力体系,而不仅仅是欧洲人的祖先。在温迪眼中,所有的人,白人或者非白人,都是“白性”的牺牲品。更多讨论见本论文第五章第二节。
2 Jeana DelRosso, Writing Catholic Women:Contemporary International Catholic Girlhood Narratives, New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005.
3 Catherine Rainwater, "Reading between Worlds:Narrativity in the Fiction of Louise Erdrich", American Literature,62 (1990),pp.405-422.
4 Julie Barak, "Un-becoming White:Identity Transformation in Louise Erdrich's the Antelope Wife", Studies in American Indian Literature,13 (2001),pp.1-23.
5 Deirdre Keenan, "Unrestricted Territory:Gender, Two Spirits, and Louise Erdrich's the Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,30 (2006).pp.1-15.
1 Kristin Ann Girard,"Mother/Cultures and New World Daughters:Ethnic Identity Formation and the Mother-daughter Relationships in Contemporary American Literature"[D],Stony Brook University,2006.
2 Diane M. Dixon, "Maternal Matrix:Ethical and Spiritual Dynamics of Mothers' Subjectivity in Contemporary American Fiction"[D], Indiana University of Pennsylvania,2000.
3 Beidler Peter G "'The Earth Itself Was Sobbing':Madness and the Environment in Novels by Leslie Marmon Silko and Louise Erdrich", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,26 (2002), pp.113-24.
1 Kristy A. Bryant-berg, "'No Longer Haunted'? Cultural Trauma and Traumatic Realism in the Novels of Louise Erdrich and Toni Morrison"[D], University of Oregon,2009.
2 Reginald Dyck, "When Love Medicine is not Enough:Class Conflict and Work Culture on and off the Reservation" American Indian Culture and Research Journal 30 (2006), pp.23-43.
1 Jacqueline E. Scoones, "Dwelling Poetically:Environmental Ethnics in Contemporary Fiction"[D],University of California, Irving,2000.
2 Holly Wells, Jennifer Marie, "The Construction of Midwestern Literary Regionalsim in Sinclair Lewis's and Louise Erdrich's Novels:Regional and Cultural Influences on Carol Kennicott and Fleur Pillager"[D], Drew University,2009.
3 Wayne Lee Gay, "Jeans, Boots, and Starry Skies:Tales of a Gay Country-and-western Bar and Places Nearby"[D],University of North Texas,2010.
1 圣劳伦斯河(Saint Lawrance River),是北美洲中东部的大水系。连接美国明尼苏达州圣路易河的源头和加拿大东端通往大西洋的卡伯特海峡,流经北美内陆约4,000公里。圣罗伦斯水系对於美国和加拿大都有地理和经济上的极大重要性。可分为三大段：上游是五大湖区,有狭窄水道连接各大湖广阔的湖面。中游从加拿大京斯敦市旁的安大略湖东部出口至魁北克市以下的奥尔良岛,此段水道比较正常,常被称为圣罗伦斯河。
2 http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Le-Pa/Ojibwa.html#b.
3 Richard Asa Yarnell, Aboriginal Relationships between Culture and Plant Life in the Upper Great Lakes Region. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan,1964,p.144.
4 Harold Hickson,"The Sociohistorical Significance of Two Chippewa Ceremonials," American Anthropologist, 65(1963), p.68.
1 Charles A. Bishop, The Northern Ojibwa and the Fur Trade:An Historical and Ecological Study, Toronto:Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, c1974,p.11.
2 Ibid,p.255.
3 1819年,美国通过1821年到1842年间,美国皮毛公司从与奥吉布瓦人的皮毛贸易中攫取大量财富,同时耗尽了当地的猎物,威斯康辛和明尼苏达的奥吉布瓦人都沦为依附。1825年,Treaty of Prairie du Chien在奥吉布瓦人和达科他人的居住区建立了一条边界线,奥吉布瓦人和达科他人为了草原的富足猎物和威斯康辛的阔叶林开始明争暗斗。奥吉布瓦人完全丧失了主权,美国取而代之,美国在Sault Ste.建立了美国陆军部苏必利尔湖印第安局。1824年,印第安事务局成为美国陆战部的一部分。1833年时,美国白人政府将奥吉布瓦人从伊利诺伊的北部移除；第二年,美国印第安贸易法案(U.S. Indian Intercourse Act)建立了一种机构,控制印第安人的贸易。白人进入奥吉布瓦人的区域,印第安人进入了毁灭性的土地割让期,通过各种条约,他们失去了土地,得到了年给养和未来安全的空头承诺。1836年,奥吉布瓦人放弃了马尼图林岛。1837年,明尼苏达和威斯康辛的奥吉布瓦人在圣·彼得条约(the Treaty of St. Peter's)中割让了自己的第一块土地。1840年,苏必利尔湖南岸发现了大量的铜,美国又把奥吉布瓦人驱赶到了密西西比河以西的奥吉布瓦人。1842年的一个条约中,奥吉布瓦人割让了威斯康辛和密歇根的苏必利尔湖南岸,1847年的两份条约拿走了奥吉布瓦人在明尼苏达的更多土地,紧随其后的是1849年的一份失败的移除命令。1854年的La Pointe条约(Treaty of La Pointe),奥吉布瓦人又割让了土地,并被迁往密歇根、明尼苏达、威斯康辛的保留地,这代表着奥吉布瓦人所遭遇的第一次土地分配(allotment treaty)。美国奥吉布瓦人也因此被分成两部分,苏必利尔湖奥吉布瓦人和密西西比奥吉布瓦人。每一部分都有各自不同的条约权力。政府为每一个纯种的或者混血奥吉布瓦人提供80亩土地,同时规定,并且政府对土地具有监管的权力。倘若在这些土地上发现了矿藏,可以重新分配给他们新的土地。1863-1864的其它条约创立了Red Lake保留地。1867年,开始有了白土地保留地。
1 1906年的U.S. Clapp Act允许有二分之一血统的奥吉布瓦售卖他们分配所的土地,这一法案导致许多生活在贫困线上的奥吉布瓦人白动出售了土地。这一法案还宣称,到了1931年,分配的土地将要征税,如果土地的主人不能交税,土地就要被没收。美国历史上,只有1934年的再重组法案(Reorganization Act)阻止奥吉布瓦人的土地落入投机商和政府手中。1936年,大多数奥吉布瓦人都同意了,这一法案禁止了未来的十地分配和十地售卖,除非整个部族同意。并且,,这个法案还批准为印第安人买十地,允许印第安人个体把十地归还给部落。
2 Patsy J Daniels,The Voice of the Oppressed in the Language of the Oppressor:a Discussion of Selected Postcolonial Literature from Ireland, Africa, and America. New York:Routledge,2001,p7.
1 Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses:Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and presence. Lincoln:University of Nebraska press,1998,p.15.
2 Gerald Vizenor, Hiroshima Bugi:Atomu 57, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003,p.36.
3 Karl Kroeber, "Why It's a Good Thing:Gerald Vizenor is not an Indian", Gerald Vizenor ed., Su Native Presence, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c2008,p.25.
4 Ernest Stromberg, ed., American Indian Rhetorics and Survivance:Word Medicine, Word Magic,Pittsburg:University of Pittsburgh Press,2006. p.1.
5 原文“生存”(survivance)是斜体强调。Clifford Geertz, Available Light,Princeton NJ:Princeton University Press,2000.p.250.
6 Geroge Steiner, After Babel:Aspects of Language and Translation,3rd editon, New York:Oxford University Press,1998, p.ⅹⅳ.The word "survivance" was not used in the first edition.
1 Peggy Kampf, ed., A Derrida Reader:Between the Blind, New York:Columbia University Press,1991, p.59.
2 德里达曾在论文访谈集《磋商：干预与访谈》(Negotiations:Interventions and Interviews)中使用过这个词。当时,访谈员就马克思和马克思主义询问德里达,如果共产主义,或者把它称作其它别的,以其他形式回归,他是否会觉得奇怪?德里达作答,“我认为共产主义小会以党派的形式回归(总体上说,毫无疑问,党派形式正在消失,但结果证明,‘遗产’(survivance)或许会多活一些时间)……”。Jacques Derrida, Negotiations:Interventions and Interviews, Standford CA:Standford University Press,2002,pp.111-12.《档案热》(Archive Fever)再次用到这个词,他把“从过去归来的幽灵”比作“生命的胜利”,因为“来世(遗产)不再意味着死亡,幽灵的归来是额外生命的继续存在,抵制灭绝。”(Jacques Derrida, Archive Fever:A Freudian Impression,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1996, p.60.)
3 Joe Lockard, "Facing the Windigo:Gerald Vizenor and Primo Levi", Gerald Vizenor, ed., Survivance:Narratives of Native Presence, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c2008,p.211.
4 Gerald Vizenor and A. Robert Lee, Postindian Conversations, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c1999,p.38.
