欧洲联盟对外关系中的“人权条款”法律问题研究
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摘要
欧盟对外关系近年来呈现出愈来愈明显的“人权导向”：候选国在申请加入欧盟时,必须满足一定的“人权条件”；欧盟在向第三国提供发展援助时,也坚持将尊重人权作为必要条件,并在违反人权时取消相应的财政和技术援助；欧盟的普惠制为尊重人权的发展中国家提供了特殊激励机制；欧盟在共同外交与安全政策框架下坚持开展“人权外交”。和这些单边性质的人权工具相比,欧共体在与第三国谈判和缔结的双边协定中所纳入的“人权条款”堪称欧盟的原创。
“人权条款”起源于欧共体中止与非加太国家缔结的《洛美协定》的需要。经过多年的演变,“人权条款”已经成为欧盟对外人权政策中最有特色的一项法律工具。完整的“人权条款”由序言、“必要条件条款”、“未履行条款”和解释性声明组成。“人权条款”将尊重人权、民主和法治原则界定为缔约双方内外政策的基础和协定的必要条件,并配备了实施适当措施的程序性规定,从而使之具备了法律执行力。在第三国出现严重违反人权的情势时,欧盟即可援引这一条款对该国实施限制性措施(制裁),直至中止/终止协定。“人权条款”出现于双边协定之中,形式上具有对等性,一定程度地克服了传统的单边人权工具干涉第三国内政的嫌疑,因而相对容易获得第三国的接受。欧共体在与第三国谈判和缔结一般性质的双边协定时,纳入“人权条款”已成惯例。
“人权条款”中的“必要条件条款”回应了国际法上的尊重人权原则,借鉴了《维也纳条约法公约》第60(3)条中有关以“重大违约”为由终止/中止条约的规定。“未履行条款”为缔约方采取适当措施而规定的制度和程序则明显借鉴了一般国际法上反措施规则的实体性和程序性要件。另外,部分协定中还包括争端解决程序的规定,当缔约方就“人权条款”的解释和适用发生争议时,原则上可以诉诸这些约束力不等的争端解决机制。在借鉴国际法规则的同时,部分特殊的“人权条款”还对国际法上相应的规则进行了一定程度的发展,其中的典型当属《科托努协定》中的“人权条款”。“人权条款”的制度设计体现了欧盟人权外交中的“规则导向”,是对传统国际人权保护机制的一种贡献。
和“人权条款”日趋完备的制度设计形成鲜明对比的是,欧盟基础条约并没有为“人权条款”提供充分的法律基础。虽然围绕“人权条款”缔约权能问题的争议未能影响欧共体在实践中纳入这一条款,但不可避免地制约了“人权条款”在欧盟内部的实施。由于欧盟内部缺乏一套系统的“人权条款”实施机制,欧盟与欧共体之间,欧盟各机构之间,以及欧盟与成员国之间缺乏必要的协调和一致性。仅有《洛美协定Ⅳ》和《科托努协定》的内部协定一定程度地解决了这一困境。欧盟内部实施机制的不足使其无法对第三国严重违反人权的情势采取及时有效的消极措施。实践中,欧盟同时强调“人权条款”应被首先用于对第三国采取对话与合作之类的积极措施。但是,从“人权条款”的现实作用来看,欧盟无法摆脱单边主义、双重标准和权力政治的痼疾。
《里斯本条约》对欧盟法律体系进行了前所未有的重大改革,其中有多个方面有利于“人权条款”的发展。“人权条款”的法律基础在此番改革中被牢牢确立,欧盟对外行动的一致性和统一性得到加强,同时欧洲议会作用的大幅度提升更是“人权条款”的“福音”。与此同时,欧洲议会也倡导对“人权条款”的监督和实施机制进行改革。可以预料,一旦《里斯本条约》生效,欧洲议会的改革建议经理事会转化为现实的法律文件,“人权条款”将会适用于欧共体与所有第三国缔结的所有双边协定,其制度设计将更为标准而合理,法律地位将得到进一步的提升,监督和实施机制将会更加民主透明,实效性也将得以增强。
“人权条款”是国际人权保护机制中的一个“新生物”,有其先进性,也有其局限性。在本文客观而全面地还原“人权条款”本相的基础上,面对欧盟在《中欧伙伴关系协定》中纳入“人权条款”的必然立场,中国可以从法律和政治角度作出更加理性的抉择。一方面,中国应认识到接受“人权条款”可能带来的法律风险,另一方面,中国也应考虑拒绝“人权条款”可能带来的政治成本。在法律风险和政治成本之间进行权衡,中欧“全面战略伙伴关系”的大局似乎应该成为如何抉择的首要标准。从长远来看,中国似应接受“人权条款”,以使中欧关系能以《中欧伙伴关系协定》为基础上升至一新的高度。在考虑接受时,为使“人权条款”的法律风险降至最低,中国有必要在谈判时坚持制定更为细致完善的“人权条款”,并真正反映中国的意志,这就是本文所主张的“有限度接受”。当然,目前中欧关系能否保持良性发展的势头对中国政府的最终抉择也有一定的影响。
Especially since the early 1990s, orientation towards human rights has become more and more apparent in the external relations of the European Union('EU'). A commitment to respect, promote and protect human rights and democratic principles is a key element of the EU's relations with third countries. To meet those commitments, EU has introduced a broad range of instruments at its disposal, such as:(a)the human rights conditionality in the context of the EU enlargement, with which the candidate countries have to comply during the acceding process; (b) the human rights conditionality in the autonomous legislations on the GSP as well as financial and technical assistance, which plays the double role of carrot and stick; and (c)the human rights diplomacy under the CFSP pillar. Compared with all these basically unilateral human rights instruments, the systematic introduction of human rights clauses ('HRC')in the bilateral agreements concluded by the European Community('EC') with third countries or groups has become a much publicized feature of the EU's external relations. While many industrialized countries attributed high priority to human rights issues, the approach chosen by the EU in the external agreements is without doubt unique, considering its smoothness, flexibility and proactive nature.
HRC originates from the practical need to suspend EC's bilateral agreements with ACP counties (i.e. Lome I Convention) in case of serious breach of human rights in the middle of 1970s. Through persistent insistence of the EU in the treaty-making practice towards third countries, HRC has gradually evolved into one of the most distinguished instruments in the EU's external human rights policy. According to the 1995 Commission Communication on HRC, the model HRC comprises preambular recitals, essential element clause, non-execution clause, and interpretative declaration. Respect for human rights, democratic principles and sometimes the rule of law is generally defined by the essential element clause as the basis of the domestic and external policies of both contracting parties, and also constitutes the essential element of the agreement. As a complementary clause, non-execution clause stipulates procedures and institutions for the adoption of'appropriate measures'by the innocent party, which ensures the operative nature of the HRC. HRC provides EU with a clear legal basis to take restrictive measures(sanctions), and even to suspend or terminate external agreements against third countries in response to serious and persistent violations of human tights or interruptions of the democratic process. By virtue of the bilateral nature of the external agreements, HRC is at least formally reciprocal, and therefore, overcome to great extent the accusation of intervention in the internal affairs of third countries when it comes to the traditional unilateral human rights instruments, which turns out to be one of the main reasons for the acceptance of third countries. In any way, the inclusion of HRC has become a general practice in international agreements negotiated or concluded by the EC with third countries.
From the perspective of general international law, it is quite self-evident that essential element clause responds to the general principle of respect for human rights in international law, and follows the rule laid down in Article 60(3) VCLT which allows for the suspension or termination of the treaty due to a material breach. As for the non-execution clause, reference is generally made to the rules governing the use of countermeasures in the international law on State responsibility. Moreover, some EC's agreements even contain dispute settlement procedures with different nature ranging from non-binding conciliation to binding arbitration, to which both contracting parties could logically resort for any dispute concerning the implementation and interpretation of the HRC. Besides, some advanced HRC, such as the HRC in the Cotonou Agreement, at the same time reforms and develops the rules of general international law from deferent dimensions. To sum up, HRC reflects the rule-oriented trend of EU's human rights diplomacy, and in this sense can be regarded as a significant contribution to the international protection of human rights.
From the perspective of EU Law, however, there is no sufficient legal bases for Community powers with regard to include and implement HRC in both the EU and EC basic Treaty. Not handicapped by the controversy over Community competence to include the HRC in international agreements though, the thin legal bases will unavoidably constrain the HRC's implementation under the EU inner architecture. What is worse, due to the lack of a systematic internal implementation mechanism for almost all agreements with the HRC, the problem of incoherence and inconsistency is rampant between the EU and EC, the EU main institutions, as well as EU and its member states. Notwithstanding, the inner agreements of Lome IV bis Convention and Cotonou Agreement respectively stipulates measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation does in certain degree resolve such a troublesome problem, which set up a good example for other HRC's implementation. In practice, the success and effectiveness of the HRC does not match its formulation in terms of the negative measures. Whereas, it is repeatedly emphasized by the EU documents on external human rights policy that the principal rationale for the HRC is to form a positive basis for advancing human rights in third countries through dialogue and persuasion. In other words, the preference is to use positive measures rather than negative or punitive ones. However, considering EU's practice in international relations, the HRC can never get rid of the accusation from third countries of unilateralism, double standard and power politics.
The Treaty of Lisbon brings the EU legal system with a variety of unprecedented changes in various aspects, which also benefits the future development of the HRC, such as the more consolidated and sufficient legal bases for the HRC, the improvement of coherence and consistency of EU's external relations, and the enhancement of the role of European Parliament('EP') in the decision-making process. Moreover, the EP has been very active over the years concerning the HRC, with a special focus on the monitoring and implementation of the clause, as well as the role of EP and civil society. Predictably, with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon and EP's reform motion transformed into legal documents by the Council and Commission, the HRC will cover all international agreements concluded by the EC with third countries or groups, including the sectoral agreements and agreements with developed countries. Most important of all, the new model clause will be better designed and become more reasonable and acceptable; role of the HRC will be greatly enhanced as the objective clause in future agreements; its monitoring and implementation mechanism will definitely be more and more democratic, transparent and effective.
EU's HRC is absolutely a new creature in the international system for the protection of human rights, and therefore, unavoidably carries both advantages and disadvantages at present. This doctoral thesis engages with a thorough analysis on the legal issues of the HRC so as to provides legal expertise for Chinese government in the context of ongoing negotiation of Sino-EU Partnership and Cooperation Agreement('PCA'). Faced up with EU's insistence on the inclusion of the HRC in the future PCA, our Chinese government has to make a prudent decision from both the legal and political perspectives. On the one hand, if the HRC is to be accepted, the possible legal challenges of the HRC need to be considered carefully, especially the negative measures taken currently by the EU against third countries; if not, on the other hand, the political chances to the future elevation of Sino-EU relationship will be destined to pass away. Drawing a balance between the challenges and chances, the broad context of 'Comprehensive Strategic Partnership'should no doubt be deemed as the first and foremost criteria for Chinese government. In the long run, it seems reasonable for China to welcome the insertion of HRC in the PCA with the aim to enhance Sino-EU bilateral relations into a higher level through this new global agreement. Nevertheless, China should adhere to the principle of'qualified acceptance'of the HRC in order to decrease those negative legal challenges. That is to say, the HRC must be designed in a truly reciprocal way which reflects and respects China's will. Last but not the least, whether the Sino-EU relationship will keep a positive and friendly atmosphere is also essential to the final decision of our Chinese government.
“人权条款”起源于欧共体中止与非加太国家缔结的《洛美协定》的需要。经过多年的演变,“人权条款”已经成为欧盟对外人权政策中最有特色的一项法律工具。完整的“人权条款”由序言、“必要条件条款”、“未履行条款”和解释性声明组成。“人权条款”将尊重人权、民主和法治原则界定为缔约双方内外政策的基础和协定的必要条件,并配备了实施适当措施的程序性规定,从而使之具备了法律执行力。在第三国出现严重违反人权的情势时,欧盟即可援引这一条款对该国实施限制性措施(制裁),直至中止/终止协定。“人权条款”出现于双边协定之中,形式上具有对等性,一定程度地克服了传统的单边人权工具干涉第三国内政的嫌疑,因而相对容易获得第三国的接受。欧共体在与第三国谈判和缔结一般性质的双边协定时,纳入“人权条款”已成惯例。
“人权条款”中的“必要条件条款”回应了国际法上的尊重人权原则,借鉴了《维也纳条约法公约》第60(3)条中有关以“重大违约”为由终止/中止条约的规定。“未履行条款”为缔约方采取适当措施而规定的制度和程序则明显借鉴了一般国际法上反措施规则的实体性和程序性要件。另外,部分协定中还包括争端解决程序的规定,当缔约方就“人权条款”的解释和适用发生争议时,原则上可以诉诸这些约束力不等的争端解决机制。在借鉴国际法规则的同时,部分特殊的“人权条款”还对国际法上相应的规则进行了一定程度的发展,其中的典型当属《科托努协定》中的“人权条款”。“人权条款”的制度设计体现了欧盟人权外交中的“规则导向”,是对传统国际人权保护机制的一种贡献。
和“人权条款”日趋完备的制度设计形成鲜明对比的是,欧盟基础条约并没有为“人权条款”提供充分的法律基础。虽然围绕“人权条款”缔约权能问题的争议未能影响欧共体在实践中纳入这一条款,但不可避免地制约了“人权条款”在欧盟内部的实施。由于欧盟内部缺乏一套系统的“人权条款”实施机制,欧盟与欧共体之间,欧盟各机构之间,以及欧盟与成员国之间缺乏必要的协调和一致性。仅有《洛美协定Ⅳ》和《科托努协定》的内部协定一定程度地解决了这一困境。欧盟内部实施机制的不足使其无法对第三国严重违反人权的情势采取及时有效的消极措施。实践中,欧盟同时强调“人权条款”应被首先用于对第三国采取对话与合作之类的积极措施。但是,从“人权条款”的现实作用来看,欧盟无法摆脱单边主义、双重标准和权力政治的痼疾。
《里斯本条约》对欧盟法律体系进行了前所未有的重大改革,其中有多个方面有利于“人权条款”的发展。“人权条款”的法律基础在此番改革中被牢牢确立,欧盟对外行动的一致性和统一性得到加强,同时欧洲议会作用的大幅度提升更是“人权条款”的“福音”。与此同时,欧洲议会也倡导对“人权条款”的监督和实施机制进行改革。可以预料,一旦《里斯本条约》生效,欧洲议会的改革建议经理事会转化为现实的法律文件,“人权条款”将会适用于欧共体与所有第三国缔结的所有双边协定,其制度设计将更为标准而合理,法律地位将得到进一步的提升,监督和实施机制将会更加民主透明,实效性也将得以增强。
“人权条款”是国际人权保护机制中的一个“新生物”,有其先进性,也有其局限性。在本文客观而全面地还原“人权条款”本相的基础上,面对欧盟在《中欧伙伴关系协定》中纳入“人权条款”的必然立场,中国可以从法律和政治角度作出更加理性的抉择。一方面,中国应认识到接受“人权条款”可能带来的法律风险,另一方面,中国也应考虑拒绝“人权条款”可能带来的政治成本。在法律风险和政治成本之间进行权衡,中欧“全面战略伙伴关系”的大局似乎应该成为如何抉择的首要标准。从长远来看,中国似应接受“人权条款”,以使中欧关系能以《中欧伙伴关系协定》为基础上升至一新的高度。在考虑接受时,为使“人权条款”的法律风险降至最低,中国有必要在谈判时坚持制定更为细致完善的“人权条款”,并真正反映中国的意志,这就是本文所主张的“有限度接受”。当然,目前中欧关系能否保持良性发展的势头对中国政府的最终抉择也有一定的影响。
Especially since the early 1990s, orientation towards human rights has become more and more apparent in the external relations of the European Union('EU'). A commitment to respect, promote and protect human rights and democratic principles is a key element of the EU's relations with third countries. To meet those commitments, EU has introduced a broad range of instruments at its disposal, such as:(a)the human rights conditionality in the context of the EU enlargement, with which the candidate countries have to comply during the acceding process; (b) the human rights conditionality in the autonomous legislations on the GSP as well as financial and technical assistance, which plays the double role of carrot and stick; and (c)the human rights diplomacy under the CFSP pillar. Compared with all these basically unilateral human rights instruments, the systematic introduction of human rights clauses ('HRC')in the bilateral agreements concluded by the European Community('EC') with third countries or groups has become a much publicized feature of the EU's external relations. While many industrialized countries attributed high priority to human rights issues, the approach chosen by the EU in the external agreements is without doubt unique, considering its smoothness, flexibility and proactive nature.
