印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策研究
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摘要
印度的城市化发端于英国殖民者的资源掠夺与扩张需求,是与工业化紧密相连的历史过程,是基于传统的城乡二元结构,通过人口、资本、技术的集聚促发产业结构与社会结构发生深刻变革的动态发展过程。考虑到城市化与城乡人口分布密切相关,本研究以印度1951～2011年间进行的6次全国人口普查为主线,按照城乡人口结构和布局变化的特点,分阶段研究了印度城市化发展的历史进程,发现印度城市化进程依次可以大概分为集中发展时期(1947～1970年)、快速发展时期(1971～1991年)和稳步发展时期(1992～2011年)三个阶段,并呈现出城市化发展速度比较缓慢、发展布局极不均衡、农村贫困成为主要推力、城乡差距呈现出多种表现形式等特点。在城市化的发展背景下,印度作为传统的人口大国与农业大国,其农村初等教育和我国农村义务教育在发展变革的过程中,面临着诸多类似的问题。例如,城乡教育资源分布不均衡,以优秀教师为代表的优质教育资源随着城市化进程持续向城市单向聚集,农村学校在城市化进程中处于弱势地位,城乡教育的差距不断被拉大,农村初等教育教师数量匮乏且资质不够、学校办学条件差、小型学校数量多等。以解决上述问题为逻辑起点,印度中央与地方政府出台了一系列初等教育政策,并通过加强政府的宏观调控,对农村地区予以倾斜性的政策支持,以充分发挥教育政策在城乡教育之间的杠杆作用,旨在缩小城乡教育的差距,实现普及初等教育的发展目标,进而深层次地推进教育公平乃至社会公平。
当教育政策的诉求不再局限于教育内部时,对教育政策的研究自然也就需要跨越教育学的研究视野,选择更适切的研究方法。而且,印度的政治、经济、文化、社会等外部因素是分析其农村初等教育政策时必须深入透视的内容,这也是本研究追求的广度与深度之源。据此,本论文遵循政策科学理论的基本观点,采用问题导向的政策研究范式,根据政策文本和大量最新的统计数据,综合运用文献研究法、比较研究法、政策分析法和统计分析法,对印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策的问题、目标、环境、资源和效果进行了全面剖析。按照政策的具体目标,可将这些政策分为三类：免费普及型、改善提升型和倾斜扶持型；当跳出教育的框架来审视印度农村初等教育的政策环境时,发现印度三权分立的政治体制和全民参与的民主制度强化了公民对政策的关注和对政策的监督,印度各邦区域经济水平因城市化进程不同而产生的差异影响了政策的落实,而根深蒂固的种姓制度限制了教育公平政策的实施；在政策资源方面,印度农村初等教育政策已基本形成以政府资助为主,企业、NGO共同参与的资源整合模式,有效保障了印度农村初等教育政策发展所需资源的持续供给；从政策实效来看,2012年的统计数据显示,印度农村初等教育普及程度明显提升,6-14岁学龄儿童的入学率已经稳定地超过96%；农村学校的基础设施建设成果显著,学校的功能与环境得到显著改善,而且学生考试成绩有所提高。然而,值得注意的是,农村地区的初等教育辍学率有所上升,尤其是11～14岁女童的辍学率达到了6%,另外,教师规模不足与质量不高成为了农村初等教育发展的瓶颈。
政策科学理论认为,研究教育政策不应该仅仅停留于政策文本的表达和政策效果的呈现,而应以“教育政策执行”问题作为研究对象,直面鲜活的教育政策执行现实,以制度分析为视角,体验错综复杂的经验事实,呈现制度因素在教育政策执行中的影响和作用。因此,本研究在阐释印度教育政策制定、管理与执行过程的基础上,分析了印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策的利益架构,发现印度联邦政府是通过统筹政策管理与执行以集中表达公共利益,各邦政府负责推进政策的贯彻执行,希望获取更多地方自主权,“县—乡—村”自治组织负责制定政策落实方案以加强自治,NGO监督与反馈政策执行过程以保证理念输出。从组织机构层面自上而下地解析了印度农村初等教育政策的利益架构之后,本论文又分析了印度社会不同阶级对教育政策的利益诉求。按照社会分层理论,印度社会基本上可以分为上、中、下三个阶层,其中,上、下阶层的分化严重而且稳固,而城市化进程催生出的中层阶级对教育政策的影响力最强。在这样的社会结构中,印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策在问题层面体现出人本取向,在目标与环境层面体现出公平取向,在管理与执行过程中体现出民主取向,而在政策资源方面表现出分权取向。
总体上,印度城市化进程对农村初等教育政策的发展与变革具有深远影响。首先,城市化的发展给农村初等教育政策带来了新的问题与挑战,倘若一味追求硬件普及的数量,而忽视基础设施质量的保证,农村学校有可能会演变为教育领域的“贫民窟”；其次,城市化进程间接造成了教育政策资源分布的不均衡,是政策目标调整与变化的重要动因；再次,城市化进程对印度政治、经济、社会的发展都会产生深刻的影响,从而会改变教育政策环境的格局,而且,随着城市化进程的不断推进,中小城市与农村地区的边界会逐步淡化,在一定程度上会消解政策效果。将印度农村初等教育政策置于国家政治、经济、文化、社会环境中审视时,可以进一步提炼出政策的特色。由于受到印度民主制度的影响,教育政策当中的利益冲突随时可能爆发,同时,因为不同利益集团的经济地位、社会地位与政治地位有别,而且往往是富裕的精英群体占据着民主的优势地位,所以生于民主氛围的教育政策并不一定能从根本上代表广大农民的利益与需求,甚至很可能违背教育政策追求公平的初衷。而且全民参与的民主制度导致制定教育政策的周期较长,分权政治体制下的多头管理又使教育政策的执行效率过低。另外,根深蒂固的印度种姓制度严重制约了初等教育政策的公平性,造成了不同种姓之间教育公平的真空地带。由此,印度农村初等教育政策落实与发展的最大障碍实质上是教育制度与政治制度、社会制度之间的冲突与抗衡。
尽管印度的初等教育发展水平整体上落后于我国,但其农村初等教育政策在应对城市化进程所带来的问题方面积累了不少宝贵的经验,其中确有值得我们借鉴之处：(1)印度联邦政府对农村偏远地区或高寒山区小型学校的教育投入,是以保证学校正常运转所需经费为基本依据来划拨经费。这种“保底”的思路与政策选择对我国农村义务教育学校克服地理条件限制,真正实现“两基”目标(基本实施九年义务教育和基本扫除青壮年文盲)、提高巩固率具有很强的借鉴价值；(2)大量私立学校为印度农村地区实现初等教育普及的政策目标提供了现实基础,而政府以教育质量为前提,从土地资源、教师工资、学生补助等方面对私立学校采用多样化的资助方式,不仅没有改变印度农村初等教育免费性、普及性、强制性的基本性质,反而引入了合理竞争,盘活了教育资源,使农村初等教育的发展规划更具合理性与灵活性,而这得益于印度中央与地方政府严格资格审批,实施专项资助管理；避免过度竞争,规划布局管理；坚持公办民办教师的平等地位,规范教师管理；开展评估监督,加强质量管理的多维管理思路与行动；(3)完善的信息管理系统与审计制度是保障经费落实的有效途径。
Stemming from British colonists'demand of pillaging resources and expansion, Indian urbanization is a history process closely linked to industrialization, and it is also a dynamic development process which is based on the traditional urban-rural dual structure, gradually assembles population, capital and technology together and then promotes profound revolution of industrial and social structures. Taking the close relationship between urbanization and population distribution, this study follows the data of six Indian national censuses, and analyzed hidian urbanization process in different stages. Indian urbanization process includes three stages:Concentrated development stage (1947-1970), Rapid development stage (1971-1991) and steady development stage (1992-2011). It shows its characteristics of low and uneven development, rural poverty as main pushing force and various patterns of the development gap between rural and urban areas. Under the background of urbanization, as a traditional agricultural country with large population, Indian faces problems of rural primary education which are similar to those of Chinese rural compulsory education during the process of development. For example, the distribution of urban-rural education resource is unbalanced, high-quality education resource, like excellent teachers continually gathers in urban areas, leaving the rural schools in a weak position in the process of urbanization, the gap between urban and rural education has been widening and the lack of teachers, poor schooling conditions and plenty of small schools show up in rural areas, and so on. Given this, the central government and local government of India promulgated a series of primary education policies, gave more policy support to rural areas by strengthening government's macro-control, gave full play to the lever effect of education policies, aiming to narrow the gap between urban and rural education, to reach the goal of popularizing primary education and then to propel education equity, even social equity.