1 Louise Erdrich, "Where I Ought to Be:A Writer's Sense of Place", Wong, Hertha D. Sweet ed., Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine:A Casebook, New York, NY; Oxford UP; 2000, p.48.
1 《圣经》中的《出埃及》第三章“燃烧的荆棘”中,上帝让摩西把以色列人从埃及领出来。摩西对上帝说,“我到以色列人那里,对他们说,你们祖宗的神打发我到你们这里来。他们若问我,他叫什么名字,我要对他们说什么呢。”上帝对摩西说,“我是自有永有。(IAM WHOIAM.)";又说,“这样你可以对以色列的子孙们说,‘自有永有(1 AM)派我来到这里。’"(New American Standard Bible, Anaheim, California:Foundation Publications, INC,1997,p.42.)
1 成廉布拉德福德1623年12月19日函,见塞缪尔·埃利奥特·莫里森编《关十普利茅斯种植园,620-1647》,纽约1952年版,第374-375页。转引威尔科姆-E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第122。
2 威尔科姆.E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第122页。
3 许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年,第87页。
4 此处对奥吉布瓦教的梳理与归纳主要参考了Vecsey Christopher, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983.; Ruth Landes,Ojibwa Religion and the Midewiwin. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press,1968; Joel W. Martin, Native American Religion, New York:Oxford University Press,1999
5 Hultkrantz, A ke, Conceptions of the Soul among North American Indians:a Study in Religious Ethnology, Stockholm: Ethnographical Museum of Sweden,1953.pp.241-245.
1 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.60.
2 Frances Densmore,Chippewa Customs,Washington, D.C.:U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,1929,pp.52-53.
3 Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Algic Researches, Comprising Inquiries Respecting the Mental Characteristics of the American Indians. First series. Indian tales and legends,New York:Harper,1839, p.42.
4 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.62.
5 A. Irving Hallowell, "Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere," American Anthropologist,28(1926), pp.45-46.
6 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes,Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,pp.72-82.
1 Ibid.pp.91-94.
2 许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年,第87页。
3 天主教对奥吉布瓦人传教的三次高潮分期是沿用了克里斯多夫在《传统奥吉布瓦教与它的历史变化》中的分期。具体参见Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,pp.26-45.
1 Ruth Craker, First Protestant Mission in the Grand Traverse Region, Leland, Mich., The Leelanau enterprise, 1935,p.15.
2 John Hopkins Kennedy, Jesuit and savage in New France, New Haven:Yale University Press,1950,pp.30-33.
3 Norton Sister Mary Aquinas, Catholic Missionary Activities in the Northwest,1818-1864, Washington, D. C.:The Catholic university of America,1930, pp.7-45.
4 ChristopherVecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.28.
1 Father Alban Fruth, A Century of Missionary Work among the Red Lake Chippewa Indians 1858-1958, Redlake, Minn., St. Mary's Mission,1958, pp.8-18.
2 Maeder Father Tobias, "St. John's among the Chippewa", The Scriptorium,1962(21), p.59.
3 Fruth Father Alban, A Century of Missionary Work among the Red Lake Chippewa Indians 1858-1958, Redlake, Minn., St. Mary's Mission,1958,pp.87-103.
4 Vecsey Christopher., Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes. Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p30.
2 Lisa Halliday, "Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208", Paris Review.Winter (2010),, pp.139-140.
1 "An Emissary of the Between-world" http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2001/01/an-emissary-of-the-between-world/3033/
2 许海山主编：《美洲历史》,北京：线装书局,2006年,第86-87页。
1 《报告》中的喀什帕是《爱药》中的喀什帕外公(Nector Kashpaw)的父亲。《报告》中,耐克特·喀什帕年纪尚幼时,其父把他送到达米安神父的教堂,希望通过耐克特的亲身经历检测天主教信仰是否有助于奥吉布瓦人。
2 达米安神父(Father Damien)是《报告》中的一个关键人物。小说中共有一真一假两个达米安神父。真正的男达米安神父死于洪灾。后来,白人女孩艾格尼丝(Agnes)充当男达米安神父在小无马保留地传教八十余年。下文第三节将对艾格尼丝扮演达米安神父的过程进行细致分析。本论文中凡是涉及到保留地上的达米安神父,均是指艾格尼丝所扮演的达米安神父。
3 Sister Mary Aquinas.Norton, Catholic Missionary Activities in the Northwest,1818-1864, Washington, D. C:The Catholic university of America,1930, pp.46-52.
1 S.K.图姆斯：《病患的意义：医生和病人不同观点的现象学探讨》,邱鸿钟等译,青岛：青岛出版社,2000年,第85页。
2"quill"既表示翎(鸟的翅膀或尾部的大羽毛),也表示(豪猪的)棘刺。此处为了兼顾quill"一词本身意义的多重性,英译为“奎忧”。
1 George Catlin, Letters and Notes on the Manners, Customs, and Condition of the North American Indians: Minneapolis:Ross & Haines,1965, p.245.
2 Lisa Halliday, "Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208", Paris Review, Winter (2010), p.140.
3 林郁编：《尼采如是说——处在痛苦中的人没有悲观的权力》,北京：中国友谊出版公司,1993年,第67页。
1 Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976,p.23.有关“大地母亲”的更多内容可参看本论文第二章第一节。
2 原文整段都是英语,但此处用的是奥吉布瓦语"chimooks",笔者手中所有的奥吉布瓦词典并无此词。根据上下文语境,此处应该是指“白人”。另外,“白人”在奥吉布瓦语中是"gichi-mookomaan"或"chimookomanag",它们都有相同的部分"chimook"。
3 Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976,p.19.
1 Robert Mitchell Torrance, The Spiritual Quest:Transcendence in Myth, Religion, and Science, Berkeley:University of California Press, c1994,p.243.
2 "Mashkiigikwe"系奥吉布瓦语,笔者手中有限的奥吉布瓦词典中没有该词,只查到与之十分相似的词"Mashkikiiwikwe",意思是女护士。鉴于姐姐常常在刺出现不安时帮助她,笔者猜测,此处拼写可能是厄德里克笔误。厄德里克也多次在小说的后记中声称,自己小说中的奥吉布瓦语拼写错误,与她的奥吉布瓦老师无关,是她自己学艺不精。
3 海登·怀特：《后现代历史叙事学》,陈永国、张万娟译,北京：中国社会科学出版社,2003年,第237页。
1 Mark St. Pierre and Tilda Long Soldier, Walking in the Sacred Manner:Healers, dreamers, and Pipe Carriers: Medicine Women of the Plains Indians, New York:Simon & Schuster, c1995, p.9.
2 Sybil Steinberg, "PW Talks with Louise Erdrich, Publisher Weekly,29 Jan.2001,p.64.
1 福柯·米歇尔：“水与疯狂”,杜子真等编《福柯集》,上海：上海远东出版社,1998年,第10页。
2 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture, London:Routledge,1994,p.3.
3 "Fleisch",德语词,意思：①(人和动物)的肌肉；②(食用)肉；③果肉；④[印](活字的)字肩；⑤[转](人的)肉体(跟精神相对)。(《新德汉词典》,上海译文出版社,1999年,第407页。
1 Alison A.Chapman, "Rewriting the Saints' Lives:Louise Erdrich's The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse", Critique.48 (2007), p.155.
1 卡拉瓦乔(Caravaggio,1571-1610年)意大利文艺复兴时期的一著名画家,意大利杰出的现实主义画家,曾师从米兰画家培德查诺学画,惯以街上的痞子、娼妓为模特,常对裸体的圣徒们做色情描绘,被认为是巴洛克画派。
2 Dee Home, "'I Meant to Have but Modest Needs':Louise Erdrich's The Last Report on the Miracles at Little No Horse", Brajesh Sawhney, ed., Studies in the Literary Achievement of Louise Erdrich, Native American Writer:Fifteen Critical Essays. Lewiston, NY:Edwin Mellen Press,2008, p.278.