HRC originates from the practical need to suspend EC's bilateral agreements with ACP counties (i.e. Lome I Convention) in case of serious breach of human rights in the middle of 1970s. Through persistent insistence of the EU in the treaty-making practice towards third countries, HRC has gradually evolved into one of the most distinguished instruments in the EU's external human rights policy. According to the 1995 Commission Communication on HRC, the model HRC comprises preambular recitals, essential element clause, non-execution clause, and interpretative declaration. Respect for human rights, democratic principles and sometimes the rule of law is generally defined by the essential element clause as the basis of the domestic and external policies of both contracting parties, and also constitutes the essential element of the agreement. As a complementary clause, non-execution clause stipulates procedures and institutions for the adoption of'appropriate measures'by the innocent party, which ensures the operative nature of the HRC. HRC provides EU with a clear legal basis to take restrictive measures(sanctions), and even to suspend or terminate external agreements against third countries in response to serious and persistent violations of human tights or interruptions of the democratic process. By virtue of the bilateral nature of the external agreements, HRC is at least formally reciprocal, and therefore, overcome to great extent the accusation of intervention in the internal affairs of third countries when it comes to the traditional unilateral human rights instruments, which turns out to be one of the main reasons for the acceptance of third countries. In any way, the inclusion of HRC has become a general practice in international agreements negotiated or concluded by the EC with third countries.
From the perspective of general international law, it is quite self-evident that essential element clause responds to the general principle of respect for human rights in international law, and follows the rule laid down in Article 60(3) VCLT which allows for the suspension or termination of the treaty due to a material breach. As for the non-execution clause, reference is generally made to the rules governing the use of countermeasures in the international law on State responsibility. Moreover, some EC's agreements even contain dispute settlement procedures with different nature ranging from non-binding conciliation to binding arbitration, to which both contracting parties could logically resort for any dispute concerning the implementation and interpretation of the HRC. Besides, some advanced HRC, such as the HRC in the Cotonou Agreement, at the same time reforms and develops the rules of general international law from deferent dimensions. To sum up, HRC reflects the rule-oriented trend of EU's human rights diplomacy, and in this sense can be regarded as a significant contribution to the international protection of human rights.
From the perspective of EU Law, however, there is no sufficient legal bases for Community powers with regard to include and implement HRC in both the EU and EC basic Treaty. Not handicapped by the controversy over Community competence to include the HRC in international agreements though, the thin legal bases will unavoidably constrain the HRC's implementation under the EU inner architecture. What is worse, due to the lack of a systematic internal implementation mechanism for almost all agreements with the HRC, the problem of incoherence and inconsistency is rampant between the EU and EC, the EU main institutions, as well as EU and its member states. Notwithstanding, the inner agreements of Lome IV bis Convention and Cotonou Agreement respectively stipulates measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation does in certain degree resolve such a troublesome problem, which set up a good example for other HRC's implementation. In practice, the success and effectiveness of the HRC does not match its formulation in terms of the negative measures. Whereas, it is repeatedly emphasized by the EU documents on external human rights policy that the principal rationale for the HRC is to form a positive basis for advancing human rights in third countries through dialogue and persuasion. In other words, the preference is to use positive measures rather than negative or punitive ones. However, considering EU's practice in international relations, the HRC can never get rid of the accusation from third countries of unilateralism, double standard and power politics.
The Treaty of Lisbon brings the EU legal system with a variety of unprecedented changes in various aspects, which also benefits the future development of the HRC, such as the more consolidated and sufficient legal bases for the HRC, the improvement of coherence and consistency of EU's external relations, and the enhancement of the role of European Parliament('EP') in the decision-making process. Moreover, the EP has been very active over the years concerning the HRC, with a special focus on the monitoring and implementation of the clause, as well as the role of EP and civil society. Predictably, with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon and EP's reform motion transformed into legal documents by the Council and Commission, the HRC will cover all international agreements concluded by the EC with third countries or groups, including the sectoral agreements and agreements with developed countries. Most important of all, the new model clause will be better designed and become more reasonable and acceptable; role of the HRC will be greatly enhanced as the objective clause in future agreements; its monitoring and implementation mechanism will definitely be more and more democratic, transparent and effective.
EU's HRC is absolutely a new creature in the international system for the protection of human rights, and therefore, unavoidably carries both advantages and disadvantages at present. This doctoral thesis engages with a thorough analysis on the legal issues of the HRC so as to provides legal expertise for Chinese government in the context of ongoing negotiation of Sino-EU Partnership and Cooperation Agreement('PCA'). Faced up with EU's insistence on the inclusion of the HRC in the future PCA, our Chinese government has to make a prudent decision from both the legal and political perspectives. On the one hand, if the HRC is to be accepted, the possible legal challenges of the HRC need to be considered carefully, especially the negative measures taken currently by the EU against third countries; if not, on the other hand, the political chances to the future elevation of Sino-EU relationship will be destined to pass away. Drawing a balance between the challenges and chances, the broad context of 'Comprehensive Strategic Partnership'should no doubt be deemed as the first and foremost criteria for Chinese government. In the long run, it seems reasonable for China to welcome the insertion of HRC in the PCA with the aim to enhance Sino-EU bilateral relations into a higher level through this new global agreement. Nevertheless, China should adhere to the principle of'qualified acceptance'of the HRC in order to decrease those negative legal challenges. That is to say, the HRC must be designed in a truly reciprocal way which reflects and respects China's will. Last but not the least, whether the Sino-EU relationship will keep a positive and friendly atmosphere is also essential to the final decision of our Chinese government.
引文
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.281.
② Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice,T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004, pp.4-6.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.154-155.
①在著名的“欧洲陆路运输协定案”(the AETR case),欧洲法院认为,当欧共体为实施基础条约中的一项共同政策而通过制定有关共同规则时,无论这类规则采取何种形式,成员国都无权单独或集体地向第三国承担影响该规则的义务。欧洲法院进一步强调,当此类共同规则出现时,欧共体应单独对第三国承担或开展契约性的义务,亦即欧共体享有专属性的缔约权能,并且欧共体内部措施不应与对外关系分离。See Case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1970] ECR 263, paras.17-19.
②《欧洲联盟条约》第17条规定：“共同外交与安全政策应包括与欧盟安全相关的所有问题,这些问题包括逐步(progressive)形成共同防务政策,并有可能形成共同防务——如果欧洲理事会作此决定的话……”。作为对科索沃战争中欧盟无所作为的反思,自1998年以来,共同安全与防务政策成长迅速,无论是在制度设计和机构建设方面,抑或在军事、民事危机管理能力的提升和对外行动的开展方面,都呈现出方兴未艾的发展趋势。共同安全与防务政策近年来发展的典型是2004年欧洲防务局的成立(European Defence Agency,简称EDA)。
③梁西主编：《国际法》,武汉大学出版社2000年第2版,第342-343页。
④ European Commission, Community Membership at International Organizations, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office, 07/05/2008.
①当然,严格意义上而言,仅有《欧共体特权与豁免议定书》第17条规定了第三国向欧共体委派使团,但欧盟基础条约中并未规定欧盟有派遣外交使团的权能,欧盟委员会代表团只是委员会的派出机构,不能单独代表欧盟。See I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1998, pp.208-209.
②在国际关系中,将国际组织缔结的条约统称为“国际协定”是一种惯例,并且这些条约也通常是以“国际协定”为名。See H. G. Schermers and N. M. Blokker, International Institutional Law:Unity within Diversity,4th edn, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2003, pp.1111-1112.
③ Opinion 1/75 Re OECD Local Costs Standard [1975] ECR 1355.
④该条明确规定条约应为书面协定,而“第1/75号咨询意见”中的定义并不局限于此。
⑤截至目前,欧盟在共同外交与安全政策领域共缔结了59项协定。See EU's treaty-making activity in the field of CFSP, at http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/searchByActivity.do, accessed 28/02/2009.
⑥有学者鲜明地指出,没有哪一个国际组织能够像欧盟那样具有类似国家的特征,也没有哪一个国际组织能够像欧盟那样与第三国和其他国际组织广泛缔结国际协定。See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press,2004, pp.8-9.
⑦欧共体在其专属权能领域之内单独与第三国缔结的协定则被称为“欧共体型协定”(Community agreement)。有关混合协定与欧共体型协定的区别,参见曾令良：《欧洲共同体与现代国际法》,武汉大学出版社1992年7月版,第154-155页。同时参见后文第一章第四节和第三章第四节有关混合协定缔约机制和实施机制的论述。
①由于欧盟的权能有限,代表欧盟缔结多边协定的是欧共体,以及在混合协定的情况下包含成员国。
② K. Lenaerts and E. De Smijter, "The European Community's Treaty-making Competence", Yearbook of European Law, Vol.16,1996, p.1.
③ See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004,p.102.
① See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004, pp.259-268.
②本文为表述方便,将条约的“暂停实施”称作“中止”。
③ See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.466; see also Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, "Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community:An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice", European Journal of International law, Vol.9,1998, p.472.
① European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.5.
② European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.6.
③ See Case 11/70 Internationle Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr-und Vorratstelle fur Getreide und Futtermittel [1970] ECR 1125,para.4.
④辩护权利例如：获取有效司法救济的权利、获取法律援助的权利、律师和代理人获得通讯的权利、自我辩护的权利等。有关欧盟法体系中基本权利的类别,See Damian Chalmers et al., European Union Law:Text and Materials, Cambridge University Press,2006, pp.237-238.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Arts.6 (1), (2).
⑥ Ibid., Art.49.
⑦ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.7(3); see also Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Arts.309 (1),(2).
① Damian Chalmers et al., European Union Law:Text and Materials, Cambridge University Press,2006, pp.246-258.
② See EC Commission, Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, SEC(2001)380/3.该文件要求欧盟委员会的任何立法提案和草案都应首先通过与《欧盟基本权利宪章》相容性的审查,并且那些与《宪章》有具体联系的立法提案和草案应以正式声明的形式表明这种相容性,并指出与《宪章》条款的联系。
③ European Parliament, Report on the situation as regards fundamental rights in the European Union (2000/2231(INI)), A-5223/2001.
④详细信息,参见http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/cfr_cdf/index_en.htm,2009年3月20日访问。
⑤ Council Regulation(EC) No 168/2007 of 15 February 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [2007] OJ L53/1.
①有关欧盟基本权利局的活动信息,详见：http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/home/home_en.htm,2009年3月20日访问。
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, p.2.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.11(1).
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Arts.172,181.
⑤弗兰西斯·斯奈德教授将“软法”界定为：“原则上不具有法律约束力,但会产生实际效果的行为规则”。关于欧盟法律渊源中“软法”的概念、表现形式及特征, 参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以(欧洲宪法条约)为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第153-156页。
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (1995)216 final.
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final.
③ European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final.
④ European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final.
⑤ European Commission, Communication on Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners, COM (2003)294 final.
⑥ See http://ec.europa.eu/external relations/human_rights/guidelines/index.htm,2009年3月30日访问。
⑦“属于少数群体的人的权利”(rights of persons belonging to minorities),简称为“少数人的权利”(minority rights)。《公民权利与政治权利国际公约》第27条规定：“在那些存在着人种的、宗教的或语言的少数人的国家中,不得否认属于这种少数群体的人同他们的群体中的其他成员共同享有自己的文化,信奉和践行自己的宗教或使用自己的语言的权利。”国际劳工组织大会第七十六届会议于一九八九年六月二十七日通过了专门的《土著人民和少数群体的权利公约》(第169号公约,1991年9月5日生效)。联合国大会一九九二年十二月十八日第47/135号决议通过了《在民族或族裔、宗教和语言上属于少数群体的人的权利宣言》(E/CN.4/2004/75)。有关少数人权利的介绍,参见联合国官方网站：http://www.un.org/chinese/hr/issue/ minorities.htm,2009年2月20日访问。
⑧ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, pp.29-59; see also EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.27-53.
①2005年1月,索拉纳任命麦克·马瑟森(Michael Matthiessen)作为首任“人权私人代表”,2007年1月29日,瑞娜·孔佳(Riina Kionka)女士继任这一职务。
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, p.9.
③ Ibid., p.87.
④ European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.3.
⑤ See Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policy:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.194-195.
①在欧盟内部,人权经常以“基本权利”(fundamental rights)这一限制性的概念形式出现,并且欧盟重点提及的国际人权文件也基本限于《欧洲人权公约》,其他的国际人权文件鲜有提及。这实际上反应了欧盟内部人权政策的重点仍然是公民权利与政治权利——尽管欧盟近年来也开始逐步重视经济、社会和文化权利。在对外关系层面,欧盟提倡人权的普遍性、相互依赖性和不可分割性,同时“国际人权宪章”(包括《世界人权宣言》、《公民权利与政治权利国际公约》、《经济、社会与文化权利国际公约》)也是欧盟经常对第三国援引的人权规范。这说明欧盟对外人权政策中的人权概念从一开始就要广于内部人权政策中的人权概念。
②关于欧洲法院与欧洲人权法院在人权保护之间的冲突与合作关系, See Sionaidh Douglas-Scott, "A Tale of Two Courts:Luxembourg, Strasbourg and the Growing European Human Rights Acquis", Common Market Law Review, Vol.43, No.3,2006, pp.629-665.
③ Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policy:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004, p.195.
④ See European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.15.
⑤欧盟对外人权政策的“超常”发展虽然符合欧盟及其成员国的利益,但是欧盟在内外人权政策之间奉行“双重标准”(double standard)的做法有损欧盟对外人权政策的一致性和公正性,不利于欧盟在对外关系中开展“人权外交”。对此问题的集中论述,See Anneli Albi, "Ironies in Human Rights Protection in the EU: Pre-Accession Conditionality and Post-Accession Conundrums", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1,2009, pp.46-69; see also Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policy:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004; see also Philip Alston and J.H.H. Weiler, "An'Ever Closer Union'in Need of a Human Rights Policy:The European Union and Human Rights ", in Philip Alston(ed.), The European Union and Human Rigths, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp.3-66.
①欧盟委员会认为,消除贫困的目标,以及全球化对贫困人口和弱势群体的冲击客观上也要求欧盟在全球推行人权和民主化政策。See European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.4.
② See EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999-2008,aialable at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/ human_rights/doc/index.htm.
③ See European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INI)), A6-0153/2008.
④ See European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.20.