When the appeal of education policy is beyond education itself, research on education policy needs to cross the boundary of education and choose a more appropriate research method. What's more, the external factors like Indian politics, economy, culture, society and so on must be explored while analyzing its rural primary education policy. This is the origin of the scope and profundity the study pursues. According to this, the paper follows basic views of policy science theories, adopts problem-oriented policy research paradigm. Based on policy texts and a large number of latest statistic data, this study applies documentary research method, comparative research method, policy analysis method and statistical analysis method to comprehensively analyze the problems, goals, environment, resources and effects of Indian rural primary education policy during its urbanization process. According to the specific goals of these policies, the policies fall into three types:no—charge affordable category, promoting category and preferential support category. If we review the policy environment of Indian rural primary education policy beyond the frame of education, we can find that:the tripartite political system and democratic system of all people participation strengthen citizens'attention to and supervision of the policies; the differences of economy among the states in Indian affect the implementation of policies, and the caste system hinders its implementation. As to the policy resources, the Indian rural primary education policy has basically formed a resource integration model giving first place to government sponsor, and Non government organization participating jointly, which ensures the sustainable resource supply for Indian rural primary education policy. As to policy effectiveness, the statistical data shows the popularity degree of Indian rural primary education is promoted a lot, and the enrollment rate of children of6-14years old is more than96%. The infrastructure construction of rural schools, school function and environment are improved, and students'achievement is also improved. However, it is worth noticing that the dropout rate of rural primary education is a little higher, especially that rate of girls aged11-14reaches6%. What's more, the insufficiency and low quality of teacher becomes the bottleneck of Indian rural primary education.
Educational science theories think the researches on education policy should not focus on policy texts and policy effectiveness, but take "education policy implementation" as research object, and present the influence and function of institutional factor to education policy implementation. Therefore, based on the explanation of the process of policy setting, management and implementation, this study analyzes the benefit framework of Indian rural primary education policy during its urbanization, and finds that the public benefit is expressed by education management and implementation, each state government takes charge of policy implementation to get more authority, and "County-Town-Village" is responsible for planning policy implementation to strengthen authority. Non-government organization supervises and assesses the policy implementation process to ensure its philosophy. This study analyzes the benefit structure of rural primary education policy, and then analyzes different benefit appeals of different classes in Indian. According to social stratification theory, the society in Indian can be divided into upper class, middle class and lower class; and the first two are differentiated severely. As a catalyst of urbanization, the middle class has high social mobility and strong influence on education policy. In this social structure, the rural primary education policy presents its human-orientation on question level, equity orientation on goal and environment level, democracy orientation on management and implementation process, and authority decentralization orientation on policy resource.
Generally, the urbanization has a profound influence on development of Indian rural primary education policy. First, urbanization brings new problems and challenges. If we attach importance only to hardware popularity, and neglect its quality, this may turn rural schools into'"slumdog" of education. Second, urbanization makes the education policy distribution uneven indirectly, which is the main cause of policy goals' adjustment and change. Third, urbanization places a profound influence on Indian politics, economy and social development, and changes the structure of education policy environment. With the development of urbanization, the boundary of small-medium cities and rural areas will fade away gradually, and weaken the policy effectiveness. Putting Indian rural primary education policy into its politics, economy, culture and social environment, we can further extract policy characteristics. The benefits conflicts will break out any time because of democracy system. Meanwhile, because of the differences of economic, social and politic status of different interest groups, the education policy in Indian cannot represent farmers'benefit, and even go against education equity which is the original intention of education policy. The period of forming education policy that all people participate will be long, and the multiple managements make lower policy implementation efficiency. Besides, Deep-rooted caste system has limited the equity of primary education policies, causing some vacuum of education equity among different castes. Therefore, it is the conflict and counterbalance among educational system, political system and social system that hinder the implementation and development of Indian rural primary education policy.