1 此处土地并不仅指土壤,而是采纳了美国“现代环保之父”阿尔多·李奥帕德(Aldo Leopold,1887-1948)在其著作《沙郡年记》(A Ssand County Almanac)中的“土地”范畴,李奥帕德将土地看作是包括了“土壤、水源、植物和动物”的“社群”、“生态有机体”。(阿尔多·李奥帕德：《沙郡年记》,岑月译,上海：上海三联书店,2011年,第189-203页。)
1 苗力田编：《古希腊哲学》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,1989年,第8页。
2 尤金·哈格洛夫：《环境伦理学基础》,杨通进译,重庆：重庆出版社,2007年,第28页。
3 例如,柏拉图曾经把遭受人类毁坏的土地比作“一位病人留下的骨髂”；亚里士多德的学生奥菲拉斯特斯“对导师理论中关于自然目的论(动植物和地球的存在的目的是为了人类)的观点进行批驳,虽然他没有完全拒绝自然论,但却认识到它们的存在绝对不是为了人类的利益,而是本身的延续。”对于此的更多论述,可参见付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2012年,第43-44页。
4 Huges Donald, Ecology in Ancient Civilizations, Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1975,p.92.
1 吴高军：《古希腊城邦经济初探》,《求是学刊》,1991年第1期,第92-95页。
2 当下,对《圣经·川约》“创世纪”的解读有两种,一种是“人类中心主义”的,人为卜帝创造好了一切,最后才创造人类,为的就是准各好了一切来迎接人类,卜帝把地卜所有的动植物均赐福于人类,人类独立十自然之外,对自然享有统治的权力：第一种是“托管”协议,人及其它任何物种都是由十地做的,人并小高级于其他物种,上帝也没有赋予人类以统治权,只是把守护和托管自然的责任交给了人类。尽管中世纪时,圣徒阿西西的圣弗朗西斯的思想己经有了托管理论的雏形,但是托管理论的真正发展却是20世纪以后的事情,美国林务员和水文家罗德米尔克是用托管理论解释人与自然的第一人。(付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,2012年,北京：社会科学文献出版社,第36页。)
3 杨通进：《基督教思想中的人与自然》,《首都师范大学学报》(社会科学版),1994年第3期,第78页。
4 大卫·雷·格里芬：《后现代精神》,王成兵译,北京：中央编译出版社,1998年,第5页。
1 大卫·雷·格里芬：《后现代精神》,王成兵译,北京：中央编译出版社,1998年,第67页。
2 http://www.amazon.com/wiki/Indian_reservation#cite_note-1
3 Donald Hughes. North American Indian Ecology, Texas Western Press,1996, p.61.
4 Dave Aftandilian, "What Other Americans Can and Cannot Learn from Native American Environmental Ethics", Worldviews 15(2011),p.233.
5 Vine Jr.Deloria, God Is Red:A Native View of Religion,2nd ed. Golden, CO:Fulcrum Publishing,1992, p.122.
6 J Basil ohnston, Honour Earth Mother,Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003,p.ⅹⅶ.
1 Johnston Basil, Ojibwa Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976,p.21.
2 弗里乔夫·卡普拉：《转折点：社会、科学和正兴起的文化》,卫飒英、李四南译,成都：四川科学技术出版社,1988年,第43页。
Donald Hughes, North American Indian Ecology, Texas Western Press,1996, p.121.
4 Johnston Basil, Ojibwa Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976, pp.23-26.
5 Johnston Basil. Honour Earth Mother. Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003.p.xi.
6 Brown Joseph Epes and Emily Cousins,Teaching Spirits:Understanding Native American Religious Traditions, Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2001,p.92.
7 Johnston Basil, Honour Earth Mother, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003,pp.111-12.
8 Brown Joseph Epes and Emily Cousins. Teaching Spirits:Understanding Native American Religious Traditi Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press,2001, p.98.
1 J. Baird Callicott and Michael P. Nelson, American Indian Environmental Ethics:An Ojibwa Case Study, Upper Saddle River, Nj:Perarson Prentice Hall,2004, p.113.
2 《天地父母：印第安神话》,樊英译,北京：中国青年出版社,2006年,第120页。
3 在这次迁移过程中,最著名的是1838-1839年彻罗基族的“泪水之旅”(Trail of Tears),共有大致约15,000名彻罗基族人被迫从他们居住的美国东南部迁往今天的俄克拉荷马州(Oklahoma)的东部地区,有约4,000人因暴晒、疾病、饥饿而丧命于迁移的途中。Nancy C.Curtis, Black Heritage Sites. United States:ALA Editions,1996,p.543.
4 此法授权总统解散印第安人保留地,废除原保留地内实行的部落土地所有制,将土地直接分配给居住在保留地内外的印第安人：每户户主160英亩,18岁以上的未婚成年人每人80英亩,儿童每人40英亩；受地人在25年内不得转让土地所有权；分配的土地先由联邦政府托管,待印第安人具备自理能力后交还本人或其继承人；接受份地的印第安人即为美国公民,受法律保护并尽公民义务；原保留地中的剩余土地由联邦政府公开拍卖。从1887年到1934年间,由于执行道斯法案,约有百分之六十的土地从印第安人手中丧失。有6000万英亩(通过道斯法案时,印第安人有1.38亿英亩的土地)印第安人土地被宣布为超过其需要的剩余土地而被卖给了白人。分配给印第安人个人并由政府托管25年的土地,有2700万英亩(即分配给印第安人的土地的三分之二)在1887年到1934年间通过售卖而丧失了。(Wilcomb E. Washburn, Red man's land/white man's law:a Study of the Past and Present Status of the American Indian. New York, Scribner,1971, p.145.)
1 此处可以参看前注第26页3。
2 1854年的La Pointe条约(Treaty of La Pointe)中,奥吉布瓦人又割让了十地,被迫迁往密歇根的Keweenaw、 Ontanagon,明尼苏达的Fond du Lac和Grand Portage,威斯康辛的Bad River、 Lac Court Oreilles和Red Cliff,这代表着奥吉布瓦人所遭遇的第一次十地分配(allotment treaty)。当时,政府为每一个纯种的或者混血奥吉布瓦人提供80亩十地,同时规定政府对土地具有监管权,倘若在这些土地卜发现了矿藏,可以重新分配给他们新的土地。1855年,政府又制定了另一个条约,规定分配的土地豁免税务、买卖和没收。
3 Louise Erdrich, "Where I Ought to Be:A Writer's Sense of Place", Wong, Hertha D. Sweet ed., Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine:A Casebook. New York, NY:Oxford UP,2000,p.43.
4 威廉·克罗农：《土地的变迁：新英格兰的印第安人、殖民者和生态》,鲁奇、赵欣华译,北京：中国环境科学出版社,2012年,第90页。
5 转引付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2012年,第164页
1 同上,第166-67页。
2 Michelle M. Steen-Adams, Nancy Langston and David J. Mladenoff, "White Pine in the Northern Forests:an Ecological and Management History of White Pine on the Bad River Reservation of Wisconsin," Environmental History 12 (2007), p.595.
1 亨利·梭罗：《瓦尔登湖》,张知遥译,天津：天津教育出版社,2005年,第173页。
2 同上,第178页。
3 Louise Owens, Bone Game:a novel, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press, c1994,p.6.
1 Basil Johnston, Ojibwa Heritage, New York:Columbia UP,1976, p.23.
2 查伦·斯普瑞特奈克：《生态女权主义哲学中的彻底的非二元论》,李惠国：《冲突与解构：当代西方学术叙语》,北京：社会科学文献出版社,2001年,第65页。
1 金莉：《生态女权主义》,《外国文学》,2004年第5期,第58-60页。
2 Gerald Vizenor, Wordarrows:Native States of Literary Sovereignty, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,2003. pp.89-90.
3 Daniel Francis, Battle for the West:Fur Trade and the Birth of Western Canada, Edmonton:Hurtig, c1982, p.64.
4 张翎：《金山》,北京：十月文艺出版社,2009年,第93页。
1 David Adams Wallace, Education for Extinction:American Indian and the Boarding School Experience,1879-1928, Lawrence, Kan.:University Press of Kansas, c1995,p.21.
2 Ibid,pp.21-24.
3 最臭名昭著的寄宿学校是卡莱尔寄宿学校(Carlisle Boarding School,1879年11月1日-1918年秋季),该学校在当时一度被追捧为寄宿学校的典范,很多学校纷纷效尤。卡莱尔寄宿学校通过教育军事化、教育寄宿制、削发、更衣、易名、英语霸权主义、违规惩罚等,强迫学生中断和放弁印第安语言文化传统。此处参考了蔡永良,语言失落与文化生存：北美印第安语衰亡研究,上海：上海人民出版社,2010年,第四章第180-223页。
4 Ibid,p.277.
1 Irene Wanner, "Four Souls:Love and Revenge and Too Many Voices", The Seattle Times July 25,2004.
1 Summer Harrison, "The Politics of Metafiction in Louise Erdrich's Four Souls", MUSE,23 (2011), p40,42.
2 Leslie Marmon Silko, "Here's an Odd Artifact for the Fairy-tale Shelf." Studies in American Indian Literatures 10 (1986), p.179.
3 Johns Malcolm. "Life, Art Are One for Prize Novelist", Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Interview. Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson:UP of Missippi,1994, p.4.
1 Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs. Washington, U.S.:Govt. Print. Off.,1929, p.30.
2 http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/frontiers/v023/23.2youngbird.html
3 有关芙乐与熊的关系、芙乐与matchimanito湖的关系,可以阅读厄德里克的《痕迹》和《彩色鼓》。
1 Ruth Landes, The Ojibwa Woman, New York:Columbia University Press,1971, pp.8-9.
2 Christopher Vecsey, Traditional Ojibwa Religion and Its Historical Changes, Philadelphia:American Philosophical Society,1983,p.125.
3 Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York:Colubmbia UP,1976,p.119.