⑤有学者将“人权条件”界定为：一国或国际组织将保护人权和促进民主作为授予他国以利益的前提条件。这些利益通常包括：援助、贸易减让、合作协定、政治接触、国际组织的成员资格等等。See K.E. Smith, "The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU's Relations with Third Countries:How Effective?", EUI Working Paper, SPS No.97/7,1997, p.6.
⑥ European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.10同时参见作者在附录1中有关“人权条款”的统计信息。
① Dominic McGoldrick, International Relations Law of the European Union, Longman Ltd.,1997, pp.191-193.
② Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.475-481.
③ Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas. "Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community:An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice", European Journal of International Law, Vol.9,1998, pp.473-477.
④ Elizabeth Shaver Duquette, "Human Rights in the European Union:Internal Versus External Objectives", Cornell International Law Journal,Vol.4,2001, pp.381-382.
①欧洲自由贸易联盟国家包括瑞士、挪威、冰岛和列支敦士登。
② See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.73-78.
① Council Declaration on the situation in Uganda, adopted 21 June 1977, in Bull EC 6-1977, para.2.2.59.根据这一政策,欧共体拖延或取消了欧洲发展基金(European Development Fund,简称EDF)中的财政提案。结果,从《洛美协定Ⅰ》生效至阿明政权倒台,乌干达仅分配到5%的欧洲发展基金,并且这些基金只被用于建设医院等小型项目。
②《世界人权宣言》第3条规定：“人人有权享有生命、自由和人身安全”；第5条规定：“任何人不得加以酷刑或施以残忍的、不人道的或有辱人格的待遇或处罚”。
③ E. Fierro, The EU's Approach to Human Rights Conditionality in Practice, Kluwer Law International,2003, p.55.
① European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.11.
② See Lome IV Convention [19891 OJ L229/1, Art.5.
③ Framework Trade and Cooperation Agreement between the EEC and Argentina [19901 OJ L295/67, Art.1.
④ Trade and Cooperation Agreementthe EEC between the EEC and Albania [1992] OJ L343/2, Art.1.
⑤ E.g. Trade and Cooperation Agreement between the EEC and Estonia [1992] OJ L403/2, Art.21.
① Bull EC 5-1992. Point 1.2.13.
② Ibid., Point 1.2.12.
③ See European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216 final,23 May 1995, Annex 1.
④ European Commission, Communication on Human Rights, Democracy and Development Cooperation Policy, SEC (1991)61, p.7.
⑤ Luxembourg European Council, Declaration Concerning Human Rights,28-29 June 1991, Bull EC 6-1991.
⑥ Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Developmen，t 28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991.
⑦但是,以上文件未能在“人权条款”与中止援助和中止协定之类的“消极措施”之间建立明确的法律联系,而同时期海地与前南斯拉夫发生的事件也反映了欧共体有必要在协定中规定中止条款。
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216 final,23 May 1995.
②这些协定最典型的当属欧共体在20世纪90年代初与10个申请加入欧盟的中东欧国家缔结的《欧洲协定》。随着罗马尼亚和保加利亚在2007年1月1日的正式入盟,《欧洲协定》已经成为历史。此外,像欧共体与南非在1994年缔结的合作协定也由于新协定的缔结而失效。
③有关含有“人权条款”的国际协定,参见欧盟委员会条约司的统计。See European Commission, Inventory of Agreements containing Human Rights Clause, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/ agreements/default.home.do. (?)司时参见作者在附录1中有关欧共体含有“人权条款”之国际协定的统计信息。
④由于巴勒斯坦的特殊国际法地位,欧共体与巴勒斯坦当局缔结的地中海协定属于临时协定。
⑤欧共体与白俄罗斯、土库曼斯坦和塔吉克斯坦缔结的协定由于欧盟对这三个国家人权与民主状况的质疑而至今未获批准。
①非加太集团目前由78个国家组成,其中有48个非洲国家、16个加勒比国家和14个太平洋国家。古巴在2000年成为非加太集团的一员,并先后于2000年和2003年两次申请加入《科托努协定》,欧盟以“人权条款”为由阻止古巴加入该协定。
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements. DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, p.31.
③例如,欧共体以往与格鲁吉亚、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、亚美尼亚、俄罗斯、乌克兰、黎巴嫩缔结的协定在生效以前一直适用的临时协定中包含“人权条款”。目前欧共体与土库曼斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、波黑、阿尔巴尼亚、黑山适用的临时协定中也包含有“人权条款”。
① See Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3.
② See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3.
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM(1995)216 final, Annex 1.
② See Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EC/MS and the FYROM [2004] OJ L84/13, Art.2; See also Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EC/MS and Croatia [2005] OJ L26/3, Art.2.
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, p.6.
④详见第二章第二节有关人权与民主、法治、良治原则关联性的阐述。
① Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the EC/ MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/3, Art.2.
② See Community Declaration in relation to the Essential Element, in Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the EC/ MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311, p.413.
③ See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317, Arts.9(3),97.
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
② Ibid.
③ See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96.
① See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209, p.40.
② See European Commission, Agreements containing a Suspension-Human Rights Clause, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do同时参见作者在附录1中有关“人权条款”的统计信息。
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
①参见附录1有关联合声明的统计信息。
②这种灵活性一定程度上也是由于不同文本的翻译所造成,这将影响到“人权条款”法律性质的认定。参见第二章第一节有关“人权条款”法律性质的争议。另外,瑞德尔(Riedel)和威尔(Will)也强调,“人权条款”规范的多变性会损害标准条款的优势,所以应尽量避免之。但在必要的情形下,如为了确保与第三国缔结某项协定,“人权条款”可以允许出现一定的变动,但此时务必维持该条款之精神。See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.743-744.
① Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1759, para.27.
② Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.470.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.169.
① Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, "Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community:An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice"'.European Journal of International Law,Vol.9,1998, p.474.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.5.
③参见附录1中有关欧共体纳入“人权条款”之法律基础的统计。
① See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.734.
② Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR 1-6177.
③ Ibid., paras.16-17.
① Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, paras.19-24.
② Ibid., para.26.
③ Ibid., para.29.
④ See The Opinion of the Advocate General in Portugal v. Council, point 29.
⑤ Luxembourg European Council, Declaration concerning Human Rights,28-29 June 1991, Bull EC 6-1991, para.11.
⑥ Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development,28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991.
⑦《维也纳宣言和行动纲领》第8段也指出：“民主、发展和尊重人权和基本自由是相互依存、相辅相成的”
① European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, pp.2-6.
② Case 12/86 Meryem Demirel v. Stad Schwabisch Gm und [1987] ECR 3747, para.9.
③该标准设立的第一项条件是：“(候选国必须显示)存在确保民主、法治和人权,以及尊重和保护少数人权利的稳定机制”。See Christophe Hillion, "The Copenhagen Criteria and Their Progeny", in Christophe Hillion (ed.), EU Enlargement:A Legal Approach, Oxford-Portland Oregon:Hart Publishing,2004, pp.1-22.
① Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, p.47.
①张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”,《欧洲研究》2007年第6期,第62页。
②Opinion 1/75 Local Cost Standard[1975] ECR 1355,p.1362.
③Opinion 1/78 Agreement on Natural Rubber [1979] ECR 2871,paras.43-45.
① Case 45/86 Commission v. Council (GSP) [19871 ECR 1493, paras.17-18.
② Opinion 2/00 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety [2001] ECR 1-9713, paras.37,40.
③ Case C-281/01 Commission v. Council [2002] ECR 1-12049, paras.38-41.
① Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR 1-5267, para.89.
② Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, para.28.
③ Alan Dashwood, "The Limits of European Communities Powers", European Law Review, Vol.21,1996, p.123.
④ Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, para.29.
① Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, Paras.34,35.
② See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005,p.197.
③ See A. Arnull, "Left to Its Own Devices? Opinion 2/94 and the Protection of Fundamental Rights in the European Union", in Alan Dashwood (ed.), EC External Relations Law:New Perspectives, London:Sweet & Maxwell,2000, p.71.
④ Philip Alston and J. H. H. Weiler, "An'Ever Closer Union'in need of a Human Rights Policy:The European Union and Human Rights", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.24-25.
① Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, para.29.
② Case 29/69 Stauder v.City of Ulm [1969] ECR 419, para.7.
③ Case 11/70 Internationale Handelsgesellschaft [1970] ECR 1125, p.1134.
① Case 4/73 Nold v. Commission [1974] ECR 491, p.505.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.3.③参见第五章有关《里斯本条约》对欧盟人权政策改革及其对“人权条款”之影响的论述。
④瑞德尔(Ridel)和威尔(Will)即认为,保护人权是欧共体的一项不成文的整体目标(unwritten general objective)。既然“人权条款”是在欧共体对外关系中实现尊重人权的必要手段之一,第308条应涵盖这一条款。不过,他们同时也强调,第308条是欧共体与发展中国家缔结含有“人权条款”之协定的充分的法律基础(a sufficient basis),对于发展中国家以外的其他国家,该条款仍然只是保留性的法律基础(a reserve basis)。 See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.736.
① J. H. H. Weiler and S. C. Fries, "A Human Rights Policy for the European Community and the Union:The Question of Competences", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Cambridge University Press,1999, pp.147-165.
② Piet Eeckhout, "The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Federal Questions", Common Market Law Review, Vol.39,2002, p.983.
③ Enzo Cannizzaro, "The Scope of the EU Foreign Power:Is the EC Competent to Conclude Agreements with Third States Including Human Rights Clauses?", in Enzo Cannizzaro (ed.), The European Union as an Actor in International Relations, Kluwer Law International,2002, pp.297-319.
① Case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1970] ECR 263.
② Joint Cases 3.4, and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others[1976] ECR 1279.
③ Opinion 1/76 (Re the Draft Agreement for a Laying-up Fund for Inland Waterway Vessels) [1977]ECR 741.
① I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.49-53.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.220.
② Opinion 1/78 (Re Natural Rubber Agreement) [1979] ECR 2871, para.55.
③ Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR I-5267, para.68.
① Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR 1-6177, para.39.
② Ibid., paras.45 and 47.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(1).
②这类决定有别于《欧共体条约》第249条(原第189条)中规定的一般性的决定文件。自成一类的决定适用于欧共体机构运作和相互间的关系,具有法律约束力。一般性的决定原则上对其发布的对象具有整体的约束力。判断某一法律文件是否属于决定,不能单从其名称出发,而应考察其实体规定。
③“第133条委员会”的主要职能在于协调欧共体的贸易政策,一股每周召开一次会议,讨论议题广泛,大至WTO谈判事项,小至某一产品的出口问题,同时考虑其他政策涉及的贸易层面以确保欧共体贸易政策的一致性。在谈判时,“第133条委员会”辅助欧盟委员会的谈判工作。参见张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”,《欧洲研究》2007年第6期,第70页。
④欧盟委员会坚持理事会任命的特别委员会只应发挥咨询作用,而理事会和成员国虽然尊重委员会的谈判职能,但希望特别委员会能尽可能地直接参与谈判工作。See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press,2004, pp.107-108.
① See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.172.
②1986年《维也纳条约法公约》第2条第1款b项之二对“正式确认行为”的解释是：“国际组织用以在国际上确定其同意受一项条约拘束并相当于一国表示批准的国际行为”。
③参见1969年和1986年《维也纳条约法公约》第11条。
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(2).
⑤欧盟理事会作出缔结协定的决定一般包括两方面的内容：一是表明欧盟各机构在各自权能范围内已经完成了国际协定的批准程序,二是建议欧共体有关代表按照国际协定中规定的程序向其他缔约方表示欧共体同意承受协定的拘束。See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press,2004, p.113.
① See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.175-176.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(6).
① Opinion 1/75 (Re OECD Local Cost Standard) [1975] ECR 1355, paras.11,12.
②《欧洲法院程序规则》第107条第2款也规定,咨询管辖权处理的问题限于：拟议中的协定是否与《欧共体条约》兼容,以及欧共体或其机构是否享有达成协定之权能。See Rules of Procedure of the Court of Justice, Art.107(2).
③ I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.112-113.
④ Framework Agreement on Relations between the European Parliament and the Commission [2001] OJ C121/122.属于欧盟的机构间协定。有关此类文件法律地位的详细论述,See Herwig C. H. Hofmann, "Agreements in EU Law", European Law Review, Vol.31,2006, pp.800-820.
①《欧共体条约》第251条和第252条是关于欧盟机构立法中的“共同决定”程序和“合作”程序的规定,欧洲议会与理事会同时在这两种程序中享有较大立法决策权能。但第300条第3款第1段却特别强调若内部规则的通过需适用这类程序时,相关领域的对外协定的缔结只要求理事会与欧洲议会进行磋商即可而不要求议会同意,即仅仅适用一般的缔约程序规定。这无疑背离了“平行主义原则”,因而招致批评。Eeckhout即认为,由于国际协定在欧盟法中一般具有直接效力,这就使之类似于内部立法,很难理解为何欧共体在内部立法时要求议会同意,但在缔结相同领域的国际协定时仅要求议会磋商,这种做法是不协调的。See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.177-178.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(3)(1).
③ Ibid., Art.300(3)(2).
④参见第三章第四节中有关混合协定基本法律问题的论述。
① See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.216.
② See I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.151-152.
③ Ibid., pp.152-153.
④ See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.218-219.
① See Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the EC/MS and the Republic of San Marino [2002] OJ L84/43.
② Michel Petite, " Current Legal Issues in the External Relations of the European Union", EUI Working Papers, Law No.2006/38, p.4.
① Agence Europe, No 6901,p.10.
② Agence Europe, No 6903, p.8.
③ Vaughne Miller, "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.33-34.
④ Maria Koblanck, "What's in a human rights clause? Its development, its application, and an insight into the construct of a European identity", KU Leuven, June 2003, June 2003, p.29.
⑤ Agence Europe, No 7004, p.6.
① See European Commission delegation to Australia and New Zealand website, available at http://www.ecdel.org.au/ eu_and australia/jointdeclaration/jointdeclaration.htm.
② Agence Europe, No 7004, p.6.
③ See European Commission delegation to Australia and New Zealand website, available at www.ecdel.org.au/ newzealand/JointDeclaration2007/index.htm.
① Vaughne Miller. "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.43-44.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.60-61.
①《联合国宪章》第55条规定：“……联合国应促进……(寅)全体人类之人权及基本自由之普遍尊重与遵守,不分种族、性别、语言、或宗教”。第56条规定：“各会员国担允采取共同及个别行动与本组织合作,以达成第55条所载之宗旨”。
① Antonio Cassese, International Law, Oxford University Press,2001, p.104.
① See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.96.
①例如欧共体与阿根廷、智利、巴西、印度、澳门、蒙古、巴拉圭、斯里兰卡、乌拉圭和越南缔结的双边协定,参见附录1。
②例如欧共体与以色列和突尼斯缔结的双边坍定,参见附录1。
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96 (2).
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.6 (2).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.6 (1).
② Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EC/MS and FYROM [2004] OJ L84/13, Art.2.
① See European Communities-Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/AB/R,7 April 2004, paras.145-147.
② See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.89-93.
③ See Francis Snyder, "The Gatekeepers:the European Courts and WTO Law", Common Market Law Review, Vol.40,2004, p.333.
① See Enzo Cannizzaro, "The Scope of the EU Foreign Power:Is the EC Competent to Conclude Agreements with Third States Including Human Rights Clauses?", in Enzo Cannizzaro (ed.), The European Union as an Actor in International Relations, Kluwer Law International,2002, pp.301-302.