Although India's primary education development drops behind integrally compared with China, it has gained many previous experiences of rural primary education policy in the process of urbanization, some of them certainly merit our reference and study.(1) Education investments, which from India federal government to the small-size schools in remote rural areas and extremely cold areas, are used to pay schools' operating costs in accordance of with school's daily cost standards. These kinds of idea and policy choice have very strong reference value in overcoming the limitation of geological conditions to promote the consolidation rate, and reach the goals of making nine-year compulsory education generally available and basically eliminating illiteracy among young and middle-aged adults.(2) Many private schools lay a realistic foundation for reaching the policy goal of the universalization of primary education in India's rural areas. The government treated education quality as prerequisite, and provided various forms of aid such as land resources, teacher salaries, and student aid to private schools, which did not change the essential properties of primary education in India's rural area, such as the features of being forceful, free, and universal, instead, have introduced reasonable competition, reinvigorated educational resources, made the development plan of rural primary education more reasonable and flexible. All above benefit from strict qualification approval and special subsidization management of central and local government of India; avoid excessive competition and plan layout management; insist on the equal status of teachers in state-run and civilian-run schools, and standardize teacher management; carry out assessment and supervision, and strengthen multi-dimensional management ideas and action.(3) Good information management system and auditing system can ensure the implementation of funds.
当教育政策的诉求不再局限于教育内部时,对教育政策的研究自然也就需要跨越教育学的研究视野,选择更适切的研究方法。而且,印度的政治、经济、文化、社会等外部因素是分析其农村初等教育政策时必须深入透视的内容,这也是本研究追求的广度与深度之源。据此,本论文遵循政策科学理论的基本观点,采用问题导向的政策研究范式,根据政策文本和大量最新的统计数据,综合运用文献研究法、比较研究法、政策分析法和统计分析法,对印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策的问题、目标、环境、资源和效果进行了全面剖析。按照政策的具体目标,可将这些政策分为三类：免费普及型、改善提升型和倾斜扶持型；当跳出教育的框架来审视印度农村初等教育的政策环境时,发现印度三权分立的政治体制和全民参与的民主制度强化了公民对政策的关注和对政策的监督,印度各邦区域经济水平因城市化进程不同而产生的差异影响了政策的落实,而根深蒂固的种姓制度限制了教育公平政策的实施；在政策资源方面,印度农村初等教育政策已基本形成以政府资助为主,企业、NGO共同参与的资源整合模式,有效保障了印度农村初等教育政策发展所需资源的持续供给；从政策实效来看,2012年的统计数据显示,印度农村初等教育普及程度明显提升,6-14岁学龄儿童的入学率已经稳定地超过96%；农村学校的基础设施建设成果显著,学校的功能与环境得到显著改善,而且学生考试成绩有所提高。然而,值得注意的是,农村地区的初等教育辍学率有所上升,尤其是11～14岁女童的辍学率达到了6%,另外,教师规模不足与质量不高成为了农村初等教育发展的瓶颈。
政策科学理论认为,研究教育政策不应该仅仅停留于政策文本的表达和政策效果的呈现,而应以“教育政策执行”问题作为研究对象,直面鲜活的教育政策执行现实,以制度分析为视角,体验错综复杂的经验事实,呈现制度因素在教育政策执行中的影响和作用。因此,本研究在阐释印度教育政策制定、管理与执行过程的基础上,分析了印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策的利益架构,发现印度联邦政府是通过统筹政策管理与执行以集中表达公共利益,各邦政府负责推进政策的贯彻执行,希望获取更多地方自主权,“县—乡—村”自治组织负责制定政策落实方案以加强自治,NGO监督与反馈政策执行过程以保证理念输出。从组织机构层面自上而下地解析了印度农村初等教育政策的利益架构之后,本论文又分析了印度社会不同阶级对教育政策的利益诉求。按照社会分层理论,印度社会基本上可以分为上、中、下三个阶层,其中,上、下阶层的分化严重而且稳固,而城市化进程催生出的中层阶级对教育政策的影响力最强。在这样的社会结构中,印度城市化进程中农村初等教育政策在问题层面体现出人本取向,在目标与环境层面体现出公平取向,在管理与执行过程中体现出民主取向,而在政策资源方面表现出分权取向。
总体上,印度城市化进程对农村初等教育政策的发展与变革具有深远影响。首先,城市化的发展给农村初等教育政策带来了新的问题与挑战,倘若一味追求硬件普及的数量,而忽视基础设施质量的保证,农村学校有可能会演变为教育领域的“贫民窟”；其次,城市化进程间接造成了教育政策资源分布的不均衡,是政策目标调整与变化的重要动因；再次,城市化进程对印度政治、经济、社会的发展都会产生深刻的影响,从而会改变教育政策环境的格局,而且,随着城市化进程的不断推进,中小城市与农村地区的边界会逐步淡化,在一定程度上会消解政策效果。将印度农村初等教育政策置于国家政治、经济、文化、社会环境中审视时,可以进一步提炼出政策的特色。由于受到印度民主制度的影响,教育政策当中的利益冲突随时可能爆发,同时,因为不同利益集团的经济地位、社会地位与政治地位有别,而且往往是富裕的精英群体占据着民主的优势地位,所以生于民主氛围的教育政策并不一定能从根本上代表广大农民的利益与需求,甚至很可能违背教育政策追求公平的初衷。而且全民参与的民主制度导致制定教育政策的周期较长,分权政治体制下的多头管理又使教育政策的执行效率过低。另外,根深蒂固的印度种姓制度严重制约了初等教育政策的公平性,造成了不同种姓之间教育公平的真空地带。由此,印度农村初等教育政策落实与发展的最大障碍实质上是教育制度与政治制度、社会制度之间的冲突与抗衡。
尽管印度的初等教育发展水平整体上落后于我国,但其农村初等教育政策在应对城市化进程所带来的问题方面积累了不少宝贵的经验,其中确有值得我们借鉴之处：(1)印度联邦政府对农村偏远地区或高寒山区小型学校的教育投入,是以保证学校正常运转所需经费为基本依据来划拨经费。这种“保底”的思路与政策选择对我国农村义务教育学校克服地理条件限制,真正实现“两基”目标(基本实施九年义务教育和基本扫除青壮年文盲)、提高巩固率具有很强的借鉴价值；(2)大量私立学校为印度农村地区实现初等教育普及的政策目标提供了现实基础,而政府以教育质量为前提,从土地资源、教师工资、学生补助等方面对私立学校采用多样化的资助方式,不仅没有改变印度农村初等教育免费性、普及性、强制性的基本性质,反而引入了合理竞争,盘活了教育资源,使农村初等教育的发展规划更具合理性与灵活性,而这得益于印度中央与地方政府严格资格审批,实施专项资助管理；避免过度竞争,规划布局管理；坚持公办民办教师的平等地位,规范教师管理；开展评估监督,加强质量管理的多维管理思路与行动；(3)完善的信息管理系统与审计制度是保障经费落实的有效途径。
Stemming from British colonists'demand of pillaging resources and expansion, Indian urbanization is a history process closely linked to industrialization, and it is also a dynamic development process which is based on the traditional urban-rural dual structure, gradually assembles population, capital and technology together and then promotes profound revolution of industrial and social structures. Taking the close relationship between urbanization and population distribution, this study follows the data of six Indian national censuses, and analyzed hidian urbanization process in different stages. Indian urbanization process includes three stages:Concentrated development stage (1947-1970), Rapid development stage (1971-1991) and steady development stage (1992-2011). It shows its characteristics of low and uneven development, rural poverty as main pushing force and various patterns of the development gap between rural and urban areas. Under the background of urbanization, as a traditional agricultural country with large population, Indian faces problems of rural primary education which are similar to those of Chinese rural compulsory education during the process of development. For example, the distribution of urban-rural education resource is unbalanced, high-quality education resource, like excellent teachers continually gathers in urban areas, leaving the rural schools in a weak position in the process of urbanization, the gap between urban and rural education has been widening and the lack of teachers, poor schooling conditions and plenty of small schools show up in rural areas, and so on. Given this, the central government and local government of India promulgated a series of primary education policies, gave more policy support to rural areas by strengthening government's macro-control, gave full play to the lever effect of education policies, aiming to narrow the gap between urban and rural education, to reach the goal of popularizing primary education and then to propel education equity, even social equity.