1 奥吉布瓦人会用很多草本植物治病,如雪松枝用来净化空气；鼠尾草用以治疗感染病；硬灌木用来洗手,擦洗锅具等。Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs, Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,1929,pp.46-47.
2 Summer Harrison, "The Politics of Metafiction in Louise Erdrich's Four Souls", MUSE,23(2011), p.40,59.
3 鉴于天主教比奥吉布瓦教晚,此处将之视为一种现代仪式。有关天主教对奥吉布瓦人的传教历史可参见本论文第一章第一节。
1 Robert Rosenberg, "Ceremonial Healing and the Multiple Narrative Tradition in Louise Erdrich's Tales of Burning Love", MELUS,27(2002),pp.113-131.
1 伯德罗(Peter G Beidler)指出,当下,美国教授土著文学课的老师常会遇到这样一个难题,有些学生倾向于认为“土著人是破坏他们土地的白人征服者的受害者”,伯德罗更愿意将印第安人视为“白人破坏自然环境的受害者”。Peter G Beidler, "The Earth Itself is Sobbing:Madness and the Environment in Novels by Leslie Marmon Silko and Louise Erdrich", American Indian and Research Journal,26(2002), p.114.
1 Carlos Montezuma, "Changing is not Vanishing" in Parker Robert Dale ed., Changing is not vanishing:a collection of early American Indian Poetry to 1930., Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, c2011,p.287.
1 Chavkin Allan and Chavkin Nancy Feyl eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994, p.14.
1 World Health Oragnization, ICD-10:The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorder:diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva:World Health Organization,1993.
2 《爱药》中,琼与白人男子性交易失败,琼冻死在回家的路上；亨利在越战中遭俘,重获自由后以溺水的方式自戕。《甜菜女王》中,姐弟三人遭到乘观光飞机逃走的母亲的遗弃。《痕迹》中,那那普什、芙乐的亲人在疾病中丧身：芙乐在小镇被白人男子强奸；宝琳亲手结果了白己的情夫。《羚羊妻》中,女儿躲在车中窒息而亡：理查德·白心珠(Richard Heart Beads)在前妻再婚婚宴的当晚自杀。《报告》中,玛阴的父母双双罹难：父母离世后,玛丽被拿破仑的强奸。《俱乐部》中,菲德里斯(Fidelis)和塞浦路斯(Cyprian)分别效力于德、美两军,后侥幸活命；菲德里斯的好友死于一战战场；菲德里斯的4个儿子又分别效力十二战的德美两军,其中两儿了死于战场,一儿子被美军俘虏：菲德里斯的妻子罹患癌症,不治身亡。《鸽灾》中,一家数口除一女婴外均被灭口：位印第女人被自人施以绞刑：女子在身体与精神两方面遭到丈夫比利(Billy Peace)的禁锢。《踩影游戏》中,艾琳的前夫吉尔强奸了她；三个孩子被艾琳和吉尔以溺水身亡的方式遗弃。《圆屋》中,杰拉尔丁(Geraldine)遭到白人男了强奸并险遭焚烧：杰拉尔丁13岁的儿子同伙伴正法了白人男了后却噩梦连连。
3 Cathy Caruth, Trauma:Explorations in Memory, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1995, p.153.
1 Cathy Caruth, Unclaimed Experience:Trauma, Narrative, and History,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.pp.4-5.
2 《宠儿》中,塞丝的手锯结束了宠儿在现实世界中的生命,宠儿的鬼魂不断返回现实世界,永无餍足地索求母爱,并肆无忌惮地破坏塞丝一家人的生活。宠儿的鬼魂并不是一个真实的存在,它是一种心理苦难的象征,所象征的是奴隶制未曾解决的创伤,鬼魂不过是这种未曾解决的创伤的一种具体化和可视化。
3 《爱药》中,琼受白人男子安迪(Andy)的诱惑,与之共饮并行男女之事,以期换来他送自己回家。事毕,安迪睡着,琼只得独自一人走回家,最终冻死在回家的路上。(LM,1-7)安迪后来变身为杰克(Jack),在《燃情炙爱集》中出场：暴风雪之夜,杰克在车里看到了已死的琼,琼等待杰克送自己回家,迷路的杰克自身难保,杰克转而看见琼在车前引领他回家。(TB,377-387)《爱药》中的安迪凭借自己的经济优势(有钱为琼买酒、有车可以送琼回家)拥有了权力优势,从而胁迫了琼从事自己非自愿的性行为,这是一种隐性的性暴力。杰克遇难的这一晚与琼遇难的那一晚,在天气上很相似,均为冬天且寒冷异常。厄德里克让琼的鬼魂在一个对于杰克而言似曾相识的时刻出现,这显然是一种文学的刻意,既能让读者对当初琼的劣势处境掬以更多同情,也能激起对杰克/安迪的性暴力行为的更多指责。
1 Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory, London:Fontana,1996,p.61.
1 Cathy Caruth, Trauma:Explorations in Memory, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1995,p.4.
2 Anne Whitehead, Trauma Fiction, Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press, c2004, p.5.
3 陶家俊：《创伤》,《外国文学》,2011年第4期,第117页。
1 LaCapra Dominick, History and Memory after Auschwitz, Ithaca:Cornell University Press,1998,p.21.
2 张琼：《族裔界限的延展与消散：<手绘鼓>》,《外国文学》,2009年第6期,第93页。
3 Raphael Beverley, When disaster Strikes:How Individuals and Communities Cope with Catastrophe, New York: Basic Books, c1986,pp.90-91.
1 Bonnie C.Winsbro, Supernatural Forces:Belief, Difference, and Power in Contemporary Works by Ethnic Women, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, c1993,p.71.
1 石海军：《破碎的镜子：“流散”的拉什迪》,《外国文学评论》,2006年第4期,第6页。
1 John Carlos Rowe, "Buired Alive:the Native American Political Unconscious in Louise Erdrich's Fiction", Postcolonial Studies,7(2004),p.202.
2 “伤膝谷”(Wounded Knee),美国南达科他州西南部的村庄名和小河名,是苏族印第安人与美国政府代表两次发生冲突的地点。1890年,操苏语的印第安人认为举行鬼舞道门仪式(ghost dance),白人就会消失,原有土地会失而复得,野牛会死而复生。结果他们的行为招致了联邦军队的干涉。12月29日,由于一名年轻的印第安人战士的步枪而发生了扭打,该印第安战士被解除了武装。从扭打的人群中响了一枪,一名骑兵应声倒地。骑兵们开始向印第安人射击,有200多名印第安男女和30名骑兵被杀,其中死亡的印第安人中有大半数都是手无寸铁的妇女和儿童。1973年,美国印第安人运动的约200名成员,以武力占领了保留区村庄,宣布成立独立国,同时宣誓要坚持下去,除非政府答应印第安人的要求。联邦法院立刻包围了这批印第安人,知道印第安人在得到同意谈判的许诺后投降。
3 哈布瓦赫：《论集体记忆》,上海世纪出版集团、上海人民出版社,2002年,第69页。
1 哈布瓦赫：《论集体记忆》,上海世纪出版集团、上海人民出版社,2002年,第45页。
1 Bessel Van Der Kolk and Onno Van Der Hart, "The Intrusive Past:The Flexibility of Memory and the Engraving of Trauma", Cathy Caruth ed., Trauma:Explorations in Memory, Baltimore:Johns Hopkins University Press,1995,p.163.
1 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.44.
5 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.143.
0 http://suite101.com/article/carlisle-indian-school-a20733.
1 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.81.
2 Frances Densmore, Menominee Music, New York, Da Capo Press,1972,p.151.
3 Ibid, pp.92-93.
1 Thomas Vennum, The Ojibwa Dance Drum:Its History and Construction, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press, c2009,p.61.
2 Ibid, p.136.
1 威尔科姆·E.沃什伯恩：《美国印第安人》,陆毅译,北京：商务印书馆,1997年,第229页。
1 王明珂：《华夏边缘：历史记忆与族群认同》。北京：社会科学文献出版社,2006年,第18页。
2 Jean Wyatt, "Storytelling, Melancholy, and Narrative Structure in Louise Erdrich's the Painted Drum",MELUS, 36(2011),p.27.
1 Susan Scarberry-Garcia, "Beneath Creaking Oaks:Spirits and Animals in Tracks", Greg Sarris, Connie A. Jacobs, and James R. Giles eds.,Approaches to Teaching the Works of Louise Erdrich, New York:MLA.2004, p.46.
2 Susan Scarberry-Garcia, Landmarks of Healing:a Study of House Made of Dawn, Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press, c1990,p.40.
3 Richard Scott Lyons, X-marks:Native Signatures of Assent, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010,p.4.
1 Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop:Recovering the Feminine American Traditions, Boston:Beacon Press, c1986,p.26.