②[瑞典]格德门德尔·阿尔弗雷德松、[挪威]阿斯布佐恩·艾德：《(世界人权宣言>：努力实现的共同标准》,中国人权研究会翻译,四川人民出版社1999年6月版,第5-8页。
③ Scott Davidson, Human Rights, Open University Press,1993, pp.64-67.
④ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy: from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final,pp.5-6; European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998)146 final, p.4.
① Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, "Trade Preference and Human Rights", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.707.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999, p.15; EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2000, p.33.
②[英]A.米尔恩：《人的权利与人的多样性——人权哲学》,中国大百科全书出版社1995年3月版,第7页。
① Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights, Westview Press,1993, p.20.
②[英]A.米尔恩：《人的权利与人的多样性——人权哲学》,中国大百科全书出版社1995年3月版,第7页。
③张华：“论尊重人权作为国际法的基本原则及其对中国和平发展的影响”,《法学评论》2007年第2期,第68页。
④ Antonio Cassese, International Law, Oxford University Press,2001, p.104.
⑤ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, pp.178-179.
⑥ See Edward Lawson, Encyclopedia of Human Rights,2nd edn, Taylor & Francis,1996, p.348.
①国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程(第一卷)》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版,第10页。
②参见《维也纳宣言和行动纲领》,第5段。
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, pp.5-6;
④ European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998)146 final, p.4.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.27-53.
① Agreement amending the Fourth ACP-EC Convention of Lome(Lome Convention IV bis)Signed in Mauritius on 4 November 1995, Art.5(2).
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ 317/3, Art.9(2).
① Christophe Hillion, "The Copenhagen Criteria and their Progeny", in Christophe Hillion (ed.), EU Enlargement: A Legal Approach, Oxford and Portland Oregon:Hart Publishing,2004. pp.1-22.
② Council Regulation(EC) No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2005] OJ L169/1.
③ Regulation(EC) No 1889/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on establishing a financing instrument for the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide [2006] OJ L386/1.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Arts.6(1),49.
① M. Nowak, "Human Rights Conditionality in Relation to Entry to, and Full Participation in, the European Union", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.694.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.7.
③ Ibid., Art.6(2).
①在1978年的“爱尔兰诉英国案”中,欧洲人权法院将“违反人权的惯行”界定为：“与《欧洲人权公约》不符之惯行由相同或类似的违反累积而成,这种违反充分多数,并相互关联,以致无法简单等同于孤立的事件或例外情形,而是一种模式或体制。没有这些违反,惯行本身是不构成对尊重人权原则的违反的”。See Ireland v. United Kingdom,18 January 1978, Series A-25, para.159.
② Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, pp.198-202.
③ Antonio Cassese, International Law, Oxford University Press,2001, p.104.
④ Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [19991 OJ L311, p.411.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96.
①国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程(第二卷)》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版,第91页。
②《2005年世界首脑会议成果》,第119段。全文参见：http://www.un.org/chinese/ga/60/docs/ares60_4.htm,2008年10月12日访问。
③联合国《促进和巩固民主文件》(E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/36),2002年6月10日,第96段。全文参见联合国人权事务网站：http://www.un.org/chinese/hr/issue/index.html,2008年10月12日访问。
④同上,第99段。
⑤同上,第101段。
① European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final.
② See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.9.
③ Vaughne Miller, "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.40-41.
① Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/1, Art.2.
② Ibid., p.413.
③ Ibid., p.414.
④参见联合国《促进和巩固民主文件》(E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/36),2002年6月10日,第15、19、91-94段。
⑤ European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final, p.5.
① D.J. Harris, Cases and Materials on International Law,6th edn., Sweet and Maxwell,2004, p.554.
②2001年通过的《国家责任条款草案》是联合国国际法委员会近四十年努力工作的成果。James Crawford将之誉为“对国际法基础篇章之编撰与逐渐发展的一项贡献”,堪与1966年的《条约法条款草案》相媲美——后者在1969年经过细微修改后上升为《条约法公约》。See James Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility:Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press,2002, p.60.
① Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Rep.7, Paras.85,87.
①贺其治：《国家责任法及案例浅析》,法律出版社2003年11月版,第306页。
② Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.229.
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
② Ibid., Annex 2.
①参见《罗马条约》第226条。
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.15.
③ Ibid., Art.120.
④ Ibid., Art.134.
⑤ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart 2001, p.232..
⑥参见第四章有关“人权条款”在欧盟对外关系中的现实作用的论述。
①联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第52条第1款。
② European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
①联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第52条第2款。
②贺其治：《国家责任法及案例浅析》,法律出版社2003年11月版,第321页。
③联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第52条。
① Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/1, Arts.2,3.
②联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第50条。
③ Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311, p.411.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96.
①此处为贴合《维也纳条约法公约》条款中之顺序安排,使用“条约终止/中止”一词,但实际上中止(暂停实施)一般为终止的前奏,因此文章其他部分在论述“人权条款”的实施时,使用“中止/终止”一词,以表明先后顺序。
① ILC, "Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties and Commentaries(reprinted)", American Journal of International Law,Vol.61,1967, pp.426-427.
② Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Rep.7, Paras.102-103.
① Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997]ICJ Rep.7, Para.104.
② Ibid.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.13.
④ D. Bosma, " The Dutch-Surinam Treaty on Development Assistance:A Correct Appeal to a Fundamental Change of Circumstances?", Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol.3,1990, p.214.
① A. Leenen, Community Law and International Law:A Study into the Scope of Its Own Legal Order of the European Communities, Deventer:Kluwer,1984, p.176.
② Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.328.
③ Rache是德国的一名贸易商,从事进口科索沃酒类饮料的业务,由于欧共体中止与前南斯拉夫的合作协定,其丧失了原本享有的关税减让待遇,因而在德国联邦财政法院提起诉讼。德国法院请求欧洲法院就部长理事会中止条例是否有效的问题作出初步裁决。
④ Case C-162/96 Racke v. Hauptzolamt [1998] ECR 1-3655.
⑤ See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004, pp.146-149.
① Yearbook of International Law Commission(YBILC), Vol.Ⅱ, p.255.
②[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》, 江国青译, 中国人民大学出版社2005年版,第231-233页。
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
① Case C-162/96 Racke v. Hauptzolamt [1998] ECR 1-3655, para.59.
② Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.224.
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
① Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96(2)(c).
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press. 2005, p.129.
① Agreement on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3, Arts.90-95.
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.14.
③ Ibid., Art.15.
① Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.16.
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [20001 OJ L317/3, Art.17.
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
①参见附录1中有关“争端解决条款”的相关信息。
② Agreement on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3, Art.101.
③ Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the EC/MS and Morocco [2000] OJ L70/2, Art.86.
① Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/3, Art.104.
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.98.
①参见附录1中有关“人权条款”的统计信息。
①根据《国际法院规约》第36条,国际法院的诉讼管辖范围分为三大类：自愿管辖、协定管辖和任意强制管辖。理论上,欧盟成员国与第三国可以通过自愿管辖的形式将“人权条款”的争端提交给国际法院。但是很难想象双方会就管辖权问题达成一致。有关国际法院诉讼管辖更为详细的论述,参见[英]伊恩·布朗利：《国际公法原理》,曾令良、余敏友等译,法律出版社2003年8月版, 第786-793页。
② Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/3, Art.104(10).
① Case 26/62 Van Gend en Loss [1963] ECR 1, p.13.
① Case 2/74 Reyners [1974] ECR 631.
② Alan Dashwood. "The Principle of Direct Effect in the European Community Law", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.16,1978,p.231.
③根据《欧共体条约》第249条(原第189条),指令仅在要取得的结果上对其所发布的成员国具有约束力,但各国当局有权选择具体的方式。从欧洲法院的判例来看,指令仅具有纵向的直接效力。有关指令直接效力问题的详细论述,参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第174-176页。
① Case 12/86 Demirel v. Stadt Schwabisch Gm und [1987]ECR 3719, para.14; Case C-162/96 Racke GmbH& Co v. Hauptzollamt Mainz [1998] ECR 1-3655, para.41.
② Case 12/86 Demirel v. Stadt Schwabisch Gm und [1987]ECR 3719, para.14; Case C-18/90 ONEM v. Kziber [1991] ECR 1-199, para.15;Case C-162/96 Racke GmbH& Co v. Hauptzollamt Mainz [1998] ECR 1-3655, para.31.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.281-292.
④ Case C-149/96 Portugal v. Council [1999] ECR 1-8395.
⑤曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版, 第179页。
① I.Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.135-136.
② Case 21-24/72 International Fruit Company [19721 ECR 1219.
③ Case C-149/96 Portugal v. Council [1999] ECR I-8395.
④ Case C-280/93 Germany v. Council (Bananas case) [1994] ECR I-4973, para.111.
⑤ See Case C-69/89 Nakajima v. Council [1991] ECR I-2069.
⑥ See Case 70/87 Fediol v. Commission [1989] ECR 1781.
⑦ E.g. Case C-76/00 Petrotub [2003] ECR 1-79; Case C-352/96 Italy v. Council [1998] ECR I-6937.
① Case C-280/93 Germany v. Council (Bananas case) [1994] ECR I-4973, para.112.
② See Anthony Arnull et al., Wyatt and Dashwood's European Union Law,4th edn, Sweet & Maxwell,2006. pp.192-193.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.302-303.
④ Ibid., p.305.
① T.C. Hartley, The Foundations of European Community Law,6th edn,2007, Oxford University Press, P.193.
②不过,如果该条款与其他更为清晰地规定成员国义务的条款一道适用的话,则有可能产生直接效力。但是,这种情形并不绝对。See Case 9/73 Schluter[1973] ECR 1135, para.39; see also Case 44/84 Hurd v. Jones (Inspector of Taxes) [1986] ECR 29, paras.47-48.
①See Case 70/87 Fediol v.Commission [1989] ECR 1781,para.19.
②See Case C-69/89 Nakajima v. council[1991] ECR I-2069,paras.30-31.
① I.Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, p.125.
②国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程(第一卷)》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版,第5-6页。
① European Convention for the Proctection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms(1950), Art.1.
② European Convention for the Proctection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms(1950), Art.8.
③ Von Hannover v. Germany [2005] 40 EHRR 1, para.57.
④ See K. Lenaerts and A. Verhoeven, "Towards a Legal Framework for Executive Rule-Making in the EU? The Contribution of the New Comitology Decision", Common Market Law Review, Vol.37,2000, p.654.
⑤有学者认为,欧盟承担的人权义务并不局限于内部的法律体系,特别是《欧洲人权公约》。作为国际法主体,欧盟自然直接或间接地受到与人权相关的国际习惯法和国际条约的约束。在欧盟内部,传统认为欧盟仅承担不违反人权的义务,亦即一种消极的尊重人权义务。但随着欧盟承担的国际义务的扩展,从国际法层面来看,欧盟在其权能范围之内负有保护和实现人权的积极义务。See Tawhida Ahmed and Israel de Jesus Butler, "The European Union and Human Rights:An International Law Perspective", European Journal of International Law, Vol.17, No.4,2006, pp.771-801.
⑥《欧共体条约》第230条-232条规定欧洲法院可以对欧盟机构的行为进行司法审查。成员国、欧盟机构及个人可以基于缺乏权能、违反必要程序要求、违反基础条约或与其适用相关的任何法律规则、滥用权利这些理由向欧洲法院提起废除(撤销)之诉(annulment actions),同时还可就欧盟机构的不作为(failure to act)提起诉讼。有关欧洲法院对欧盟机构行为司法审查的详细论述,参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第279-303页。
①关于成员国在混合协定中的法律义务,详见后文第四节有关论述。
② Opinion 1/94 WTO [19941 ECR 1-5267.
③ Case 104/81 Kupferberg [1982] ECR 3641, para.14.
④《欧共体条约》第10条的规定是：“成员国应采取一切适当的措施——无论是一般性的还是特殊性的,以确保本条约所产生的,或由欧共体机构采取行动所造成的义务得以履行。成员国应促进欧共体各项任务的完成”。
①《欧共体条约》第226条赋予了欧盟委员会在保证和监督成员国实施欧盟法方面的具体权利；第227条规定了成员国之间相互监督的程序。
② Opinion 2/00 (Biosafety Protocal) [2001] ECR 1-9713, para.6.
③例如,1969年的《维也纳条约法公约》第27条规定：“一当事国不得援引其国内法规定为理由而不履行条约”;1986年的《维也纳条约法公约》第27条规定：“为一条约当事方的国际组织不得援引该组织的规则作为不履行条约的理由”。
①1997年的《阿姆斯特丹条约》将第三支柱中的“签证、庇护、移民及其他与人员自由流动相关的政策”转移至第一支柱第四编,即在此领域实现了“共同体化”,第三支柱相应地被改称为“刑事事项的警务与司法合作’
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.11.
②所谓“共同体成果原则”,就是指成员国在扩展和深化欧洲一体化的进程中遵行已经制定的各种法律、政策和措施以及业已采取的各种行动,同时要求欧盟各机构在行使其权能时不得违背欧盟的既定成果,而必须以既定成果为基础,以保证欧盟法律、政策、措施和行动的连贯性、一致性和持续性。参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第43-45页。
③“一致性原则”有双重含义,首先是要求欧盟确保其内部的一致性,但更重要的是要求欧盟在不同条款和支柱中之行动和措施的一致性。See Birgit Weidel, "Regulation or Common Position? The Impact of the Pillar Construction on the European Union's External Policy", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, p.34.
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.1.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.2(5).
⑥ Ibid.,Art.3(1).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.3(2).
② Ibid., Art.47.
③ Joint Action 96/197 on airport transit visas [1997] OJ L63/8.
④ Case C-170/96 Commission v. Council [1998] ECR 1-2763.
⑤ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.149.
① Birgit Weidel, "Regulation or Common Position? The Impact of the Pillar Construction on the European Union's External Policy", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, p.49.
② Ibid.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.13.
④ Decision 1999/414/CFSP, Common Strategy of the European Union on Russia [1999] OJ L157/1.
⑤ Decision 1999/877/CFSP, European Council Common Strategy on Ukraine [1999] OJ L331/1.
⑥ Decision 2000/458/CFSP, Common Strategy of the European Council on the Mediterranean region [2000] OJ L183/5.
⑦1995年11月底,首届欧盟—地中海南岸国家部长级会议在巴塞罗那举行。会议首次提出“欧盟—地中海伙伴关系计划”,又称“巴塞罗那进程”。其目的主要是通过政治和安全对话实现地区和平与稳定、通过经济和财政合作逐步争取在2010年前建立欧盟与地中海南岸国家的自由贸易区,以及通过加强各国社会、文化和人员的交流,促进欧盟和地中海国家之间的全面合作。
① Birgit Weidel, "Regulation or Common Position? The Impact of the Pillar Construction on the European Union's External Policy", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, pp.52-53.
②《欧共体条约》第297条规定：“在严重内部动乱影响到维护法治与秩序的情况下,在战争或严重的国际紧张局势构成战争威胁的情况下,或者为了履行其为维护和平与国际安全而接受的义务,对于此时成员国可能被要求采取的措施,成员国应相互协商以求一起采取步骤,防止其影响共同市场的运行。”
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.424-425.
④共同商业政策的管辖范围最初限于货物贸易。欧洲法院发布“第1/94号咨询意见”后,历次欧盟基础条约的修改都试图扩大其管辖范围。《尼斯条约》将之扩大至服务贸易和知识产权的商业层面,《欧洲宪法条约》和《里斯本条约》进一步将之扩大至外国直接投资(FDI)。有关共同商业政策涵盖领域的详细论述,参见张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”,《欧洲研究》2007年第6期,第60-74页。
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.301.
② Ibid., Art.60.