When the appeal of education policy is beyond education itself, research on education policy needs to cross the boundary of education and choose a more appropriate research method. What's more, the external factors like Indian politics, economy, culture, society and so on must be explored while analyzing its rural primary education policy. This is the origin of the scope and profundity the study pursues. According to this, the paper follows basic views of policy science theories, adopts problem-oriented policy research paradigm. Based on policy texts and a large number of latest statistic data, this study applies documentary research method, comparative research method, policy analysis method and statistical analysis method to comprehensively analyze the problems, goals, environment, resources and effects of Indian rural primary education policy during its urbanization process. According to the specific goals of these policies, the policies fall into three types:no—charge affordable category, promoting category and preferential support category. If we review the policy environment of Indian rural primary education policy beyond the frame of education, we can find that:the tripartite political system and democratic system of all people participation strengthen citizens'attention to and supervision of the policies; the differences of economy among the states in Indian affect the implementation of policies, and the caste system hinders its implementation. As to the policy resources, the Indian rural primary education policy has basically formed a resource integration model giving first place to government sponsor, and Non government organization participating jointly, which ensures the sustainable resource supply for Indian rural primary education policy. As to policy effectiveness, the statistical data shows the popularity degree of Indian rural primary education is promoted a lot, and the enrollment rate of children of6-14years old is more than96%. The infrastructure construction of rural schools, school function and environment are improved, and students'achievement is also improved. However, it is worth noticing that the dropout rate of rural primary education is a little higher, especially that rate of girls aged11-14reaches6%. What's more, the insufficiency and low quality of teacher becomes the bottleneck of Indian rural primary education.
Educational science theories think the researches on education policy should not focus on policy texts and policy effectiveness, but take "education policy implementation" as research object, and present the influence and function of institutional factor to education policy implementation. Therefore, based on the explanation of the process of policy setting, management and implementation, this study analyzes the benefit framework of Indian rural primary education policy during its urbanization, and finds that the public benefit is expressed by education management and implementation, each state government takes charge of policy implementation to get more authority, and "County-Town-Village" is responsible for planning policy implementation to strengthen authority. Non-government organization supervises and assesses the policy implementation process to ensure its philosophy. This study analyzes the benefit structure of rural primary education policy, and then analyzes different benefit appeals of different classes in Indian. According to social stratification theory, the society in Indian can be divided into upper class, middle class and lower class; and the first two are differentiated severely. As a catalyst of urbanization, the middle class has high social mobility and strong influence on education policy. In this social structure, the rural primary education policy presents its human-orientation on question level, equity orientation on goal and environment level, democracy orientation on management and implementation process, and authority decentralization orientation on policy resource.
Generally, the urbanization has a profound influence on development of Indian rural primary education policy. First, urbanization brings new problems and challenges. If we attach importance only to hardware popularity, and neglect its quality, this may turn rural schools into'"slumdog" of education. Second, urbanization makes the education policy distribution uneven indirectly, which is the main cause of policy goals' adjustment and change. Third, urbanization places a profound influence on Indian politics, economy and social development, and changes the structure of education policy environment. With the development of urbanization, the boundary of small-medium cities and rural areas will fade away gradually, and weaken the policy effectiveness. Putting Indian rural primary education policy into its politics, economy, culture and social environment, we can further extract policy characteristics. The benefits conflicts will break out any time because of democracy system. Meanwhile, because of the differences of economic, social and politic status of different interest groups, the education policy in Indian cannot represent farmers'benefit, and even go against education equity which is the original intention of education policy. The period of forming education policy that all people participate will be long, and the multiple managements make lower policy implementation efficiency. Besides, Deep-rooted caste system has limited the equity of primary education policies, causing some vacuum of education equity among different castes. Therefore, it is the conflict and counterbalance among educational system, political system and social system that hinder the implementation and development of Indian rural primary education policy.
Although India's primary education development drops behind integrally compared with China, it has gained many previous experiences of rural primary education policy in the process of urbanization, some of them certainly merit our reference and study.(1) Education investments, which from India federal government to the small-size schools in remote rural areas and extremely cold areas, are used to pay schools' operating costs in accordance of with school's daily cost standards. These kinds of idea and policy choice have very strong reference value in overcoming the limitation of geological conditions to promote the consolidation rate, and reach the goals of making nine-year compulsory education generally available and basically eliminating illiteracy among young and middle-aged adults.(2) Many private schools lay a realistic foundation for reaching the policy goal of the universalization of primary education in India's rural areas. The government treated education quality as prerequisite, and provided various forms of aid such as land resources, teacher salaries, and student aid to private schools, which did not change the essential properties of primary education in India's rural area, such as the features of being forceful, free, and universal, instead, have introduced reasonable competition, reinvigorated educational resources, made the development plan of rural primary education more reasonable and flexible. All above benefit from strict qualification approval and special subsidization management of central and local government of India; avoid excessive competition and plan layout management; insist on the equal status of teachers in state-run and civilian-run schools, and standardize teacher management; carry out assessment and supervision, and strengthen multi-dimensional management ideas and action.(3) Good information management system and auditing system can ensure the implementation of funds.