1 乔治·凯特林(Geroge Catlin,1796-1872),美国画家、作家和旅行家。幼时其母为其讲述了许多美国西部边疆故事以及她自己孩提时为一印第安部落所掳的故事,这些使得凯特林对印第安无比着迷,终其一生,深入西部,以印第安部落、文化、人等为素材作画。他的西部经历后来成书(《关于北美印第安人的风俗、习惯和环境的信札与笔记》)出版。
2 1970年,鲍德里亚出版了《消费社会》。在专著的结论“论当代异化或与魔鬼协议的终结”的“布拉格的大学生”中,鲍德里亚讲述：一位贫穷却壮志凌云的大学生,迫不及待地想过上好日子,他用自己的镜中影像同魔鬼进行金钱交易。变得富有的大学生发现自己的镜中影像被魔鬼唤醒进入了流通的现实世界。影像与大学生相伴相随,甚至取代大学生进行行动。当大学生对自己的影像变得忍无可忍时,他举枪瞄准自己的影像,镜子破碎,镜中的影像消失,大学生杀死了自己,临死之前,他抓起镜子的碎片,他发现自己又能从中看见自己。(让·鲍德里亚：《消费社会》,刘成富、全志钢译,南京：南京大学出版社,2000年,第219-223页。)
1 Chavkin Allan and Chavkin Nancy Feyl eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,pp.ⅹⅱ-ⅹⅲ.
2 “死去的印第安人才是好印第安人”(A good Indian is a dead Indian)的说法来自一位将军,虽然原话并非如此,但经过演变,变成了现在大家所熟悉的这句。1867年12月,美国内战时期的史瑞丹将军(General Philip Sheridan)监督一部分阿拉帕霍人(Arapahos)、夏安人(Cheyennes)和卡其曼人(Comanches)投降。当一名叫图萨维(Tosawi)的印第安人被人介绍给史瑞丹时,图萨维对这位将军说,“图萨维,好印第安人。”史瑞丹却回答,“我看见的唯—的好印第安人死了。”(The only good Indians I ever saw were dead.) Utter Jack, American Indians Answers to Today Questions. Lake Ann, Mich.:National Woodlands Pub.,1993,p.181.
3 James Cihlar, "Review", Western American Literature,45(2010), pp.219-221.
1 显性态度(manifest manners),维泽勒的术语,更多论述见本章第三节。
2 Gerald Vizenor, Postindian Conversations, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c1999,p.84.
3 Jack Utter, American Indians Answers to Today's Questions, Lake Ann, Mich.:National Woodlands Pub.,1993,p.25.
4 lbid,p.26.
1 David R. Wrone and S. Nelson, Jr.Russel, eds., Who's the Savage:A Documentary History of the Mistreatment of the Native North Americans, Fawcett Publications, Inc. Greenwich, Conn.1973,p.35.
2 Jack Utter, American Indians Answers to Today's Questions. Lake Ann, Mich.:National Woodlands Pub.,1993, pp.95-98.
1 Anna Lee Stensland, Literature by and about the American Indian:an Annotated Bibliography.,Urbana, Ill.:National Council of Teachers of English, c1979,p.11.
2 Paul Chatt Smith, Everything You Know about Indians is Wrong, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2009,p.4.
3 茨格内·查勒尔：《印第安人》,武汉：湖北教育出版社,2010年版,第11页。
4 《天地父母：印第安神话》,樊英译,北京：中国青年出版社,2006年,第2页。
1 以建于1824年的朝圣大厅博物馆(Pilgrim Hall Museum)中所收藏的一幅1621年感恩节图画为例：辽阔的旷野中,一群白人环绕长桌坐着,桌旁一神父站着,带领众人祷告,桌的前方一位白人妇女侍弄着三个小女孩,离长桌稍远的后方一群土著人坐在地上,面色呆滞地看着白人；桌子及桌边的白人占据了整幅画的核心部位(约占整幅画的四分之一),侍弄小女孩的妇女占据了整幅画的前端(约占整幅画的五分之一),土著人占据整幅画的一个小角(约占整幅画的二十分之一)。
2 O'Neill Catherine Grace,1621:A New Look at Thanksgiving, Washington, D.C.:National Geographic Society, c2001,p.21.
3 Scott Richard Lyons, X-marks:Native Signatures of Assent, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010,p.24.
4 Ibid,p.24.
5 Anna Lee Stensland, Literature by and about the American Indian:an Annotated Bibliography, Urbana,111.:National Council of Teachers of English, c1979,pp.11-19.
6 邹慧玲：《19世纪美国白人文学经典中的印第安形象》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第5期,第45-51页。关晶：《北美殖民时期主流文学与印第安人形象》,《东北师大学报》,2011年第2期,第123-127页。
1 Papazien Gretchen, "Razing Little Houses or Re-envisionary History:Louise Erdrich's Story of the American "Frontier" in The Birchbark House and the Game of Silence", Sawhney Brajesh etc. eds., Studies in the Literary Achievement of Louise Erdrich, Native American Writer, Lewiston, N.Y.:Edwin Mellen Press, c2008, p.188.
2 朗费罗：《海华沙之歌》,王科一译,上海译文出版社,1981年,第283页。
3 Laura Ingalls Wilder, the Little House on the Prairie, New York:Harper & Row, c1953,pp.138-233.
1 Smulders Sharon,"'The Only Good Indian':History, Race and Representation in Laura Ingalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie", Children's Literature Association Quarterly,27(2003),p.191.
2 曼丹人(mandan),北美平原印第安民族,讲苏语诸语言,居住在今北达科他州西南部的密苏里河沿岸。曼丹人住圆顶土房,聚成村落,围以栅栏。种植玉米、豆类、南瓜及向日葵,猎捕野牛,制陶编筐。举行复杂的仪式,包括太阳舞和熊仪式(一种治疗和备战的仪式)。有按年龄分类的各种武士会,以及巫医、妇女团体。曼丹艺术家把英雄功绩绘在水牛皮长袍上。到19世纪中期,因天花而人数骤减的曼丹人已迁至北达科他州保留区,现人口约1,000人。
1 更多内容可以阅读Paul Doris Atkinson, The Navajo Code Talkers, Philadelphia, Dorrance,1973.
1 George Catlin, Letters and notes on the manners, customs, and condition of the North American Indians(Vol.1) Philadelphia:J.W. Bradley,1965,p.26,29,38,199.
2 Ibid,p.142.
3 Joshua David Bellin, Medicine Bundle:Indian Sacred Performance and American Literature,1824-1932, Philadelphia, Pa.:University of Pennsylvania Press, c2008, p.54.
4 Ibid,p.53.
1 陈榕：《凝视》,赵一凡主编：《西方文论关键词》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2011年,第349页。
2 吴生：《乔治·凯特林和他的印第安人肖像》,《书屋》,2004年第10期,第42页。
3 同上,第43页。
1 此处的维泽勒对照片这种艺术形式展开,在论者看来,凯特林和吉尔的画像,在创作期间,并不考虑所画人物的情感,所以和维洋勒所谈论的摄影并无二致。
2 Gerald Vizenor,"Ishi Bares His Chest", Lucy R. Lippard ed., Partial Recall, New York:The New York Press,1992, p.67.
1 Jean Baudrillard, "The Procession of Simulacra." Simulacra and Simulation, translated by Shelia Faria Glaser,1-42. Ann Arbor:University of Michigan Press,1994.p2.
2 Frances Densmore, Chippewa Customs. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off.,1929, pp.52-53.
1 蒋道超：《消费社会》,赵一凡主编：《西方文论关键词》,北京：外语教学与研究出版社,2011年,第602页。
2"kitsch"一词自20世纪末进入中国,译法颇多,如“媚俗”、“媚美”、“奇俗”、“刻奇”等。本文此处译法采用了国内学者张法在“媚世(kitsch)和堪鄙(camp):从美学范畴体系的角度看当代两个美学新范”一文中的观点,译作“媚世”,包含“媚钱”、“媚众”、“媚权”以及“自媚”的特点。(张法：《媚世(kitsch)和堪鄙(camp):从美学范畴体系的角度看当代两个美学新范》,《当代文坛》,2011年第1期,第4-11页。)
1 Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners:Postindian Warriors ofSurvivance, Hanover:University Press of New England, 1994,pp.4-5.
2 水下大神杀了那那波什的狼弟,那那波什从翠鸟处知道了这一切。于是,那那波什伪装成一截树桩,弄伤了水下大神。地上横发大水,一段时间后,水又退去。那那波什遇到了为水下大神疗伤的女巫医,他把女巫医杀掉,代替她假意照顾水下大神,最终伺机下手杀死水下大神,为自己的狼弟报了仇。之后,一场更大的洪灾淹没了整个世界。那那波什派出各种不同的动物潜至水底寻找泥土,只有麝鼠找到了泥土。那那波什用麝鼠的爪子里攥到的一星点泥十创造了一个岛屿,这个岛屿又长成为陆地。自此,那那波什调控这个新世界的自然和生命。
3 Jones William, Ojibwa Texts, New York:AMS P.,1974, p.301,307,313,319.
4 Ibid,p.103,169.
1 Victor Barnouw, Wisconsin Chippewa Myths and Tales and Their Relation to Chippewa Life, Madison:U of Wisconsin P.,1977,p.80-81.