③ See Case C-84/95 Bosphorus v. Minister for Transport, Energy and Communications, Ireland and the Attorney General[1996] ECR I-3953;Case C-124/95 The Queen, ex parte Centro-Com v. H M Treasury and Bank of England [1997] ECR I-81;Case C-177/95 Ebony Maritime and Loten Navigation v. Prefetto della Provincia di Brindisi and others [1997] ECR I-1111.
④ Panos Koutrakos, Trade, Foreign Policy and Defence in EU Constitutional Law, Oxford-Portland,2001, pp.72-76.
① Council of the European Union, Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions), Brussels,7 June 2004,10198/1/04 REV 1, Annex 1.
② " actus contrarius "这一拉丁语在法律中被称作“相反行为原则”(contrary act/contrary action),是指某一特定行为适用与其相反行为(存在明确的法律规定)同样的法律待遇。该原则仅适用于不存在明确法律规定的具体行为。相关解释,参见http://www.economy-point.org/a/actus-contrarius.html。
③ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.240.
④ Ibid., p.241.
⑤参见第四章有关“人权条款”在欧盟对外关系中的现实作用的论述。
①根据《欧共体条约》第301条,欧共体在实施经济制裁应以理事会在共同外交与安全政策下通过的联合行动或共同立场为前提,但实践中,理事会一直是通过共同立场要求欧共体实施经济制裁。
②欧盟依据制裁的目的和预期的效果而采取具体的制裁措施。这些措施通常包括：冻结资金和经济资源、入境限制、武器禁运、对可能被用于内部镇压的设备的禁运、其他的出口限制、进口限制、航班禁止、禁止提供金融服务等。See Council of European Union, Guidelines on implementation and evaluation of restrictive measures (sanctions) in the framework of the EU Common Foreigh and Security Policy, Brussels,2 December 2005, 15114/05, p.7.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(2).
① Opinon of the Committee on Development and Cooperation for the Committee on Foreign Affairs,Security and Defence Policy, in EP Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries (COM (95)216), A4-0212/96, point 2.2.
② Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.) The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.739.
① Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, pp.245-246.
②在论述新出现的习惯法规则能否取代先前的条约规则时,安托尼·奥斯特指出：“国际法上并不存在相反行为原则,根据该原则,一项规则只有通过一项具有同样法律性质的规则始得更改”。参见[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》,江国青译,中国人民大学出版社2005年版,第12-13页。
③ Council Decision 91/602 denouncing the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia [1991] OJ L325/23.
④ See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.746-748.
⑤ Council Decision of 11 March 1999 on the procedure for implementing Article 366a of the fourth ACP-EC Convention (1999/214/EC) [1999] OJ L75/31.
① Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.248.
② Internal Agreement between the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/376.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.9(3).
② European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.12.
①关于混合协定产生的具体原因,参见张华：“刍议欧共体对外关系中的混合协定”,《国际论坛》2007年第3期,第69-70页。
② Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR I-5267.
③ Ruling 1/78 (Re Draft Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials) [1978] ECR 2151, para.35.
① Allan Rosas. "Mixed Union-Mixed Agreements", in Martti Koskenniemi (ed.), International Law Aspects of the European Union, Kluwer Law International,1998, p.135.
②有学者指出：“坦率而言,尽管这种权能划分原则上似乎可行,但实践中存在一定的难度。在混合协定中,清晰划分欧共体与成员国之间的权能如果说不是不可能的话,那也至少是经常被付之阙如”。See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.737.
① Decision of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States of the European Communities, meeting within the Council of 11 March 1999 amending the internal agreement on the measures to be taken and the procedures to be followed in applying the fourth ACP-EC Convention(1999/213/EC) [1999] OJ L75/3.
② Internal Agreement Between the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/376.
① Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209/27.
② Internal Agreement between the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, amending the Internal Agreement of 18 September 2000 on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2006] OJ L247/48.
① "LAN Case"-Customs Classification of Certain Computer Equipment, Panel Report, WT/DS62/R, WT/D67/R and WT/D68/R,5 Feb.1998, paras.1.1-1.11.
② Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia) [1992] ICJ rep.240, at 260-262, paras 54-57.
③ Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. USA) [2005] ICJ rep.802, Separate Opinion of Judge Simma, at para. 65.
④ European Commission, Agreements with a Declaration of Competence by the EC, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office,available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do,2009年2月20日访问。
① See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.155-160.
② See Declaration concerning the Competence of the European Community with regard to Matters governed by the United Nations Convention against Corruption [2008] OJ L287/3.
① Case-316/91 Parliament v. Council (Lome Convention) [1994] ECR I-625, para.29.
② Ibid., para.69.
③ Martin Bjorklund, "Responsibility in the EC for Mixed Agreements-Should Non-Member Parties Care?", Nordic Journal of International Law, Vol.70,2001, pp.383-384.
①消极措施(negative measures),是与积极措施(positive measures)相对的概念,由限制性措施(restrictive measures)或曰制裁,和中止/终止协定组成。
① European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.12.
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999, pp.15-16.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2000, p.33.
④ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2003, p.42.
① Vaughne Miller, "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, p.30.
② E. Fierro, The EU's Approach to Human Rights Conditionality in Practice, Martinus Nijhoff,2003, p.309.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.480.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.12,67,73,79.
① Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven,June 2003, pp.36-37.
② Ibid., p.37.
③ Ibid., pp.37-38.
④ Council Decision of 18 February 2002 concluding consultations with Zimbabwe under Article 96 of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2002] OJ L50/64.
① Council Decision of 18 February 2002 concluding consultations with Zimbabwe under Article 96 of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2002] OJ L50/64, Annex.
② Council Common Position 2002/145/CFSP of 18 February 2002 concerning restrictive measures against Zimbabwe[2002]OJ L50/1.
① Council Regulation 310/2002 Concerning Certain Restrictive Measures in respect of Zimbabwe [2002] OJ L50/4.
① Council Common Position 2003/115/CFSP of 19 February 2003 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [20031 OJ L 46/30.
② Council Common Position 2004/161/CFSP of 19 February 2004 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2004] OJ L 50/66.
① Council Common Position 2007/120/CFSP of 19 February 2007 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2007] OJ L51/25.
② Council Common Position 2008/135/CFSP of 18 February 2008 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [20081 OJ L43/39.
③ Council Common Position 2009/68/CFSP of 26 January 2009 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2009] OJ L23/43.
① Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven, June 2003, pp.31-35.
②“格鲁吉亚将俄罗斯告上国际法院”,参见人民网：http://pic.people.com.cn/GB/42590/7875288.html,2008年9月9日访问。
① Renata Goldirova, "EU ministers keep Russian partnership on hold", www.euobeserver.com,2008年10月13日访问。
② Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an association between the EC/MS and Israel [2000] OJ L147/3, Art.2.
① Vaughne Miller. "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.52-53.
②自2008年12月27日以来,以色列对巴勒斯坦加沙地区发动了历时22天的猛烈袭击。以军以死13人、伤数十人的代价,打死1400多名巴勒斯坦人,另有5500多人受伤,其中绝大多数是平民,并且多为妇女儿童。这是一场极其不对称的战争,以军对巴勒斯坦民众的血腥杀戮遭到国际社会的严厉谴责。有关信息,参见新华网：http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2009-02/02/content_10751127.htm,2009年2月20日访问。另外,联合国人权理事会1月12日结束了就近来加沙暴力升级过程中的人权问题召开的第九次紧急会议并通过决议,强烈谴责以色列在加沙的军事行动。决议指出,以色列的军事行动造成了对巴勒斯坦人民的大规模人权侵犯。参见联合国网站：http://www.un.org/chinese/focus/gazacrisis/news.shtml,2009年2月20日访问。
③2009年1月4日由捷克、法国和瑞典三国外长率领的欧盟代表团在访问埃及时表示,巴以冲突下的加沙地带面临严重的人道主义危机,必须对加沙进行人道主义救援。参见“欧盟代表团称加沙人道主义危机严重”,中青在线：http://news.cyol.com/content/2009-01/05/content_2495579.htm,2009年2月20日访问。
① Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, para.27.
② Allan Rosas, "Mixed Union-Mixed Agreements", in M. Koskenniemi (ed.), International Law Aspects of the European Union, Kluwer Law International,1998, p.145.
③ Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, para.28.
① Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, pp.63-64.
② Cooperation Agreement between the EC and India on Partnership and Development [1994] OJ L223/24.
③ Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, para.26.
④ Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, p.60.
① See Economic partnership, political co-ordination and cooperation agreement between EC/MS and Mexico [2000] OJ L276/45, Arts.36,38,39.
② See Partnership and co-operation agreement between the EC/MS and Georgia [1999] OJ L205/3.
③ Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.742-743.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999, pp.15-16.
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2000, pp.32-33.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2002, pp.169-170.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2003, p.42.
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2004, p.49.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2005, p.46;EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2006, p.20.
④ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, p.24;EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.19.
① Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development,28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991, Para.11.
② European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216,23 May 1995, p.2.
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, p.11.
① European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998)146 final,p.16.
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.9.
③ European Commission. Communication on Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners, COM (2003)294 final, p.11.
① Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, p.68.
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.8.
① Council of the European Union, European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, pp.1-2, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/human_rights/guidelines/index.htm.
② See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.8.
③ European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, p.4.
④ Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven,June 2003, p.44.
① European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, p.8.
② European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.11.
① European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, p.9.
② European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.7.
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.6.
① Copenhagen European Council, Declaration on Democracy, Bull EC 3-1978, p.6.
② D. Turk, "Annex 1:Declaration on the 'Guidelines on the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union'", European Journal of International law, Vol.4,1993, p.72.
③ Christophe Hillion,"The Copenhagen Criteria and their Progeny", in Christophe Hillion (ed.), EU Enlargement: A Legal Approach, Oxford and Portland Oregon:Hart Publishing,2004, pp.1-22.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, pp.53-56.
②委员会于1997年7月提交《2000年议程》文件,主要内容是：阐明过于含糊的“哥本哈根标准”,同时审议十个提交加入申请的中东欧国家的情况,并提出是否开启入盟谈判的意见。See European Commission, Agenda 2000:For a Stronger and Wider Union, EU Bulletin Supplement 5/97.
③不过,欧盟内部人权政策的监督与实施机制较之于候选国加入时苛刻的“人权条件”要宽松许多,这就产生了一个非常矛盾的现象：中东欧国家在努力成为欧盟正式成员后,为确保欧共体法的优先性,牺牲了原本国内对基本权利的高度保护。有关这一矛盾现象的详细论述,See Anneli Albi, "Ironies in Human Rights Protection in the EU:Pre-Accession Conditionality and Post-Accession Conundrums", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, pp.46-69.
① Council Decision 822/2001 on the association of the overseas countries and territories with the European Community [2001] OJ L314/1.
② Council Regulation 975/1999, OJ L120/1,as amended by Regulation 1882/2003 and Regulation 2110/2005; Council Regulation 976/1999, OJ L120/8, as amended by Regulation 907/2003, Regulation 2242/2004 and Regulation 2112/2005.
③ European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.15.
④ Ibid.
① See Sandra Bartelt, "The Institutional Interplay Regarding the New Architecture for the EC's External Assistance", European Law Journal, Vol.14, No.5, September 2008, pp.655-679.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)[2006] OJ L210/82.
① Council Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 Laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument [2006] OJ L3I0/I.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1905/2006 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 establishing a financing instrument for development cooperation [2006] OJ L378/41.
① Council Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)[2006[ OJ L210/82, Art.20.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 Laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument [2006] OJ L310/1,Art.5.
③ Council Regulation(EC) No 1889/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on establishing a financing instrument for the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide [2006] OJ L386/1.
④ Commission Decision on the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) Strategy Paper 2007-2010 (C 2007/3765), at http://ec.europaeu/extemal_relations/human_rights/doc/2007_eidhr_en.pdf.
①有关欧盟普惠制立法、报告和文件的详细信息,参见欧盟官方网站中的普惠制专题,网址：http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/global/gsp/legis/index en.htm,2009年2月22日访问。
② European Union agrees to maintain trade preferences for developing countries, Brussels,23 July 2008, IP/08/1192.
③ Council Regulation No 2501/2001 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2001] OJ L1346/1.
④ Council Regulation No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2005] OJ L169/1.
①附件三B部分列举的11项与环境和治理原则相关的国际公约是：《关于消耗臭氧层物质的蒙特利尔议定书》、《控制危险废物越境转移及其处置的巴塞尔公约》、《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》、《野生动植物濒危物种国际贸易公约》、《生物多样性公约》、《卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书》、《联合国气候变化框架公约之京都议定书》、《联合国麻醉药品单一公约(1961年)》、《联合国精神药物公约(1971年)》、《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约(1988年)》、《联合国反腐败公约》。
② Council Regulation No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences[2005]OJ L169/1,Arts.10, 11,16.
③European Parliament,Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union Policy on the Matter(2007/2007/2274(INI),A6-0163/2008,p.31.
④ Council Regulation(EC)No 732/2008 of 22 July 2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011[2008]OJ L211/1.
⑤这些公约和第980/2005号普惠制条例附件3中列举的27项国际公约完全一致.
⑥ Commission Decision on the list of the beneficiary countries which qualify for the special incentive arrangement for sustainable development and good governance,provided for in Council Regulation(EC)No 732/2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011[2008]OJ L334/90.
⑦The Generalised System of Preferences(GSP)2009-2011,Brussels,23 July 2008,MEMO/08/524.
① European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, pp.8-9.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.13.
③ See Common Strategy 1999/414/CFSP on Russia [1999] OJ L157/1; Common Strategy 1999/877/CFSP on Ukraine [1999] OJ L L331/1;Common Strategy 2000/458/CFSP on the Mediterranean region [2000] OJ L183/5这些文件有一定的期限限制,欧盟对之适时进行了更新。
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.14.
⑤ Ibid., Art.15.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.16.
② Ibid., pp.16-19.
③例如,美国《对外援助法案》将军事与安全援助、经济与发展援助和接受国的人权政策挂钩,当这些国家“以一种持续的方式严重违反国际公认的人权”时,美国将取消军事与经济援助。See Thomas Buergenthal et al., International Human Rights,3 rd edn, West Group,2003, pp.377-385.
①关于“欧共体普惠制案”的具体案情及裁决,See WTO, European Communities-Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/AB/R,7 April 2004.
②“第980/2005号普惠制条例”于2008年底到期。从2009年1月1日起,“第732/2008号普惠制条例”开始适用,其第8条中的“特殊激励安排”同样规定了人权条件。See Council Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 of 22 July 2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011 [2008]OJ L211/1, Art.8.
③ Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, pp.66-67.
①联合国前秘书长安南报告：《大自由：人人共享的发展、安全与人权》(A/59/2005),第14,17段。
② D. J. Marantis, "Human Rights, Democracy and Development:The European Community Model", Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol.7,1994, p.5.
③ K. Lenaerts and E. De Smijter,"The European Community's Treaty-Making Competence", in A. Barav and D. A. Wyatt(eds.), Yearbook of European Law, Vol.16,1996, p.45.
④ Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven, June 2003, pp.56-57.
⑤ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216,23 May 1995, p.5.
①欧洲议会认为人权不属于一国的内政,因而在此领域不干涉内政原则是相对的。欧洲议会同时认为,在人权受到严重威胁时,不仅存在干涉的权利,而且存在事实上的干涉义务See Reinhard Rack and Stefan Lausegger, "The Role of the European Parliament:Past and Future", in Philip Alston(ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.801-837.
② See Peter Hilpold, "Human Rights Clause in the EU-Association Agreements", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, pp.376-377.