引文
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② 雪娟.论二十世纪七十年代印度城市化[D].西安：西北大学,2004,第6页.
③ 根据印度1951年至1991年五次全国人口普查数据计算所得。
④ 同①。
① 印度1951年至1991年五次全国人口普查数据。
② 国务院发展研究中心“印度人口流动和城市治理的经验教训”考察团.印度城市化的特点及经验教训[J].城市建设,2010(10)： 76-78.
③ 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_census_of_India.
④ McKinsey Global Institute. India's Urban Awakening:Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth [R]. McKinsey & Company,2010, p14.
⑤ 同上。
① McKinsey Global Institute, India's Urban Awakening:Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth [R]. McKinsey & Company,2010, p48.
① 国务院发展研究中心“印度人口流动和城市治理的经验教训”考察团.印度城市化的特点及经验教训[J].城市建设,2010(10)：76-78.
② 杨文武.20世纪90年代以来印度经济增长模式的特性分析[J].南亚研究季刊,2007(4)：46-50.
① Rao, J.. The Caste System:Effects on Poverty in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka[J]. Global Majority E-Joumal,2010, 1(2):97-106.
② 熊杰.试论种姓制度对印度城市化进程的影响[J].社科纵横,2012(4)：176-178.
① 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011census_of_India.
② Urban India 2011:Evidence[R]. Indian Institute for Human Settlements,2011, p10.
① Urban India 2011:Evidence[R]. Indian Institute for Human Settlements,2011, p13.
② 国务院发展研究中心“印度人口流动和城市治理的经验教训”考察团.印度城市化的特点及经验教训[J].城市建设,2010(10)：76-78.
① Urban India 2011:Evidence[R]. Indian Institute for Human Settlements,2011, p51.
② The Maharashtra Rent Control Act 1999[Z]. Bombay,2000-3-31.
③ 孟买房价30年暴涨600倍[EB/OL].中国经济网,http/www.ce.cn/cysc/fdc/fc/201202/06/t20120206_211105 87.shtml.
① 国务院发展研究中心“印度人口流动和城市治理的经验教训”考察团.印度城市化的特点及经验教训[J].城市建设,2010(10)：76-78.
② Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty Alleviation of Government of India and United Nations Development Proramme. India:Urban Poverty Report 2009[R]. New Delhi:Oxford University Press,2009, p5.
③ 同上。
④ Bhalla, Surjit S.. Recounting the poor:Poverty in India,1983-99[J]. Economic and Political Weekly,2003, January: 338-349.
⑥ Poirson, H.. The Tax System in India:Could Reform Spur Growth?[J]. IMF Working Paper, April,2006.
⑥ 周阳敏.印度包容性税收改革的经验及其对中国的启示[J].贵州社会科学,2012(2)：62-67.
① Ministry of Law and Justice of Government of India. The Constitution of India (modified)[Z]. New Delhi,2007.
② Department of Education of Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India. National Policy on Education 1986 (modified)[Z]. New Delhi,1992-5-7.
③ Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010 [R]. New Delhi,2011, p2.
① Ministry of Law and Justice of Government of India. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[Z]. New Delhi,2009.
② Ministry of Human Resource Development. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (amendment) bill[Z]. New Delhi,2010-3-12.
③ 安双宏.印度基础教育发展热点问题评析[J].教育发展研究,2010(4)：72-75.
③ 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011 census of India.
④ Birth rate, Crude (per 1,000 people) country comparison[EB/OL]. CIA World Factbook, https://www.cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2054.html,2012-7-26.
⑥ 2011年全国教育事业发展统计公报[EB/OL]中华人民共和国中央人民政府网,http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2 012-08/30/content 2213875.htm.
① Ministry of Human Resource Development, Bureau of Planning, Monitoring & Statistics, Government of India. Statistics of School Education 2010-2011[R]. New Delhi,2012, p1.
① Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_census_of_India.
② (印)Balakrishnan. C印度私立教育——政策、问题及创新举措[J].教育发展研究,2005(11B)：23-24.
③ (印)Kullar, H.印度的初等教育[J].南亚研究,2011(2)：142-160.
④ Govinda, R., Bandyopadhyay, M.. Access to Elementary Education in India:Country Analytical Review-Selected Educational Statistics 2004-2005[R]. Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India,2007, p8.
⑤ 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第193-194页.
① Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2008-09 to 2010-11[R]. New Delhi:Ministry of Human Resource Development, Planning & Monitoring Unit, Government of India,2012, Table 4.
② 同上。
① Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2008.09 to 2010.11[R].New Delhi:Ministry of Human Resource Development,Planning & Monitoring Unit,Government of India,2012,Table 6.
② (印)Kullar,H..印度的初等教育[J].南亚研究,2011(2):142-160.
③ Cheney,G. R.,Ruzzi,B.B.,MuraIidharan,K.,A Profile of the Indian Education System[R].National Center on Education and the Economy,2006,p4-5.
④ Department of Eduction of Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India.National Policy on Education 1986(modified)[Z].New Delhi,1992-5-7.
① 徐辉.印度普及高中教育政策及其价值取向[J].中国教育学刊,2007(5)：13-27.
② Chudgar, Amita. The Challenge of universal elementary education in rural India:can adult literacy play a role?[J]. Comparative Education Review,2009,53(3):430-433.
③ 肖甦.生存与发展：国际视野下的私立教育[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2011,第64页.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p5.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p1.
② 有些班主任旷工是因为频繁参加选举活动。
② PROBE Team(India), Delhi School of Economics, Centre for Development Economics. Public Report on Basic Education in India[M]. New Delhi:Oxford University Press,1999.
③ Gurcharan Das. India Grows at Night:A Liberal Case for a Strong State[M]. New Delhi:Penguin Books India, 2012, p23.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p56表中的教室包括学校的办公室。
② 2011年全国教育事业发展统计公报[EB/OL]中华人民共和国中央人民政府网,http://www.gov.cn/gzdt/2012-08/30/content_2213875.htm.
③ 中央电视台驻新德里记着王梦提供的信息(2013年1月9日)。
④ 谷峪,邢媛.印度农村基础教育述评[J].外国教育研究,2004(3)：7-9.
⑤ 熊杰.试论种姓制度对印度城市化进程的影响[J].社科纵横,2012(4)：176-178.
⑥ Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[Z]. New Delhi,2009.