1 Thomas King, The Truth about Stories:a native narrative, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,2005,p.92.
1 小说中的艾琳发现了吉尔的画作成为拟象,取代了真正的自己。(详细可参见文章开头的引文)据此,笔者推断,艾琳应该也明白文字的虚构也足以成为拟象。
2 小说中艾琳的名字"Irene"是她父亲给她取的,当时她父亲听到一首歌,就给她取了这个名字。艾琳的父亲并没有听完这首歌,歌的结尾部分,歌中的“艾琳”溺水而死。小说中艾琳的溺水而死,从一个侧面反映了加附在3 名字”之上的各种叙事若不被解构和颠覆,将会给被命名者本身所造成的影响。厄德里克本人对名字和名字背后的叙事也相当关注,她曾因此而改名为"Louise":厄德里克之前的名字是"Karen",后来她又改名为"Louise",其原因是,她发现叫"Louise"的作家很多,而叫"Karen"的却很少。联系厄德里克的改名,以及小说中艾琳的溺水而死,不难看出,对于厄德里克而言,反抗加附在“印第安”这一名字之后的各种“强势仿真”分外重要和急迫。
3 Karl Kroeber, "Why is a Good Thing Gerald Vizenor is Not an Indian", Gerald Vizenor, ed., Surviance:Narrtatives of Native Presence, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c2008, p.30.
1 张德明：《<藻海无边>的身份意识与叙事策略》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第3期,第79页。
2 Jodi A Byrd,The Transit of Empire,Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2011, p.ⅹⅹ.
3 Gerald Vizenor, Postindian Conversations, Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press, c1999, pp.84-85.
1 印第安传统文化中,儿乎每个部落都有自己的“变形者”故事,如,西南部印第女部落的变形者是草原狼、西北沿海部落是鸟鸦。奥吉布瓦文化中最著名的变形者是那那波什,他是“生命之主……诡计多端,但也人智大慧懂得如何求生”。(France Densmore, Chippew Customs, St. Paul:Minnesota Historical Society Press,1979,p.97.)那那波什最重要的武器足变形——伪装自己攻击敌人,“随心所欲……一种新的形式、模样和存在。这一秒足个人,下一秒就变成一块石头,一阵风,一朵云,一枝花或者一只癞蛤蟆”。(Basil Johnston, Ojibway Heritage, New York: Columbia University Press,1976,pp.19-20.)
2 Gerald Vizenor, Manifest manners postindian warriors ofSurvivance, Hanover:University Press of New England, 1994,p.66.
3 Ibid,p.5.
4 诗人里尔是历史上的里尔·路易丝(Riel Louis,1844-1885),梅蒂人,有八分之一印第安血统,其祖母是法国－奥吉布瓦混血儿。里尔是老师,也是加拿大西北叛乱的领袖,加拿人中南部地区曼尼托巴省的创立者。他是加拿大历史最富有争议的人物之一,有关他的评论,莫衷一是。梅蒂人视他为英雄、他们自我愿望的代言人；西部加拿人的人部分移居民则视他为恶棍。当下,他被看作是抵制加拿大中部各种政治、经济统治运动的先驱。里尔这个人物不止一次出现在厄德坐克的小说世界。《鸽灾》中,里尔的图片曾I司美国总统约翰F·肯尼迪、教皇约翰十三世的图片共同贴在埃维莉娜(Evelina)外祖父家的墙上。里尔被埃维莉娜的祖父们视作民族英雄,在他们看 来,“如果里尔赢了,我们的父辈就会待在加拿大,整个民族。不会分开。”“如果里尔赢了,我们可能就会受人尊敬了。”(PoD,33-34)小说中,里尔的父亲吉尔与里尔是远亲。艾琳为女儿取名为"Riel",这一行为既将女儿与其族谱上的远亲联系了起来,又把她和奥吉布瓦历史上的这位虽败犹荣的民族英雄联系在了一起,里尔的存在也因此具有了超越个体、家庭、家族的意义,她担负着拯救整个民族的使命。
1 此处,里尔用狗代替马,不能被简单地视为是孩子的荒唐游戏,因为在印第安的一些部落语言中,马(horse)的表达与狗(dog)相关。比如,在克里语(Cree)中,马是“1mistatim",意指大狗(big dog);在苏族语(Sioux)中,是‘'sunkakhan",意指“神秘的狗或者神圣的狗”(mystery dog or holy dog);在阿西尼博因语(Assiniboine)中,是‘'shunga tonga",意指“大狗”(big dog);在黑脚族语(blackfoot)中,是‘'ponoka-mita",意指“麇鹿狗”(elk dog).
2 Paula Gunn Allen, ed., Spider Woman s Granddaughters,New York:Fawcett Columbine,1989, p.19.
3 Ibid, p.21.
1 Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop, Boston:Bacon Presss,1986,p.101.
2 Paula Gunn Allen, ed., Spider Woman's Granddaughters, New York:Fawcett Columbine,1989, p.25.
1 整首诗具体如下：小子,你知道我来这儿就是为了找你,/当水壶跳进火焰。/毛巾在挂钩上扑打,/狗爬出来,痛苦地呻吟,/爬向森林的最深处。//干刷子一样的狗颈毛突然发出微微的笑声。/母亲训斥锅里的食物,温起来,滑起来/喊你来吃。/而我在寒冷的树林里说：/臭小子,我来就是为了你,孩童的皮肤,一动不动地躺着。//漆树在风中推搡酸臭的红果子。/铜壶在原木中燃烧/你看见我拖着步子走向你。/噢,摸摸我,我喃喃自语,舔你脚上的鞋底/你把双手放入我苍白的、正在融化的毛里//我把你偷走了,一个庞然大物钻进我发怒的盔甲。/暖流滚过我冰冷的臂膀,每片树叶都颤抖/我们穿过灌木丛/直到它们立起来,一丝不挂,象刮干净了肉的鱼骨一样铺开//然后你温暖的手嗡嗡作响,它们自己开始铲,/全是冰和雪。我将变黑,然后溢出来/整个晚上流个不停,直到最后早晨打破这个冰冷的地球/我把你带回家/一条河在阳光下晃动。(Louise Erdrich, Jacklight:poems, New York:Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, c1984,p.79.)
1 Basil Johnston, "How Do We Learn Language? What Do We Learn?", Laura J. Murray and Keren Rice eds.,Talking on the Page:Editing Aboriginal Oral Texts,Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1999, pp.48-49.
2 说阿尔纲纪语的部族包括奥吉布瓦、克里、黑脚族等,这些人居住在加拿大滨海诸省、西北区和魁北克北部地区、安大略湖区、马尼托巴湖区、萨斯咯彻温省和亚伯达省。
3 John Robert Colombo ed.,. Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,pp.2-3.
4 Basil Johnson, The Manitous:The Spiritual World of the Ojibway, Toronto:KeyPorter Books,1995,p.222.
5 John Robert Colombo.ed.,. Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, cl982,p.3.
1 'Howard Norman, Where The Chill Came From:Cree Windigo Tales and Journeys, San Francisco:North Point Press, 1982,p.3.
2 John Robert Colombo, Windigo an Anthology of Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,pp.125-126.
3 Herbert T. Schwarz, Windigo and Other Tales of the Ojibways, Toronto McClelland and Stewart 1978, c1969, p.11.
4 Margaret Atwood,Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature,Oxford:Clarendon.1995.p.66.
1 John Robert Colombo ed, Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982, p.128.
2 Hadley Louise Friedland, "The Wetiko (Windigo) Legal Principles:Responding to Harmful People in Cree, Anishinabek and Saulteaux Societies—Past, Present and Future Uses, with a Focus on Contemporary Violence and Child Victimization Concerns"[D], Universtity of Alverta,2009,p.69.
3 Morton Teicher, "Windigo Psychosis:A Study of a Relationship between Belief and Behavior among the Indians of Northeastern Canada" in Verne F. Ray, ed., Proceedings of the 1960 Annual Spring Meeting of the American Ethnological Society, Seattle:University of Washington,1960,p.64.
4 Ibid,p.81.
5 Hadley Louise Friedland. "The Wetiko (Windigo) Legal Principles:Responding to Harmful People in Cree, Anishinabek and Saulteaux Societies—Past, Present and Future Uses, with a Focus on Contemporary Violence and Child Victimization Concerns"[D], Universtity of Alverta,2009,pp.55-63.
6 John Robert Colombo.ed., Windigo an Anthology of Fact and Fantastic Fiction, Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c 1982, p.128.
7 Margaret Atwood,Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature. Oxford:Clarendon.1995,p.67.
8 A. Irving Hallowell, Contributions to Anthropology:Selected Papers of A. Irving Hallowell, Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1976, p.360.