③洪德钦：“欧盟对外贸易与发展协定之人权条款——规定与实践”,《欧美研究》(台湾),2004年第34卷第1期,第191页。
④例如,Allan Rosas强调,包含在合作协定中的“人权条款”是建立在对等性的基础之上的,所以欧盟已经承诺尊重民主原则和人权,并且原则上已经接受在欧盟机构和成员国方面出现严重违反人权情势时,其他缔约方有中止协定的权利。See Allan Rosas, "The European Union and International Human Rights Instruments", in Vincent Kronenberger (ed.), The European Union and the International Legal Order:Discord or Harmony?, T.M.C. Asser Press,2001, p.62
① See Stephan Breitenmoser, "Sectoral Agreements between the EC and Switzerland:Contents and Context", Common Market Law Review, Vol.40,2003, pp.1137-1186.
①[德]菲舍尔：“从国家联盟到联邦：对欧洲一体化最终形式的思考”,载曹卫东编：《欧洲为何需要一部宪法》,中国人民大学出版社2004年6月版,第14页。
① See Declaration on the Future of the Union annexed to the Treaty of Nice, OJ C80,2001, p.85.
②《莱肯宣言》指出了欧盟改革的四项主题：更好地划分和界定欧盟的权能;简化欧盟的法律文件；欧盟运作更加民主、透明、高效：向贴近欧洲公民的宪法发展。See Laeken Declaration on the Future of the European Union (15 December 2001), available at http://european-convention.eu.int/pdf/LKNEN.pdf.
③ Declaration on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the signature of the Treaties of Rome, part.Ⅲ.
① Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels European Council (21/22 June 2007), Brussels 23 June 2007,11177/07, CONCL 2,para.8.
② See IGC 2007, Draft Treaty amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community, Brussels,23 July 2007 (30.07), CIG 1/07.
③“艾欧尼娜条款”又称“艾欧尼娜妥协”(loannina compromise),源于1994年3月29日在希腊城市艾欧尼娜举行的一次非正式的欧盟成员国外长会议。会议上通过了一项有关欧盟扩大后适用特定多数表决机制的理事会决定。该决定规定,如果代表了23票至26票的理事会成员明确反对理事会以特定多数方式作出决定,理事会应在一段合理的时间内,在其权能范围内尽其所能地寻求解决之道(至少应在87票中获得68票)。这一特殊的决策机制在实践中很少适用,《尼斯条约》对理事会的投票权重进行了重新安排后,这一机制停止适用。See http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/ioannina_compromise_en.htm。
① Renata Goldirova, "EU agrees new'Lisbon Treaty'", http://euobserver.com/18/2500,2007年10月19日访问。
② Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels European Council (21/22 June 2007), Annex Ⅰ.
① Jens-Peter Bonde, From EU Constitution to Lisbon Treaty, pp.26-28, available at www. Bonde.com or www.euabc.com.
① Helena Spongenberg, "Lisbon Treaty made to avoid referendum, says Giscard", http://euobserver.com/9/25052,2008年10月29日访问。
② Jens-Peter Bonde, From EU Constitution to Lisbon Treaty, p.23.
③著名欧盟法专家保罗·克瑞格(Paul Craig)在2008年的一篇文章中也曾对《里斯本条约》和《欧洲宪法条约》进行了比较,结论是：“《里斯本条约》在绝大多数方面复制了《欧洲宪法条约》的相关条款,这一结论难以抗拒”See Paul Craig, "The Treaty of Lisbon:Process, Architecture and Substance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.2,2008, p.165.
① Treaty of Lisbon, OJ C306/01,17/12/2007, Art.6.
① Protocol on the enlargement of the European Union in Treaty of Nice, OJ C 80/49.
② Millward Brown IMS, Post Lisbon Treaty Referendum Research Findings, September 2008, http://www.dfa.ie/ uploads/documents/Publications/Post%20Lisbon%20Treaty%20Referendum%20Research%20Findings/post%20lisb on%20treaty%20referendum%20research%20findings sept08.pdf.
③刘明礼：“爱尔兰否决《里斯本条约》和欧洲一体化前景”,《国际资料信息》,2008年第7期,第30页。
① "Agreements reached on climate change, economic recovery and Lisbon treaty in historic summit", available at http://ec.europa.eu/news/economy/081212_1_en.htm,2008年12月20日访问。
②2009年1月中旬,捷克议会批准《里斯本条约》,使爱尔兰成为欧盟27国中唯一没有批准的国家。有关《里斯本条约》批准程序的最新进展信息,参见欧盟官方网站：http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/index_en.htm,2009年3月30日访问。
③欧盟内部人权政策与对外人权政策之间的发展缺乏一致性(incoherence),成为制约“人权条款”实施效能的重要法律障碍。安德鲁·威廉斯(Williams)对两者之间的差异进行了详细分析,并认为在人权的概念、监督机制和实施机制方面,欧盟的内外人权政策之间出现了“分叉”(bifurcation),使欧盟在推行对外人权政策时的公正性和可信度大打折扣。See Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policies:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press, pp.193-204.④有关《里斯本条约》改革的全面论述,See Paul Craig, "The Treaty of Lisbon:Process, Architecture and Substance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.2,2008, pp.137-166:see also Michael Dougan,"The Treaty of Lisbon 2007:Winning Minds, Not Hearts", Common Market Law Review, Vol.45, No.3,2008, pp.617-703.
①为区别于目前的《欧洲联盟条约》,本章将经《里斯本条约》修改后的《欧洲联盟条约》称为“新《欧洲联盟条约》”,并注明时间。
Consolidated Version of The Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.2.
Ibid., Art.3.
① Consolidated Version of The Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008., Art.21.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.214.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.352.
① European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.98.
② Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union(2007/C 303/01), Art.51.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.6(2).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 115/47,09/05/2008, Art.218.
② Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, paras.27-36.
① Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union(2007/C 303/01), Art.52(3).
②目前所有欧洲委员会(Council of Europe)成员国中只有俄罗斯尚未批准该议定书,因此该规定尚未正式生效。当然,为确保欧盟的加入,公约仍需进行一系列技术层面的修改。但这些特殊安排表明,欧盟将以国际组织,而非国家的身份加入《欧洲人权公约》。
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.1.
② Ibid.,Art.24(1).
③ Ibid., Art.47.
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.215.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.25.
① See EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, P.24.
②欧洲法院的管辖权扩张至此。
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.21.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.22.
② Ibid.,Art.23.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.205.
④ Ibid., Arts.206-222.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.18.
② Ibid., Art.22.
③ Ibid., Art.26.
④ European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.190.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.27(2).
②目前的共同外交与安全政策代表不享有提案权,这一职能是由轮值主席国和其他成员国实施,但实践表明,这一限制不利于共同外交与安全政策代表与第三国进行广泛的谈判和对话。《里斯本条约》在提案权方面给予高级代表以极大程度的灵活性。See Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13, 09/05/2008, Art.30.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.27.
① European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.49.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.16(4).
③ Protocol on Transnational Provisions in The Treaty of Lisbon, OJ C306/159,17/12/2007, Art.3(2).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008. Art.16(4).
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.238.
③ European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, pp.53-54.
④有学者指出,欧洲议会权力的提升是以欧盟委员会权力的下降为代价的。See Paul Craig, "The Treaty of Lisbon:Process, Architecture and Substance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.2,2008, p.158.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.13.
⑥ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.14(1).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.294.
② Ibid., Art.289.
③ European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.66.
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.314.
⑤ Ibid., Art.289.
①《欧洲联盟运行条约》第207条第2款规定,欧洲议会应与理事会一道根据普通立法程序以条例形式行动,通过有关共同商业政策的实施法规。
②《欧共体条约》第133条没有规定理事会与欧洲议会的磋商义务,第300条允许这一例外的存在。
③《欧洲联盟运行条约》第218条第10款规定：“在程序的所有阶段,应立即和充分通知欧洲议会”。
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.19(1).
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.275.
①有关《里斯本条约》改革之缺漏的详细论述,See Jukka Snell, "'European Constitutional Settlement', an Ever-Closer Union and the Treaty of Lisbon:Democracy or Relevance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.5,2008, pp.619-642; Panos Koutrakos, "Primary law and policy in EU external relations-Moving away from the big picture", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.5,2008, pp.666-686; Robert SchUtze, "Lisbon and the Federal Order of Competences:A Prospective Analysis", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.5,2008, pp.709-722.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.6(1).
③ Ibid., Art.6(2).
① European Parliament, Report on the communication from the Commission on the inclusion of respect for democratic principles and human rights in agreements between the Community and third countries( COM(95)0216-C4-0197/95), A4-0212/1996-T4-0499/1996.
② European Parliament, Report on the European Union's role in promoting human rights and democratisation in third countries (COM(2001)252-C5-0653/2001-2001/2276(COS)), A5-0084/2002.
① European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2002 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2002/2011(INI)), A5-0274/2003, pp.11-12.
② European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2003 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2003/2005(INI)), A5-0270/2004, pp.12-13.
③ European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2004 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2004/2151(INI)), A5-0086/2005, p.12.
④ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06.
⑤ European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006.
⑥ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)),P6_TA(2006)0056.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, p.65.
② European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.14.
③ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, paras.8,10.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056, para.11.
② European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.14.
③ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.9.
④ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06,p.67.
①关于欧盟基本权利局的成立及运作。See Council Regulation (EC) No 168/2007 of 15 February 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [2007] OJ L53/1.
② European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.15.
③ European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, pp.15-16.
④ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.12.
① European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006,p.16.
② European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056,para.15.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, pp.67-68.
④ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056, para.17.
⑤ Council of European Union, Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions), Brussels,7 June 2004,10198/1/04 REV 1,p.3.
⑥ Council of European Union, Guidelines on implementation and evaluation of restrictive measures (sanctions) in the framework of the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy, Brussels,2 December 2005,15114/05, p.10.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.16.
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, pp.68-69.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreeme DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06,,p.69.
① European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.17.
② European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056, para.7.
③ European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, pp.17-18.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.7.
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, pp.65-66.
①Ibid., p.66.
②《巴托斯报告》只是简洁地规定：“(协定/伙伴关系)的目标是：(……)促进和保护尊重民主原则和人权”。
③《巴托斯报告》在这段文字后面还规定：“(缔约双方应制定并同意与这些义务有关之基准或指标,其中应考虑相关缔约方的特殊情势。基准是通过为遵守设立中期目标和时间表的形式而实现指标的机制。)”
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, p.24.
② European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INI)), A6-0163/2008, pp.30-31.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.20.
①根据欧盟对外关系法中的“加拿大条款”('Canada Clause'),欧盟成员国在欧共体与第三国开展双边关系的同时,也可以与该国开展双边关系,其中包括缔结经济合作协定。在协定的序言、正文或谈判纪要中,该条款一般声称欧共体的缔约权能并不损害成员国的缔约权能。当然,成员国的活动也不能影响欧共体的权能,并要求遵守一定的磋商程序。该条款是欧盟法中权能辅助性原则(principle of subsidiarity)的体现,因最早出现于1976年欧共体与加拿大缔结的协定而得名。本文探讨的中欧关系不包括欧盟成员国与中国的双边关系。有关“加拿大条款”对欧盟成员国的意义,See I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.234-235.
② Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China [1985] OJ L250/1.
① Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China [1985] OJ L250/1, Art.1.
② Ibid., Art.10.
③ Ibid., Art.15(2).
④第一代协定(20世纪70年代)往往只规定合作条款,主要为发展援助形式；第二代协定(20世纪80年代)开始包含贸易条款；第三代协定(20世纪90年代)开始将贸易条款与政治对话、民主和人权联系起来。See Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith. "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, p.175.
⑤关于中欧双边关系的全面介绍,参见2009年2月13日最近更新的外交部网站http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/ wjb/zzjg/xos/gjlb/EuropeanUnion/default.htm,2009年2月20日访问。
⑥ Cases C-466/98-C-476/98 Open Skies Decisions [2002] ECR 1-09427.
⑦ Joint Statement of the 10th China-EU Summit(Beijing,28 November 2007), point.38.
① "An overview of the sectoral dialogues between China and the EU ", available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/china/sectoraldialogue_en.htm, accessed 01/02/2009.
②判断某一文件是否属于条约,不能简单地从其名称作出判断。谅解备忘录(MOUs)一般是不具法律约束力的“软法”文件,适用于国际关系的大多数领域,起到补充条约的作用。谅解备忘录由于形式灵活并具有保密性而广为适用。在但在例外的情形下,也有条约以谅解备忘录作为名称。参见[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》,江国青译,中国人民大学出版社2005年4月版,第20-21页,第27-46页。
① Antoine Sautenet, "The Current Status and Prospects of the'Strategic Partnership'between the EU and China: Towards the Conclusion of a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement", European Law Journal, Vol.13, No.6,2007, p.718.
② See Zeng Lingliang, " A Preliminary Perspective of Negotiations of EU-China PCA:A New Bottle Carring Old Wine or New Wine or Both?", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, pp.123-125.
① Antoine Sautenet, "EU-China Partnership & Cooperation Agreement Negotiations:Time for Balance", Tamkang University Eui Newsletter, No.20, December 2008, p.27.
②例如,欧共体与巴基斯坦缔结的《伙伴关系和发展合作协定》第17条规定：“本着提升合作层次的目的,缔约方可以经相互同意扩展本协定,并通过在具体部门或活动上达成一致的方式增加规定。关于本协定的实施,任何一方可以在考虑实施经验的同时,提出扩大合作的建议。”See Cooperation Agreement between the EC and Pakistan, relating to the Partnership and to development [2004] OJ L378/23, Art.17.
③ Antoine Sautenet, "The Current Status and Prospects of the'Strategic Partnership' between the EU and China: Towards the Conclusion of a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement", European Law Journal, Vol.13, No.6,2007, p.706.
④ European Commission, Communication on a Long Term Policy for China Europe Relations, COM (1995) 278 final.
① European Commission, Communication on Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, COM (1998) 181 final.
② European Commission, Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final.
③ EU Strategy towards China, Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a more Effective EU Policy, COM (2001)265. final.
④ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final.
⑤ Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final.
⑥ Commission Working Document accompanying COM(2006) 631 final:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities-A policy paper on EU-China trade and investment:Competition and Partnership, COM(2006) 632 final.
①参见[德]白小川：“欧盟的功能多边主义与中国崛起”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第2期,第53页。
②《中国对欧盟政策文件》全文,参见中华人民共和国外交部官方网站http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/wjb/zzjg/ xos/gjlb/EuropeanUnion/smgb/t27700.htm。此外,中国政府先后于2006年1月12日和2008年11月5日发布了《中国对非洲政策文件》、《中国对拉丁美洲和加勒比政策文件》。
① Antoine Sautenet, "The Current Status and Prospects of the'Strategic Partnership'between the EU and China: Towards the Conclusion of a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement", European Law Journal, Vol.13, No.6,2007, p.705.
② Ibid., footnote 56.
③ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final,p.3.
④ Antoine Sautenet, "EU-China Partnership & Cooperation Agreement Negotiations:Time for Balance", Tamkang University Eui Newsletter, No.20, December 2008, p.26.
⑤参见2004年5月6日温家宝总理在访问欧盟总部期间出席中欧投资贸易研讨会时发表的题为《积极发展中国同欧盟全面战略伙伴关系》的讲话,http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/1024/2481360.html,2009年1月10日访问。
① European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, p.7.
② Ibid., p.8.
③ Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.2.
① Commission Communication,EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.2.
② Ibid., p.12.