⑦ 薛正斌.印度义务教育师资队伍建设对中国的启示[J].外国中小学教育,2011(1)：37-40.
⑧ 印度的副博士一般指哲学硕士学历(Master of Philosophy).
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第212-215页.
② 根据印度宪法规定,印度各邦在农村普遍实施了潘查亚特制度。潘查亚特是由一定人数组成的乡村自治委员会,自上而下分为县、乡、村三级。
③ 孙来勤,秦玉友.印度代课教师：概况、争议及趋向[J].比较教育研究,2011(6)：71-75.
④ (印)Kullar,H.,印度的初等教育[J].南亚研究,2011(2):142.160.
⑤ 同上。
⑥ Departrtment of Education of Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India.National Policy on Education 1986(modified)[Z].New Delhi,1992-5-7.
⑦ 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第237页.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p58.
② Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p56.
③ Bhattachajea, S., Wadhwa, W., Banerji, R.. Inside Primary Schools:A Study of Teaching and Learning in Rural India[R]. Pratham Mumbai Education Initiative,2011, p94.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p21.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p20-21.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p24.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p24.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report2007-2008[R]. New Delhi,2009,61-65.
② 安双宏,黄姗姗.印度初等教育中的“免费午餐计划”评析[J].教育探索,2011(5)： 158-159.
③ 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第278-279页.
④ Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p49.
⑤ 同上。
⑥ 除了蛋白质和热量不够,2/3以上的印度儿童存在缺铁性贫血、维生素A缺乏和碘缺乏的症状,因此营养标准对此也做出了规定,希望通过免费午餐补给。
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第320页.
② 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第308页.
③ 依据SC/ST在印度总人口中的比例,在议会、政府机关、学校和公营企业分别保留15%(SC)和7.5%(ST)的配额。
④ 李静波,张婕.“以县为主”变革中求进[N].中国教育报,2004年11月22日第3版.
⑤ 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第139页.
① 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第139页.
② Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p25,60.
① 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011 census of India.
② District Institute of Education and Training[EB/OL]. http://www.dieternakulam.org/.
③ Azim Premji Foundation. Status of District Institutes of Education and Training[R]. Bangalore,2010, p2.
Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2011-2012[R]. New Delhi,2013, p27.
② 新德里黑公交轮奸案震惊印度[EB/OL]人民网,http://world.people.com.cn/n/2012/1219/c157278-1994810 2.html.
③ 同①。
① Ramachandran, V., Sethi.. Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi Project:An Overall Appraisal[R]. New Education Division Documents No.7.,2000, p5.
② 张媛,任翠英.为了更加公平的教育—由印度的基础教育改革历程着眼[J].外国教育研究,2008(5)：33-37.
① Garnaik, I., Barik, N.. Role of Ashram School in Tribal Education:A Study of a Block in Jharsuguda District[J]. Odisha Review, October,2012:85-89.
② 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第145页.
① Mishra, B. C., Dhir, A.. Ashram Schools in India:Problems and Prospects[M]. New Delhi:Discovery Publishing House,2005.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p56.
① National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012,Table 1.9.
② 同上。
③ National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012, Table 4.8.
④ Azim Premji Foundation. Status of District Institutes of Education and Training[R]. Bangalore,2010, p2.
① 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第15-16页.
② Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010 [R]. New Delhi,2011, p35.
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M1.北京：人民出版社,2011,第247-250页.
① 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第56页.
② 该委员会的名字源于时任主席贝尔汪特里·梅塔(Balwant Rai Mehta),是印度政府于1957年1月成立的,旨在研究如何更好地提供政府服务,促进社区发展。
③ 王金洪.中国与印度农村村民自治制度比较[J].华南师范大学学报(社会科学版),2000(5)：21-29.
① 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第56页.。
① National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012,Table 2.12.
② 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第31页.
① Dror, Y. Ventures in Policy Sciences:Concepts and Applications[M]. New York:American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1971.
② Dyer, C.. Researching the Implementation of Educational Policy:A Backward Mapping Approach[J]. Comparatlve Education,1999,35(1):45-61.
③ Ministry of Human Resource Development, Planning & Monitoring Unit, Goverrnment of India. Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2008-09 to 2010-11[R]. New Delhi,2012, p4.
① Ministry of Human Resource Development, Planning & Monitoring Unit, Government of India. Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2008-09 to 2010-11 [R]. New Delhi,2012, p6.
① 印度：慈善经验自有一套[EB/OL]中国红十字报,http://www.redcrossol.com/sys/html/lm_7/2011-04-12/104 529.htm.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p47.
② National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012,Table 1.2.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p49.
② Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p36.
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第288页.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p51.
② Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p189, p215.
① 孙来勤,秦玉友.印度代课教师：概况、争议及趋向[J].比较教育研究,2011(6)：71-75.
② 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第222页.
③ Azim Premji Foundation. Status of District Institutes of Education and Training[R]. Bangalore,2010, p2-4.
① 安双宏,刘晓新,曹光德.印度基础教育管理体制的多视角研究[M].哈尔滨：黑龙江教育出版社,2010,第48-51页.
① 邓旭,陈如平.教育政策执行研究：一种制度分析的范式[M].北京：教育科学出版社,2010.
② Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. The Constitution of India (modified)[Z]. New Delhi,2007.
③ Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p22(一般情况下,委员应该由选举产生,图中的“当然委员”(Ex-officio member)是指一些有专业能力或者是部门主管人员根据上级或者委员会的主管部门建议或者批准不经选举产生的委员,或者有法律规定不经选举或批准产生的委员。)
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p22.
① 女童寄宿学校计划(Kasturba Ghandhi Balika Vidalayas,简称为KGBV),是SSA的一个重点项目,该项目的基本内容是在教育落后地区(需通过评估后才能确定是否属于教育落后地区)为处于初等教育阶段且绝大部分属于特殊种姓阶级、原住民族、以及宗教少数派的女童建立配有寄宿设施的寄宿学校。
② 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第298-300页.
① 印度文官制度始于1833年,当时英国殖民当局正式采用公开竞争考试的办法招聘东印度公司文官。发展至今,全印文官、中央文官和邦文官是印度文官制度的三个主要分支。全印文官由印度联邦政府统一管理,既可以在联邦政府各部门任职,也可以在邦政府各部门任职：中央文官即由中央政府直接管理并服务于中央政府各部门的文官；邦和地方文官由各邦政府管理,在邦以下地方政府各部门任职。
Kingdon, G., Muzammil, M.. A Political Economy of Education in India:The Case of Uttar Pradesh[J]. Oxford Development Studies,2009,37(2):123-144.