1 Legends and Stories:Part of an Oral History, Ottawa:Indian Affairs and Northern Development,1998,p.68.
2 Joe Lockard, "Facing the Windigo", Gerald Vizenor ed., Survivance:Narratives of Native Presence, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, c2008, p.210.
3 Isernhagen Hartwig. Momaday, Vizenor, Armstrong, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,1999,p.85.
4 Gerald Vizenor. Chancers, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,2000,p.57.
5 Gerald Vizenor, Manifest Manners:Postindian Warriors of Survivance, Hanover:University Press of New England, 1994. p.Viii.
5 Margaret Atwood, Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature. Oxford:Clarendon,1995,p.67.
7 Ibid,p.69.
8 Ibid,pp.73-74.
1 《俱乐部》的前43页关乎第一次世界人战,小说的45-338页勾勒了一战之后到二战之前这一时间段里小镇阿古斯人的生活场景图,整个场景既有人情的单薄、冷漠,小说的338-372关乎第二次世界人战及战后。45-338页是厄德里克对战争本身的思考。战争从何而来?小说第43页,厄德里克用了近一页的篇幅对此做了告白,一切源于人性之恶。厄德里克对战争本质的思考可以在俄国哲学家尼古拉·别尔嘉耶人处找到回音,别尔嘉耶夫在《俄罗斯的命运》中指出,“战争不是恶的源泉,而是恶的反映,内在的恶和病态之存在的符号。……它是派生的,而非原生的。战争的是人类内在疾病的标志……世界大战、世界性的敌视、仇恨和相互摩擦,早就在精神现实的深处开始了。”(尼古拉·别尔嘉耶少、：《俄罗斯的命运》,汪剑钊译。南京：译林出版社,2009年,第151页。)对于厄德里克而言,这种“恶”是隐匿在战争并没有发生之前的人性的沦丧,因此厄德里克强调人性的复苏,恰如温迪戈通过袭击部落以重建人性。
2 Sidney L. Harring, "The Enforcement of the Extreme Penalty:Canadian Law and the Ojibwa-Cree Spirit World", Sidney L. Harring, ed., White Man's Law:Native People in Nineteenth-Centry Canadian Jurisprudence,Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1998,p.237.
3 Helen Jaskoski, "From the Time Immemorial:Native American Traditions in Contemporary Short Fiction." Loren Logsdon and Charles W. Mayer eds., Since Flannery O Cornnor:Essays on the Contemporary American Short Story, Macomb:Western Illinois UP.,1987,pp.54-71.
4 Annette Van Dyke, "Questions o f the Spirit:Bloodlines in Louise Erdrich's Chippewa Landscape", Studies in American Indian Literatures 4(1992).pp.15-27.
5 Elisabeth Mermann-Jozwiak, "'his grandfather ate his own wife':Louise Erdrich's Love Medicine as a contemporary windigo Narrative'", The North Dakota Quarterly 64 (1997),pp.44-54.
1 Julie Tharp, "Windigo Ways:Eating and Excess in Louise Erdrich's the Antelope Wife", American Indian Culture and Research Journal,27 (2004),pp.117-31.
2 Casey A. G Maude, "Finding Old Windigo Ways and New Medicine in the Works of Lousie Erdrich" [Master Thesis]. University of Arkansas,2006.
3 Gerald Vizenor, Chancers, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press,2000,p.57.
1 Candice Savage, ed., The World of Wetiko:Tales from the Woodland Cree, as told by Marie Merasty, Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College,1974, p.3.
2 《四灵魂》中,小说透过那那普什的叙述告诉读者奢奢波娶了5那普什的小姐姐之后,对小姐姐多有虐待。后来,一个饥饿的冬天里,小姐姐消失了。那那普什还有其他的族人都断定在饥不果腹的日子里,奢奢波波吃掉了小姐姐。
3 John Robert Colombo eds., Windigo:an Anthology of Fact and FantasticFiction. Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,p.167.
1 Margaret Atwood, Strange Things:The Malevolent North in Canadian Literature, Oxford:Clarendon.1995,p.74.
2 冥王镇(Pluto),小说《鸽灾》的故事发生地,最初印第安人居住于此,后来白人迁至于此,最终,冥王镇成为一个印第安人居住地内的白人聚集地。因此,冥王镇的印白通婚现象比较多,而此地的印白冲突也较为严重。《圆屋》的故事发生地同于《鸽灾》,并且,故事人物也大体同于《鸽灾》,不过,冥王镇这一地名不再出现,另一地名“箍舞蹈之地”(Hoopdance)出现,印第安人居住在这里。
1 弗洛伊德在“悲伤与忧郁”,《弗洛伊德著作选》,贺明明译,四川人民出版社,1986年,第170页。
2 弗洛伊德在“悲伤与忧郁”一文中指出,“抑郁表现出一些在悲伤中没有的东西。极度地陷入自重,自我极度匮乏。悲伤时,世界变得贫乏空虚,抑郁时则是自我变得贫乏空虚。在我们看来病人的自我表现为毫无价值,无法作任何努力,在道义上是卑鄙的。他谴责自己,辱骂自己,希望自己被抛弃被惩罚。他在每个人面前贬低自己,并且怜悯自己的亲属与自己这个没有价值的人联系在一起。他并没有意识到在自己身上发生了什么变化,只是把自我批判扩展到过去,宣称他从来也不比现在更好些。这种妄想式的自我贬低主要是道义上的,它是在心理特征明显的失眠、厌食、抛弃本能之后形成的,这种本能维持着每一种生物的生命。(弗洛伊德,“悲伤与忧郁”,《弗洛伊德著作选》,贺明明译,四川人民出版社,1986年,第173页。)”
3 论者对“抑郁型温迪戈”的分类基于科伦坡的一个温迪戈故事：一个美丽的女子,被邪恶的男巫师黑天(DarkSky)看上了,女子的父亲拒绝把自己的女儿嫁给这个妻了己经很多的黑天。黑天作法,把女子变成了温迪戈,女子吃掉了自己的家人。黑天把女子带回自己的营地,用火烤她,让她变回了人形,但是她对自己的过去一无所知。黑天极其宠爱她,她总是问自己的过去,从哪里来。黑天烦透了,告诉了她真相,她为自己过去的所作所为异常懊悔和痛苦。她也不再得宠,此外,黑天的其他妻子从一开始就排挤她。她在自责和痛苦中,又一点点变回温迪戈,不过在食人灾难发生之前,她自杀了。科伦坡认为这个故事涉及到“记忆”(“过去”)的问题：当过去重返时,女了为自己的罪责所吞噬,在创伤中难以自拔,又变回温迪戈。(John Robert Colombo eds., Windigo:an Anthology of Fact and FantasticFiction,Saskatoon, Sask.:Western Producer Prairie Books, c1982,pp.195-196.)
4 Howard Norman, Where The Chill Came From:Cree Windigo Tales and Journeys, San Francisco:North Point Press, 1982.p.2.
1 Rose Wendy, The Half Breed Chronicles &other Poems, Los Angeles, CA:West End Press,1985, p.34.
2 “蓝草原女/地球的另一端”均为同一个奥吉布瓦女性,她之前的名字叫做“蓝草原女”,后来老罗伊所在的白人骑兵团入侵了她所在的村落,她因遗失爱女而心痛抑郁,后来一萨满为其看病并为其命名“地球的另一端”。根据小说原文的解释,“一旦她被以她所行走过的地方命名,这位年轻的母亲就可以同时身处两地了”。(AM,14)
1 关于小乌鸦战役的概述可以参见Dee Brown, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee:An Indian History of the American West, New York:Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,1971.
1 米兰·昆德拉,《小说的艺术》,董强译,上海：上海译文出版社,2004年,第231页。
2 Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Mask, Charles Lam Markmann trans., London:Pluto,2008, p.9.
3 France Winddance Twine. "Brown-skinned white girls:class, culture, and the construction of white identity in suburban communities", Frankenberg Ruth Durham e., Displacing whiteness:Essays in Social and Cultural Criticism, NC:Duke University Press,1997,p.239.
1 付成双：《自然的边疆：北美西部开发中人与环境关系的变迁》,北京：社会科学出版社,2012年,第201页。
2 同上,第199页。.