③ Commission Working Document accompanying COM(2006) 631 final:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities-A policy paper on EU-China trade and investment:Competition and Partnership, COM(2006) 632 final, p.15.
① European Council, Conclusions on EU-China Strategic Partnership, Brussels,11-12 December 2006,16291/06 (Presse 353), para.1.
②张健：“欧盟对华认知变化及政策调整“,《现代国际关系》2007年第7期,第10-11页。
① Charles Grant & Katinka Barysch, Can Europe and China Share a New World Order?, Centre for European Reform,2008, pp.17-18.
② The Council of the EU, European Union Code of Conduct for Arms Exports, Brussels,5 June 1998,8675/2/98, available at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/08675r2en8.pdf.值得注意的是,《欧盟武器出口行为守则》第2项标准是：“最终目的地国尊重人权”。有关《欧盟武器出口行为守则》的详细论述, See Panos Koutrakos, Trade, Foreign Policy and Defence in EU Constitutional Law, Oxford-Portland,2001, pp.199-220.
③ See Council Regulation (EC) No.1334/2000 on the control of exports of dual-use items and technology [2000] OJ L159/1; See also Council Regulation (EC) No 394/2006 of 27 February 2006(The amending Regulation) [2006] OJ L74/1.
④孙永福：“中欧经贸合作的现状与前景”,《开放导报》2005年第4期,第55页。
①关于欧盟拒绝承认中国完全市场经济地位的非技术性因素,参见曾令良、张英：“中欧关系中的非市场经济地位问题——纯粹技术性问题或远非如此?”,载《欧洲联盟法治50年：回顾与展望》(中国欧洲学会欧洲法律研究会2008年年会论文集),武汉,2008年11月22-23日,第458-470页。
②[英]斯坦利·克罗西克：“欧中战略伙伴关系走向”,《国际问题研究》2007年第4期, 第64页。
③ See Francis Snyder, "China, Regional Trade Agreements and WTO Law", Journal of World Trade, Vol.43, No.1, February 2009, pp.1-57.
④实际上,谈判时间持续愈长,欧盟以市场经济地位问题作为对中国施压的筹码将越来越不可行。因为根据《中国加入WTO议定书》第15(d)条,中国的非市场经济地位将在加入之日后15年——亦即2015年——终止。
⑤ Commission Communication,EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.4.
⑥具体包括：确保安全可持续的能源供应、应对气候变化和改善环境、提高有关就业和社会问题的交流、加强在国际发展问题上的协调、可持续经济增长。
⑦具体包括：坚持开放与市场准入、提供平等竞争平台、支持欧盟企业、保护欧盟的利益、加强双边关系
⑧具体包括：确保高质量不断增加的科技合作、建立一个有效的移民关系、扩大人与人之间的联系、让双边体系更有效。
⑨具体包括：东亚、台湾、中国军事开支与目标的透明度、武器禁运、防止核扩散。
⑩ Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.12.
① Charles Grant & Katinka Barysch, Can Europe and China Share a New World Order?, Centre for European Reform,2008, p.69.
② See Zeng Lingliang, " A Preliminary Perspective of Negotiations of EU-China PCA:A New Bottle Carring Old Wine or New Wine or Both?", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, p.140.
③ European Commission, Communication on a Long Term Policy for China Europe Relations, COM (1995) 278/final, p.7.
① European Commission,Communication on Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, COM (1998) 181 final, p.5.
② European Commission,Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final, pp.3-4.
③ EU Strategy towards China, Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a more Effective EU Policy, COM (2001)265 final, pp.8-9.
① European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, p.9.
② Ibid., p.10.
③ Joint Statement of the 10th China-EU Summit(Beijing,28 November 2007), point.6.
④2006年12月,由于欧盟与美国等国在联合国大会共同发起有关伊朗问题的决议,伊朗单方面宣布退出人权对话机制,欧盟对此表示遗憾,并承诺在适当条件下仍可重启人权对话机制。所以严格来讲, 目前只有中国与欧盟之间存在专门的人权对话机制。
⑤第26届中欧人权对话于2008年11月24-28日在北京举行。
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, pp.21-22.
②中国政府由于欧盟邀请两名非政府组织的代表出席而拒绝参加原定于2007年5月举行的司法研讨会,中欧人权司法研讨会直至2008年5月的人权对话上方得以恢复。
③在中断一年后,Bled司法研讨会为中欧的学者、官员以及在此领域的人权非政府组织提供了继续进行建设性交流的平台,但欧盟邀请的一些国际人权非政府组织拒绝参加此次研讨会。
④ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.16-17.
① European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, pp.12-13.
②安德鲁·威廉斯(Williams)指出,欧盟在对外关系层面上向以践行人权卫士之职自居,并自视为道德之楷模(a beacon of virtue),而且欧盟认为其成员国内的人权标准要优于外部的人权状况。但从欧盟内外人权政策的“双重标准”,或曰“分叉”来看,这实际上是一个危险的假设(a dangerous assumption). See Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policies:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.200-201.
③ European Commission,Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final, p.7.
④ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, p.13.
① “欧盟轮值主席国代表欧盟就西藏局势发表声明”,参见中国欧盟协会网站：http://www.ceua.org/ newsCenter/zx/1215105991 d44096.html,2009年1月12日访问。
②“欧盟轮值主席国代表欧盟就拘留胡佳及其他中国人权维护者发表声明”,参见中国欧盟协会网站：http://www.ceua.org/newsCenter/zx/1215105992d44097.html,2009年1月12日访问。
③ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003) final, p.12.
④ Ibid.
⑤ Ibid.
① Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, pp.4-5.
②欧盟年度人权报告的时间跨度一般为上一年度的7月至下一年度的7月,此处的报告期间是指2007年7月至2008年7月。
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.78.
④欧洲议会对中国的人权状况和人权政策基本持批评态度,这些批评集中体现在欧洲议会2006年通过的《欧盟-中国关系决议》,See European Parliament, Resolution on EU-China Relations (2005/2161 (INI)), P6_TA(2006)0346, paras.47-77.
① Joint Statement of the 9th China-EU Summit(Helsinki,9 September 2006), Para.4.
②根据我国宪法规定,完善1985年《贸易与经济合作协定》的谈判应由商务部牵头,《中欧伙伴关系与合作协定》的谈判则由外交部牵头。前一项协定只需国务院批准,后一协定则需要全国人大常委会批准。See Zeng Lingliang, " A Preliminary Perspective of Negotiations of EU-China PCA:A New Bottle Carring Old Wine or New Wine or Both?", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, p.127.
① Draft partnership and cooperation agreement between the European Union and China, Negotiating directives adopted on 12 December, Bulletin EU 12-2005, point 1.6.71需要指出的是,欧盟公告栏只有标题,但具体授权内容是不对外公开的。
① Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith, "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, pp.181-182.
②需要指出的是,最后文件不具有严格的法律约束力。但是附件和议定书是协定的组成部分,因而具有法律约束力。See e.g. Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3,Art.108.
③ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.10.
④ European Parliament, Report on the Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INl)), A 6-0163/2008, p.30.
①2001年的“9.11事件”后,欧共体开始在与第三国缔结的协定中纳入“反恐条款”。其主要内容是,缔约方承诺依照《联合国宪章》、国际法以及安理会有关决议,通过国际合作的方式打击恐怖主义。迄今为止,这类条款适用的第三国有：智利、前南斯拉夫马其顿共和国、埃及、阿尔及利亚和非加太国家。“反恐条款”的典型,See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209/27, Art.11 a.
②缔约方在该条款中承诺通过彻底实施现存的国际文件和建立有效的国家出口控制制度,反对大规模杀伤性武器扩散。欧共体与塔吉克斯坦签署的《伙伴关系与合作协定》中就包含“防止核扩散条款”。此外,欧共体与叙利亚缔结的联系协定,以及2005年新修订的《科托努协定》中也均含有该条款。See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [20051 OJ L209/27, Art.11b.
③缔约方在该条款下承诺批准和实施《国际刑事法院规约》及相关文件,对国内法律体系进行相应的改革,并通过国际法打击国际犯罪。欧共体2005年修订的《科托努协定》引进了这一条款,并且欧盟目前与新加坡和印度尼西亚正在谈判此条款。See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209/27, Art.11 (6).
④根据《欧共体条约》第300(3)条,欧洲议会在欧共体缔结国际协定时享有批准权的情形有：第310条下的联系协定；通过组织合作程序创设制度性安排的协定；对欧共体具有重要预算意义的协定；使根据第251条程序通过的立法文件有必要修订之协定。在实践中,若协定涉及“人权条款”之类的政治性条款,欧洲议会也享有批准权。
①在混合协定漫长的批准进程中,欧共体一般会另外缔结一项“临时协定”(interim agreement),以提前适用原协定中涉及贸易因素的部分条款。由于临时协定的法律基础是《欧共体条约》第133条(共同商业政策),属于纯粹的欧共体型协定,无须成员国的批准程序,通常较容易获得欧盟的批准。但欧盟与俄罗斯临时协定的批准程序也因人权问题被反复推迟。从欧共体近年来与士库曼斯坦、波黑等国缔结的临时协定来看,这些协定中也纳入了“人权条款”。
② Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith, "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, pp.181-182.
③ Commission Communication,EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.4.
①从2004年起,中国的外交政策和行动受到欧盟越来越多的抱怨和指责。一方面,欧盟指责中国的发展援助政策没有达到西方的治理和透明度标准；另一方面,欧盟称中国资源和能源导向型的外交政策与欧盟鼓励的良治政策形成冲突,不利于欧盟向全球推广其价值观体系。参见张健：“欧盟对华认知变化及政策调整”,《现代国际关系》2007年第7期,第8页。
② Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.3.
③关于“中国责任论”的缘起及其对中国的影响,详见牛海彬：“‘中国责任论’析论”,《现代国际关系》2007年第3期；马振岗：“中国的责任与‘中国责任论’”,《国际问题研究》2007年第3期：刘建飞：“‘中国责任论’考验和平发展”,《现代国际关系》2007年第4期；胡键：“‘中国责任论’与和平发展道路”,《现代国际关系》2007年第7期。
④ European Commission, Communication on A Maturing Partnership-Shared Interests and Challenges in EU-China Relations, COM (2003) final, p.12;see also European Commission, Communication on EU-China:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.4.
⑤ See e.g. Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, point N.
① Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith. "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, pp.185-186.
① See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209, p.40.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [20001 OJ 317/3, Art.98.
② “外交部发言人秦刚就第十一次中欧领导人会晤推迟事发表讲话”,参见外交部官方网站：http://www.fmcoprc.gov.mo/chn/gsxwfb/lxjzzdh/t524229.htm,2008年11月29日访问。
①[美]罗伯特·卡根：《天堂与实力——世界新秩序下的美国与欧洲》,肖蓉、魏红霞译,新华出版社2004年5月版,第2-3页。
②[英]马克·伦纳德：《为什么欧洲会领跑21世纪》, 廖海燕译,上海三联书店2009年3月版, 第36-49页。
③例如,英国的Tim Hillier教授认为,影响国际法实施的两个重要因素是：对等性原则和公共舆论。See Tim Hillier, Principles of Public International Law,2nd edn., Cavendish Publishing Limited,1999, pp.11-12.
④ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Har, 2001, p.19.
①关于国际法“人本化”趋势的详细论述,参见曾令良：“现代国际法的人本化发展趋势”,《中国社会科学》2007年第l期,第89-103页；何志鹏：“全球化与国际法的人本主义转向”,《吉林大学社会科学学报》2007年第1期,第113-120页。
① EU-China Joint statement, Brussels,30 January 2009, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external relations/china/ docs/joint statement 300109%20en.pdf,2009年2月10日访问。
② "EC and China sign nine cooperation agreements and foster dialogue on global solutions to economic and financial crisis and climate change",Brussels,30 January 2009,IP/09/212.
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1. Common Position 2009/68/CFSP of 26 January 2009 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2009] OJ L23/43.
2. Common Position 2008/479/CFSP of 23 June 2008 amending Common Position 2007/140/CFSP concerning restrictive measures against Iran [2008] OJ L163/43.
3. Common Position 2008/369/CFSP of 14 May 2008 concerning restrictive measures against the Democratic Republic of the Congo and repealing Common Position 2005/440/CFSP [2008] OJ L127/84.
4. Common Position 2008/349/CFSP of 29 April 2008 renewing restrictive measures against Burma/Myanmar [2008] OJ L116/57.
5. Common Position 2008/135/CFSP of 18 February 2008 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2008] OJ L43/39.
6. Common Position 2007/734/CFSP of 13 November 2007 concerning restrictive measures against Uzbekistan [2007] OJ L295/34.
7. Common Position 2007/120/CFSP of 19 February 2007 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2007] OJ L51/25.
8. Common Position 2007/94/CFSP of 12 February 2007 amending Common Position 2002/960/CFSP concerning restrictive measures against Somalia [2007] OJ L41/19.
9. Common Position 2004/161/CFSP of 19 February 2004 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2004] OJ L50/66.
10. Common Position 2003/115/CFSP of 19 February 2003 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2003] OJ L46/30.
11. Common Position 2002/145/CFSP of 18 February 2002 concerning restrictive measures against Zimbabwe[2002]OJ L50/1.
1. Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 of 22 July 2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011 [2008] OJ L211/1.
2. Regulation (EC) No 168/2007 of 15 February 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [2007] OJ L53/1.
3. Regulation(EC) No 1889/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on establishing a financing instrument for the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide [2006] OJ L386/1.
4. Regulation (EC) No 1905/2006 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 establishing a financing instrument for development cooperation [2006] OJ L378/41.
5. Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 Laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument [2006] OJ L310/1.
6. Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)[2006] OJ L210/82.
7. Regulation(EC) No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2005] OJ L169/1.
8. Regulation (EC)310/2002 Concerning Certain Restrictive Measures in respect of Zimbabwe [2002] OJ L50/4.
9. Regulation (EC)No 2501/2001 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2001] OJ L1346/1.
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1. Decision of 18 February 2002 concluding consultations with Zimbabwe under Article 96 of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2002] OJ L50/64.
2. Decision 822/2001 on the association of the overseas countries and territories with the European Community [2001] OJ L314/1.
3. Decision 2000/458/CFSP, Common Strategy of the European Council on the Mediterranean region [2000] OJ L183/5.
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5. Decision of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States of the European Communities, meeting within the Council of 11 March 1999 amending the internal agreement on the measures to be taken nd the procedures to be followed in applying the fourth ACP-EC Convention(1999/213/EC) [1999] OJ L75/3.
6. Decision 91/602 denouncing the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Socilist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia [1991] OJ L325/23.
1. Europen Union guidelines on human rights dialogues(update 2009).
2. European Union guidelines on violence against women and girls and combating all forms of discrimination against them (2008)
3. Europen Union guidelines on human rights defenders(update 2008).
4. Europen Union guidelines on children and armed conflict(update 2008).
5. European Union guidelines to EU Policy towards third countries on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment(update 2008).
6. European Union guidelines to EU policy towards third countries on the death penalty (update 2008).
7. European Union guidelines for the promotion and protection of the rights of the child(2007).
8. European Union guidelines on promoting compliance with international humanitarian law(2005).
1. Decision on the list of the beneficiary countries which qualify for the special incentive arrangement for sustainable development and good governance, provided for in Council Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011 [2008] OJ L334/90.
2. Decision on the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) Strategy Paper 2007-2010 (C 2007/3765).
3. Working Document accompanying COM(2006) 631 final:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities-A policy paper on EU-China trade and investment:Competition and Partnership, COM(2006) 632 final.