① 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011 census of India.
② 安双宏,刘晓新,曹光德.印度基础教育管理体制的多视角研究[M].哈尔滨：黑龙江教育出版社,2010,第60-62页.
③ 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第73-74页.
④ 王金洪.中国与印度农村村民自治制度比较[J].华南师范大学学报(社会科学版),2000(5)：21-29.
① 李路路.论社会分层研究[J].社会学研究,1999(1)：101-109.
② Saxena, R.. The Middle Class in India:Issues and Opportunities[R]. Deutsche bank Research,2010, p3.
③ 金永丽,张淑兰,赵逢丽.印度社会分层研究综述[J].鲁东大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2009(2)：45-51,63.
① Saxena, R.. The Middle Class in India:Issues and Opportunities[R]. Deutsche bank Research,2010, p6.图中各邦的中文译名见附录。
② 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第76页.
① 刘复兴.教育政策价值分析的三维模式[J].教育研究,2002(4)：15-19,73.
② 徐玲.价值取向本质之探究[J].探索,2000(2)：69-71.
① 邓念国.公共政策执行系统价值取向的分析[J].武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2005(5)：692-696.
② 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第73-77页.
③ Panikkar, K. N.. India's Education Policy:From National to Commercial[J]. Economic & Political Weekly,2011, 46(17):38-42.
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① 按照印度的国家标准,学生总人数等于或少于60即被称为小型学校。
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③ 根据印度1951年至1991年五次全国人口普查数据计算所得。
④ 同①。
① 印度1951年至1991年五次全国人口普查数据。
② 国务院发展研究中心“印度人口流动和城市治理的经验教训”考察团.印度城市化的特点及经验教训[J].城市建设,2010(10)： 76-78.
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⑤ 同上。
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③ 同上。
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② 同上。
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② 有些班主任旷工是因为频繁参加选举活动。
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③ 中央电视台驻新德里记着王梦提供的信息(2013年1月9日)。
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⑤ 熊杰.试论种姓制度对印度城市化进程的影响[J].社科纵横,2012(4)：176-178.
⑥ Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act[Z]. New Delhi,2009.
⑦ 薛正斌.印度义务教育师资队伍建设对中国的启示[J].外国中小学教育,2011(1)：37-40.
⑧ 印度的副博士一般指哲学硕士学历(Master of Philosophy).
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第212-215页.
② 根据印度宪法规定,印度各邦在农村普遍实施了潘查亚特制度。潘查亚特是由一定人数组成的乡村自治委员会,自上而下分为县、乡、村三级。
③ 孙来勤,秦玉友.印度代课教师：概况、争议及趋向[J].比较教育研究,2011(6)：71-75.
④ (印)Kullar,H.,印度的初等教育[J].南亚研究,2011(2):142.160.
⑤ 同上。
⑥ Departrtment of Education of Ministry of Human Resource Development Government of India.National Policy on Education 1986(modified)[Z].New Delhi,1992-5-7.
⑦ 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第237页.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p58.
② Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p56.
③ Bhattachajea, S., Wadhwa, W., Banerji, R.. Inside Primary Schools:A Study of Teaching and Learning in Rural India[R]. Pratham Mumbai Education Initiative,2011, p94.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p21.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p20-21.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p24.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p24.
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report2007-2008[R]. New Delhi,2009,61-65.
② 安双宏,黄姗姗.印度初等教育中的“免费午餐计划”评析[J].教育探索,2011(5)： 158-159.
③ 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第278-279页.
④ Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p49.
⑤ 同上。
⑥ 除了蛋白质和热量不够,2/3以上的印度儿童存在缺铁性贫血、维生素A缺乏和碘缺乏的症状,因此营养标准对此也做出了规定,希望通过免费午餐补给。
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第320页.
② 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第308页.
③ 依据SC/ST在印度总人口中的比例,在议会、政府机关、学校和公营企业分别保留15%(SC)和7.5%(ST)的配额。
④ 李静波,张婕.“以县为主”变革中求进[N].中国教育报,2004年11月22日第3版.
⑤ 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第139页.
① 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第139页.
② Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p25,60.
① 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011 census of India.
② District Institute of Education and Training[EB/OL]. http://www.dieternakulam.org/.
③ Azim Premji Foundation. Status of District Institutes of Education and Training[R]. Bangalore,2010, p2.
Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2011-2012[R]. New Delhi,2013, p27.
② 新德里黑公交轮奸案震惊印度[EB/OL]人民网,http://world.people.com.cn/n/2012/1219/c157278-1994810 2.html.
③ 同①。
① Ramachandran, V., Sethi.. Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi Project:An Overall Appraisal[R]. New Education Division Documents No.7.,2000, p5.
② 张媛,任翠英.为了更加公平的教育—由印度的基础教育改革历程着眼[J].外国教育研究,2008(5)：33-37.
① Garnaik, I., Barik, N.. Role of Ashram School in Tribal Education:A Study of a Block in Jharsuguda District[J]. Odisha Review, October,2012:85-89.
② 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第145页.
① Mishra, B. C., Dhir, A.. Ashram Schools in India:Problems and Prospects[M]. New Delhi:Discovery Publishing House,2005.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p56.
① National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012,Table 1.9.
② 同上。
③ National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012, Table 4.8.
④ Azim Premji Foundation. Status of District Institutes of Education and Training[R]. Bangalore,2010, p2.
① 杨洪.印度弱势群体：教育与政策[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2011,第15-16页.
② Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010 [R]. New Delhi,2011, p35.
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M1.北京：人民出版社,2011,第247-250页.
① 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第56页.
② 该委员会的名字源于时任主席贝尔汪特里·梅塔(Balwant Rai Mehta),是印度政府于1957年1月成立的,旨在研究如何更好地提供政府服务,促进社区发展。
③ 王金洪.中国与印度农村村民自治制度比较[J].华南师范大学学报(社会科学版),2000(5)：21-29.
① 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第56页.。
① National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012,Table 2.12.
② 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第31页.
① Dror, Y. Ventures in Policy Sciences:Concepts and Applications[M]. New York:American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1971.
② Dyer, C.. Researching the Implementation of Educational Policy:A Backward Mapping Approach[J]. Comparatlve Education,1999,35(1):45-61.
③ Ministry of Human Resource Development, Planning & Monitoring Unit, Goverrnment of India. Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2008-09 to 2010-11[R]. New Delhi,2012, p4.