3 Mari Sandoz, The Beaver Men:Spearheads of Empire, New York:Hastings House, c1964,p.137.
4 茨格内·蔡勒尔：《印第安人》,马立东译,武汉：湖北教育出版社,2009年,第39-40页。
5 N. Scott Momaday, The Names:a Memoir, New York:Harper & Row, c1976,p.Ⅰ.
6 Lisa Halliday, "Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208",Paris Review, Winter (2010),p.141
7 Bial Raymond, The Ojibwe, New York:Benchmark,2000,p.58.
1 Herbert T. Schwarz, Windigo and Other Tales of the Ojibways, Toronto McClelland and Stewart 1978, c1969,p.11.
1 美国总统艾森豪威尔于1953年当任,这一年也是美国“印第安人重新安置”的正式开始。1953年,美国第83届国会通过了《108号两院共同决议》(House Concurrent Resolution 108),该决议后来被称作“终止政策”(terminationpolicy),它“使印第安人……服从于同美国其他人一样的法律,给予印第安人……同其他人一样的特权和职责……结束他们作为和众国被监护者的地位……授予他们属于美国公民所有的一切权利和特权”。(Francis Paul Prucha (exl.), Documents of the United States Indian Policy,P.234.转引自胡锦山：《二十世纪美国印第安人政策之演变与印第安人事务的发展》,《世界民族》,2004年第2期,第27页。)诚然,联邦政府的印第安人重新安置计划有助于印第安人获得自由、平等的美国公民权力,但实际上,联邦政府所觊觎的仍是印第安人的土地。二战带来了美国国内农场主、伐木场主和牧场主经营规模的扩大,他们渴望更多的土地和资源。美国印第安史史学家菲克斯克(Donald L. Fixico)指责到,“一些印第安人保留地上的石油和其他资源是终止法的真正动机。”(Donald L. Fixico, Termination and Relocation:Federal Indian Policy,1945-196, Albuquerque:University of New Mexico Press,1986,p.76.)同时,二战之后,一座座城镇拔地而起,城镇发展又急需大量劳动力,把印第安人重新安置进城市可以说一箭双雕：既腾出了土地,又扩大了劳动力。旨在废除保留地、解散部落的这一决议为全国范围内推行印第安人重新安置计划行了方便,并寻求到了法律依据。早在1952年2月,联邦政府已经尝试将第一批的442名印第安人安置在芝加哥、丹佛、洛杉矶,该年共安置了868名印第安人；1953年,重新安置计划为1470名印第安人安排了长期工作；1954年,重新安置计划又安置了2553人；1955、1956、1957分别安置3459人、5119人和6964人。这样,仅在1952年-1957年间,联邦政府就安置了20433人。此后的10多年中,安置计划从未停止。截止1972年,重新安置计划共把约14万人移出了保留地,让他们迁居城市。(1953-1974年联邦政府的财政预算。转引李晓岗：《美国政府对印第安人的重新安置及其城市化》,《世界历史》,1992年第4期,第6页。)
1 论者将此处拉马丁吃沾有自己鲜血的面包解读为拉马丁受到战争创伤的毒害,行为古怪冷漠,成了一只食人温迪戈。不过,国内亦有论者给出了另类解读,“最后一段‘面包与血”的描写更加强调了这段场景宗教和文化的含义。这段描写既暗示西方白人文化已经渗入到了小亨利的血液和灵魂的深处,又隐射了基督教的传统仪式。”(蔡俊：《超越生态印第安》,南京大学博士论文,2012年,第108页。)
2 Bonnie C.Winsbro, Supernatural Forces:Belief, Difference, and Power in Contemporary Works by Ethnic Women, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, c1993,p.58.
1 Paul E.Rivard, A New Order of Things:How the Textile Industry Transformed New England. Hanover, NH:Unviersity Press of New England,2002,p.72.
2 Nancy C.Curtis, Black Heritage Sites. United States:ALA Editions.1996.p.543.
3 http://www.shadowwolf.org/cherokee_tear_dress.html
4 张德明：《藻海无边的身份意识与叙事策略》,《外国文学研究》,2006年第3期,第82页。
1 李忠尚：《新马克思主义析要》,北京：中国人民大学出版社,1987年,第78页。
2 Terry Eagleton, Marxism and Literary Criticism, Berkeley and Los Angels:Unviersity of California Press,1976,p.31.
1 陈龙：《霸权理论”与电视意识形态宰制论》,《新闻与传播研究》,2003年第1期,第60页。
1 Bonnie C.Winsbro, Supernatural Forces:Belief, Difference, and Power in Contemporary Works by Ethnic Women, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press, c1993,p.58.
1 Hadley Louise Friedland, "The Wetiko (Windigo) Legal Principles:Responding to Harmful People in Cree, Anishinabek and Saulteaux Societies" (Master Thesis), University of Alberta,2009,pp.83-105.
1 德罗瑞亚在其记录出版的《达科塔文本》(Dakota Texts,1932) (Deloria, Ella. Dakota Texts.1932. Reprinted in "Appendix 1:Translations from the Dakota Texts" in Julian Rice, Deer Woman and Elk Men, the Lakota Narratives of Ella Deloria, Albuquerque:U of NMP,1992,pp.161-96.)中提供了许多拉科塔(Lakota)版本的“鹿女”故事(Deer Woman stories)。鹿女美丽优雅,是男子爱欲的对象,有巨大的性能力和繁殖能力。“传统的鹿女精神是一种孩提时代长者们警而告之的精神,这种精神会蛊惑那些易沉溺于性喜好(sexual favor)的人,这些人会因之离开自己的家庭和部族,进入到性能量的滥用中。”(Dunn, Carolyn and Carol Comfor,"Introduction." Through the Eye of the Deer, An Anthology of Native American Women Writers. Carolyn Dunn and Carol Comfort ed. San Francisco:Aunt Lute,1999.pⅹⅰ)鹿女故事通常被用以帮助部族成员理解各种与爱欲有关的性行为,尤其是求偶期、新婚期的性行为。男男女女均不可以屈从于个人情感。相反,他们需要建立起各种有助于部族稳定的性关系。男人不能因沉迷于爱欲的实施而放弃打猎或者保护族人,女人也不能因此而偏离各种女性劳作,诸如食物采集、制作等。印第安人常常以讲故事的方式教育后代,拉科塔儿童从小就会听到各种“鹿女”故事,孩子们通过这些故事建立“与同伴交往的合适表达方式”(Rice Julian, Deer Women and Elk Men:The Lakota Narratives of Ella Deloria, Albuquerque:U ofNMP,1992,p.120.)。
2 印第安妇女杰拉尔丁被白人男子林登强奸,因为事发时,杰拉尔丁被蒙住了头,所以她并不知道确切的事发地。根据白人法律,对于印第安案件,事发地异常重要,它决定着什么样的法律将适用于这起案件。案件若发生在保留地,适用的将是部落法；若在保留地之外,适用的则是州法或是联邦法。若发生在保留地之内,但事发地的土地已经卖给了白人,案件的审理将更加复杂。此外,若案犯是白人,部落法则又变得不适用。诚实的杰拉尔丁无法编造一个事发地,因此林登游走并逍遥于州法/联邦法与部落法的边缘。
1 Jace Weaver, That the People Might Live:Native American Literatures and Native American Community, New York: Oxford University Press,1997, p.Xiii.
1 Jack D Forbes, Columbus and Other Cannibals:the Wetiko Disease of Exploitation, Imperialism, and Terrorism. Brooklyn:Autonomedia,1992, p.10.
2 Harvey Arden and Wall Steve, Travels in a Stone Canoe:the Return to the Wisdomkeepers, New York:Simon & Schuster,1998,p.299.
1 Allan Chavkin and Nancy Feyl Chavkin eds., Conversations with Louise Erdrich and Michael Dorris, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, c1994,p.230.
2 Kimberly Blaeser, "The Vocies We Carry", Kate Sontag and David eds., After Confession:Poetry as Autobiography. Graham. St Paul, MN:Graywolf Press,2001,p.269.
1 Anne M. Dunn etc. eds., Winter Thunder:Retold Tales, Duluth, Minn.:Holy Cow Press,2001.p.9.
1 Scott Richard Lyons, X-marks:Native Signatures of Assent, Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010,p.4.
2 Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses:Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and Presence, Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press,1998,p.15.
1 Scott Richard Lyons, X-marks:native signatures of assent. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c2010.p4.
2 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari,Kafka:Toward a Minor Literature, Dana Polan trans., Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c1986,p.18.
3 Ibid.pp.16-18.
4 事实上,得益于厄德里克的法国、德国血统,厄德里克在小说中还引入了少量法语词和德语词,鉴于法语、德语和英语同属印欧语系,本论文不对法语、德语词的引入意义做探讨。
5 Lisa Halliday," Louise Erdrich:The Art of Fiction No.208",Paris Review, Winter(2010),p.139.
1 早期从事毛皮贸易的法国男人与印第安女人(主要是克里人、苏族那科他人和奥吉布瓦族人)的混血儿被称为“梅蒂人”(Metis)。梅蒂人所讲的语言做称为“梅蒂语”(Michif)。这种语言主要由克里语和法语组成,它是加拿大法语的一种变体,另外还从英语、原著语(奥吉布瓦族语、阿西尼博因语)中借来大量词汇。
1 Gerald Vizenor, Fugitive Poses:Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and presence. Lincoln:University of Nebraska press,1998,15.
2 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari,Kafka:Toward a Minor Literature, Dana Polan trans., Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press, c1986,p.17.
3 塞浦路斯(Cyprian),一战老兵,《四灵魂》中奎忧临死前提到的拉马丁家族人,混血儿。塞浦路斯本身又是双性恋者。在这个意义上,塞浦路斯成为了性别跨界生存者。
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