① Ministry of Human Resource Development, Planning & Monitoring Unit, Government of India. Analysis of Budgeted Expenditure on Education 2008-09 to 2010-11 [R]. New Delhi,2012, p6.
① 印度：慈善经验自有一套[EB/OL]中国红十字报,http://www.redcrossol.com/sys/html/lm_7/2011-04-12/104 529.htm.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p47.
② National University of Educational Planning and Administration. Elementary Education in Rural India:Where do we stand?[R]. New Delhi,2012,Table 1.2.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p49.
② Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p36.
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第288页.
① Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p51.
② Annual Status of Education Report (Rural) 2012[R]. New Delhi:ASER Centre,2013, p189, p215.
① 孙来勤,秦玉友.印度代课教师：概况、争议及趋向[J].比较教育研究,2011(6)：71-75.
② 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第222页.
③ Azim Premji Foundation. Status of District Institutes of Education and Training[R]. Bangalore,2010, p2-4.
① 安双宏,刘晓新,曹光德.印度基础教育管理体制的多视角研究[M].哈尔滨：黑龙江教育出版社,2010,第48-51页.
① 邓旭,陈如平.教育政策执行研究：一种制度分析的范式[M].北京：教育科学出版社,2010.
② Ministry of Law and Justice, Government of India. The Constitution of India (modified)[Z]. New Delhi,2007.
③ Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p22(一般情况下,委员应该由选举产生,图中的“当然委员”(Ex-officio member)是指一些有专业能力或者是部门主管人员根据上级或者委员会的主管部门建议或者批准不经选举产生的委员,或者有法律规定不经选举或批准产生的委员。)
① Department of School Education and Literacy, Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Annual Report 2009-2010[R]. New Delhi,2011, p22.
① 女童寄宿学校计划(Kasturba Ghandhi Balika Vidalayas,简称为KGBV),是SSA的一个重点项目,该项目的基本内容是在教育落后地区(需通过评估后才能确定是否属于教育落后地区)为处于初等教育阶段且绝大部分属于特殊种姓阶级、原住民族、以及宗教少数派的女童建立配有寄宿设施的寄宿学校。
② 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第298-300页.
① 印度文官制度始于1833年,当时英国殖民当局正式采用公开竞争考试的办法招聘东印度公司文官。发展至今,全印文官、中央文官和邦文官是印度文官制度的三个主要分支。全印文官由印度联邦政府统一管理,既可以在联邦政府各部门任职,也可以在邦政府各部门任职：中央文官即由中央政府直接管理并服务于中央政府各部门的文官；邦和地方文官由各邦政府管理,在邦以下地方政府各部门任职。
Kingdon, G., Muzammil, M.. A Political Economy of Education in India:The Case of Uttar Pradesh[J]. Oxford Development Studies,2009,37(2):123-144.
① 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011 census of India.
② 安双宏,刘晓新,曹光德.印度基础教育管理体制的多视角研究[M].哈尔滨：黑龙江教育出版社,2010,第60-62页.
③ 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第73-74页.
④ 王金洪.中国与印度农村村民自治制度比较[J].华南师范大学学报(社会科学版),2000(5)：21-29.
① 李路路.论社会分层研究[J].社会学研究,1999(1)：101-109.
② Saxena, R.. The Middle Class in India:Issues and Opportunities[R]. Deutsche bank Research,2010, p3.
③ 金永丽,张淑兰,赵逢丽.印度社会分层研究综述[J].鲁东大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2009(2)：45-51,63.
① Saxena, R.. The Middle Class in India:Issues and Opportunities[R]. Deutsche bank Research,2010, p6.图中各邦的中文译名见附录。
② 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第76页.
① 刘复兴.教育政策价值分析的三维模式[J].教育研究,2002(4)：15-19,73.
② 徐玲.价值取向本质之探究[J].探索,2000(2)：69-71.
① 邓念国.公共政策执行系统价值取向的分析[J].武汉大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2005(5)：692-696.
② 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第73-77页.
③ Panikkar, K. N.. India's Education Policy:From National to Commercial[J]. Economic & Political Weekly,2011, 46(17):38-42.
④ 赵刚印.现代化进程中的公民政治参与——一项对中国与印度的比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2010,第73-77页.
① 按照印度的国家标准,学生总人数等于或少于60即被称为小型学校。
① 新自由主义继承了资产阶级古典自由主义经济理论的自由经营、自由贸易等思想,大力宣扬“三化”。一是“自由化”。认为自由是效率的前提：二是私有化。私有制是人们“能够以个人的身份来决定我们要做的事情”,从而成为推动经济发展的基础；三是市场化。认为离开了市场就谈不上经济,无法有效配置资源,反对任何形式的国家干预。
② (印)阿南达·奈杜,纳迦不萨那.新自由主义及其对印度社会经济和政治体系的影响[J].海派经济学,2011(3)：165-176.
③ Gerhaeusser, K., Lwasaki, Y.. Tulasidhar, V. B.. Resurging Asian Giants:Lessons from the People's Republic of China and India[R]. Metro Manila:Asian Development Bank,2010, p5.
④ 2011 Census of India[EB/OL].Wikipedia, free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_census_of_India.
② Gurcharan Das. India Grows at Night:A Liberal Case for a Strong State[M]. New Delhi:Penguin Books India, 2012, p109.
① 袁越.国民性与民主制度的纠结——骄傲的印度[J].三联生活周刊,2013(720)：1-5.
① Blum, N., Diwan, R.. Small, Multigrade Schools and Increasing Access to Primary Education in India:Access to Primary Educaiton in India:National Context and NGO Initiatives[R]. Falmer, Brighton:CREATE, Centre for International Education, Department of Education School of Education & Social Work, University of Sussex,2007, p2-4.
② 国家中长期教育改革和发展规划纲要(2010-2020年)[Z].中华人民共和国教育部,2010年7月29日.
① 全国人民代表大会常务委员会.中华人民共和国义务教育法[Z].全国人民代表大会常务委员会,2006年6月29日.
②肖甦.生存与发展：国际视野下的私立教育[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2011,第61-68页.
③ Kingdon, G G.. Private Schooling in India: Size, Nature and Equity-Effects[J]. Economic and Political Weekly, 1996,31(51):3306-3314.
① 沈有禄.中国、印度基础教育比较研究[M].北京：人民出版社,2011,第319页.
① 印度国情蓝皮书[EB/OL]凤凰网,http://news.ifeng.com/gundong/detail_2013_05/13/25215077_0.shtml.
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