4. Communication on EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 631 final.
5. Communication on Compliance with the Charter of Fundamental Rights in Commission legislative proposals:Methodology for systematic and rigorous monitoring, COM(2005) 172 final.
6. Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final.
7. Communication on Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners, COM (2003)294 final.
8. Communication on EU Strategy towards China, Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a more Effective EU Policy, COM (2001)265 final.
9. Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final.
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13. Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy: from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final.
14. Communication on a Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations, COM (1995) 278/final.
15. Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (1995)216 final.
16. Communication on Human Rights, Democracy and Development Cooperation Policy, SEC (1991)61.
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2. Case C-76/00 Petrotub [2003] ECR I-79.
3. Cases C-466/98-C-476/98 Open Skies Decisions [2002] ECR I-09427.
4. Case C-352/96 Italy v. Council[1998] ECR I-6937.
5. Case C-170/96 Commission v. Council [1998] ECR I-2763.
6. Case C-162/96 Racke v.Hauptzolamt [1998] ECR I-3655.
7. Case C-149/96 Portugal v. Council [1999] ECR I-8395.
8. Case C-177/95 Ebony Maritime and Loten Navigation v. Prefetto della Provincia di Brindisi and others [1997] ECR I-1111.
9. Case C-124/95 The Queen, ex parte Centro-Com v. H M Treasury and Bank of England [1997] ECR I-81.
10. Case C-84/95 Bosphorus v. Minister for Transport, Energy and Communications, Ireland and the Attorney General [1996] ECR I-3953.
11. Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177.
12. Case C-280/93 Germany v. Council (Bananas case) [1994] ECR I-4973.
13 Case-316/91 Parliament v. Council (Lome Convention) [1994] ECR I-625.
14. Case C-18/90 ONEM v. Kziber [1991] ECR I-199.
15. Case C-69/89 Nakajima v. Council [1991] ECR I-2069.
16. Case 70/87 Fediol v. Commission [1989] ECR 1781.
17. Case 45/86 Commission v. Council (GSP) [1987] ECR 1493.
18. Case 12/86 Demirel v. Stadt Schwabisch Gmund [1987]ECR 3719.
19. Case 104/81 Kupferberg [1982] ECR 3641.
20. Cases(Joint)3,4, and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others [1976] ECR 1279.
21. Case 2/74 Reyners [1974] ECR 631.
22. Case 21-24/72 International Fruit Company [1972] ECR 1219.
23. Case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1970] ECR 263.
24. Case 11/70 Internationle Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr-und Vorratstelle fur Getreide und Futtermittel [1970] ECR 1125.
25. Case 26/62 Van Gend en Loss [1963] ECR 1.
26. Opinion 2/00 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety [2001] ECR I-9713.
27. Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1759.
28. Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR I-5267.
29. Opinion 1/78 Agreement on Natural Rubber [1979] ECR 2871.
30. Opinion 1/76 (Re the Draft Agreement for a Laying-up Fund for Inland Waterway Vessels) [1977]ECR 741.
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2. Resolution on EU-China Relations(2005/2161(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0346.
3. Report on EU-China Relations(2005/2161(INI)), A6-0257/2006.
4. Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056.
5. Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)),A6-0004/2006.
6. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2004 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2004/2151 (INI)), A5-0086/2005.
7. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2003 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2003/2005(INI)),A5-0270/2004.
8. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2002 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2002/2011(INI)), A5-0274/2003.
9. Report on the European Union's role in promoting human rights and democratisation in third countries (COM(2001)252-C5-0653/2001-2001/2276(COS)), A5-0084/2002.
10. Report on the situation as regards fundamental rights in the European Union (2000/2231(INI)), A-5223/2001.
11. Report on the communication from the Commission on the inclusion of respect for democratic principles and human rights in agreements between the Community and third countries(COM(95)0216-C4-0197/95), A4-0212/1996-T4-0499/1996.
1. Internal Agreement between the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, amending the Internal Agreement of 18 September 2000 on measures to be taken and Procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2006] OJ L247/48.
2. Internal Agreement Between the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/376.
3. Internal Agreement between Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on the Financing and Administration of Community Aid under the Financial Protocol to the Partnership Agreement between the African, Caribbean and Pacific States and the European Community and its Member States signed in Cotonou(Benin) on 23 June 2000 and the allocation of financial assistance for the Overseas Countries and Territories to which Part Four of the EC Treaty applies [2000] OJ L317/355.
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2. Joint Statement of the 10th China-EU Summit(Beijing,28 November 2007).
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4. Declaration on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the signature of the Treaties of Rome(2007).
5. Joint Statement of the 9th China-EU Summit(Helsinki,9 September 2006).
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1.曾令良：“《中欧伙伴与合作协定》谈判：问题、建议与展望”, 《中国社会科学》2009年第2期。
2.张华：“欧洲联盟对外人权政策的法律分析”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第5期。
3.张华：“中欧伙伴关系协定中的‘人权条款’问题”, 《现代国际关系》2008年第8期。
4.刘明礼：“爱尔兰否决《里斯本条约》与欧洲一体化前景”, 《国际资料信息》2008年第7期。
5.房乐宪：“从第十次中欧领导人会晤看当前中欧关系特点”, 《教学与研究》2008年第4期。
6.曾令良：“欧洲联盟治理结构的多元化及其对中国和平发展的影响”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第3期。
7.张华：“欧盟对外关系中的‘人权条款’初探”, 《国际论坛》2008年第3期。
8.张效民：“中国和平外交战略视野中的对外援助”, 《国际论坛》2008年第3期。
9.郑春荣：“《里斯本条约》解析”, 《国际论坛》2008年第3期。
10.戴炳然：“解读《里斯本条约》”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第2期。
11.房乐宪：“中欧首脑会晤机制对中欧关系的政策含义”, 《国际关系学院学报》2008年第2期。
12.曾令良：“当代国际法视角下的和谐世界”, 《法学评论》2008年第2期。
13.中国社会科学院欧洲研究所项目组：“中国公众对欧盟及中欧关系看法的调查和初步分 析”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第2期。
14.吴江：“《里斯本条约》的出台：解析与展望”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第1期。
15.张华：“论《欧洲宪法条约》对欧共体共同商业政策的改革”, 《比较法研究》2008年第1期。
16.张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”, 《欧洲研究》2007年第6期。
17.刘超：“欧盟对外协定中人权条款的演进”, 《学术界》2007年第6期。
18.刘建飞：“欧盟对外关系中的民主因素”, 《新远见》2007年第11期。
19.[德]白小川：“能源安全：欧美中三角关系中的一大难题”,洪建军等译, 《现代国际关系》2007年第10期。
20.刘博：“欧盟对外贸易与发展政策中的人权向度——从《洛美协定》到《科托努协定》”,《山东社会科学》,2007年第4期。
21.[英]斯坦利·克罗西克：“欧中战略伙伴关系走向”,《国际问题研究》2007年第4期。
22.胡建：“‘中国责任’与和平发展道路”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第7期。
23.张健：“欧盟对华认知变化及政策调整”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第7期。
24.易显河：“人权观念在亚洲”, 《西安交通大学学报》2007年第3期。
25.张华：“刍议欧共体对外关系中的混合协定”, 《国际论坛》2007年第3期。
26.张华：“论尊重人权作为国际法的基本原则及其对中国和平发展的影响”, 《法学评论》2007年第2期。
27.廖诗评：“试论《科托努协定》”, 《法学评论》2007年第2期。
28.刘博：“欧盟扩大过程中的人权规定与实践”, 《山东师范大学学报》2007年第2期。
29.刘建飞：“‘中国责任论’考验和平发展”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第4期。
30.马振岗：中国的责任与“中国责任论”, 《国际问题研究》2007年第3期。
31.牛海彬：“‘中国责任论’析论”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第3期。
32.[德]白小川：“欧盟的功能多边主义与中国崛起”,洪建军等译, 《现代国际关系》2007年第2期。
33.施新洲：“中欧在民主问题上的分歧与中欧关系”, 《国际关系学院学报》2007年第1期。
34.曾令良：“现代国际法的人本化发展趋势”, 《中国社会科学》2007年第1期。
35.曾令良：“论中国和平发展与国际法的交互影响与作用”, 《中国法学》2006年第4期。
36.王新华、徐刚：“欧盟对华军售解禁：主要症结与影响”, 《军事经济研究》2005年第8期。
37.戴炳然：“走向成熟、健康、稳定的中欧关系——中欧建交30周年感言”, 《欧洲研究》2005年第2期。
38.刘宏松：“声誉、责任与公正：中国多边外交的三种需求”, 《国际观察》2004年第4期。
39.曾令良：“论《欧洲宪法条约草案》的两重性”,《中国国际私法与比较法年刊》2004年卷。
40.周弘：“论中欧伙伴关系中的不对称性与对称性”, 《欧洲研究》2004年第2期。
41.洪德钦：“欧盟对外贸易与发展协定之人权条款——规定与实践”,台湾《欧美研究》2004年第1期。
42.洪德钦：“绪论：欧洲联盟人权保障之建构与实践”,台湾《欧美研究》2004年第1期。
43.廖福特：“从人权宣言迈向人权法典——《欧洲联盟基本权利宪章》之实践”,台湾《欧美研究》2004年第1期。
44.曾令良：“论欧共体法与成员国法的关系”, 《法学论坛》2003年第1期。
45.朱力宇、张小劲：“中欧人权观的异同及其对中欧关系的影响”, 《国家行政学院学报》2002年第4期。
46.余敏友、陈卫东：“欧共体围绕WTO协定直接效力问题的争论及其对我国的启示”,《法学评论》,2001年第3期、第4期。
47.房乐宪：“欧盟对外关系中的政治条件性”, 《世界经济与政治》1999年第10期。
48.黄德明：“略论欧共体与欧洲联盟的法律人格”,《法学评论》1998年第6期。
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2.杨泽伟：《主权论——国际法上的主权问题及其发展趋势研究》,北京大学出版社2006年2月版。
3.陈志敏、古斯塔夫·盖拉茨：《欧洲联盟对外政策一体化——不可能的使命》,时事出版社2003年12月版。
4.贺其治：《国家责任法及案例浅析》,法律出版社2003年11月版。
5.朱晓青：《欧洲人权法律保护机制研究》,法律出版社2003年4月版。
6.李浩培：《条约法概论》,法律出版社2003年1月版。
7.中国政法大学国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版。
8.余敏友、邵沙平主编：《国际法问题专论》,武汉大学出版社2002年11月版。
9.梁西：《国际组织法》,武汉大学出版社2001年3月版。
10.万鄂湘等：《国际条约法》,武汉大学出版社2000年5月版。
11.梁西主编：《国际法》,武汉大学出版社2000年3月版。
12.曾令良：《欧洲共同体与现代国际法》,武汉大学出版社1992年7月版。
1.[英]马克·伦纳德：《为什么欧洲会领跑21世纪》,廖海燕译,上海三联书店2009年3月版。
2.[美]安玛丽·斯劳特：《这才是美国：如何在一个危险的世界中坚守我们的价值》,马占斌等译,新星出版社2009年1月版。
3.[美]入江昭：《全球共同体：国际组织在当代世界形成中的角色》,社会科学文献出版社2009年1月版。
4.[西]圣地亚哥·加奥纳·弗拉加：《欧洲一体化进程：过去与现在》,朱伦等译,社会科学文献出版社2009年1月版
5.[奥]曼弗雷德·诺瓦克：《<公民权利和政治权利国际公约>评注》(修订第二版),孙世彦、毕小青译,生活·读书·新知三联书店2008年12月版。
6.[加]威廉姆·夏巴斯：《国际法上的废除死刑》,赵海峰等译,法律出版社2008年10月版。
7.[美]安德鲁·莫劳夫奇克：《欧洲的抉择——社会目标与政府权力：从墨西拿到马斯特里赫特》,赵晨、陈志瑞译,社会科学文献出版社2008年5月版。
8.[法]让-马克·夸克：《迈向国际法治：联合国对人道主义危机的回应》,周景兴译,三联书店2008年3月版。
9.[澳]杰里·辛普森：《大国与法外国家：国际法律秩序中不平等的主权》,朱利江译,北京大学出版社2008年1月版。
10.[德]奥特弗利德·赫费：《全球化时代的民主》,庞学诠等译,上海译文出版社2007年8月版。
11.[比]尤利·德沃伊斯特：《欧洲一体化进程——欧盟的决策与对外关系》,门镜译,中国人民大学出版社2007年6月版。
12.[法]德尼·西蒙：《欧盟法律体系》,赵海峰等译,北京大学出版社2007年4月版。
13.[美]杰里米·里夫金：《欧洲梦：21世纪人类发展的新梦想》,杨治宜译,重庆出版集团2006年9月版。
14.[英]克莱尔·奥维、罗宾·怀特：《欧洲人权法：原则与判例》,何志鹏、孙璐译,北京大学出版社2006年4月版。
15.[俄]格·童金：《国际法原论》,尹玉海泽,中国民主法制出版社2006年3月版。
16.[英]苏珊·马克斯：《宪政之谜：国际法、民主和意识形态批判》,方志燕译,上海世纪出版集团2005年10月版。
17.[比]约斯特·鲍威林：《国际公法规则之冲突：WTO法与其他国际法规则如何联系》,周忠海等译,法律出版社2005年6月版。
18.[法]法布里斯·拉哈：《欧洲一体化史(1945-2004)》,彭姝祎、陈志瑞译,中国社会科学 出版社2005年6月版。
19.[美]托马斯·伯根索尔、肖恩·D.墨菲：《国际公法》, 黎作恒译,法律出版社2005年5月版。
20.[美]路易斯·亨金：《国际法：政治与价值》, 张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年4月版。
21.[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》,江国青译,中国人民大学出版社2005年4月版。
22.[美]罗伯特·卡根：《天堂与实力——世界新秩序下的美国与欧洲》,肖蓉、魏红霞译,新华出版社2004年5月版。
23.[意]玛利亚·格拉齐亚·梅吉奥妮著：《欧洲统一,贤哲之梦》,陈宝顺等译,世界知识出版社2004年5月版。
24.[美]约瑟夫·威勒：《欧洲宪政》,程卫东等译,中国社会科学出版社2004年3月版。
25.[德]贝娅特·科勒-科赫：《欧洲一体化与欧盟治理》,顾俊礼等译,中国社会科学出版社2004年3月版。
26.[英]伊恩·布朗利：《国际公法原理》,曾令良、余敏友等译, 法律出版社2003年8月版。
27.[美]戴维·卡莱欧：《欧洲的未来》,冯绍雷等译,上海人民出版社2003年6月版。
28.[日]大沼保昭：《人权、国家与文明：从普遍主义的人权观到文明相容的人权观》,王志安译,三联书店2003年1月版。
29.[德]哈拉尔德·米勒：《文明的共存——对塞缪尔·亨廷顿“文明冲突论”的批判》,丽红、那滨译,新华出版社2002年2月版。
30.[美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿：《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》,周琪等译,新华出版社2002年1月版。
31.[法]米海依尔·戴尔玛斯-马蒂：《世界法的三个挑战》,罗结珍等译,法律出版社2001年1月版。
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1.欧盟英文官方网址：http://europa.eu/index_en.htm
2.欧盟委员会网址：http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm
3.欧盟理事会网址：http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.ASP?lang=en
4.欧洲法院网址：http://curia.europa.eu/en/index.htm
5.欧洲议会网址：http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/default_en.htm
6.欧盟委员会条约司数据库http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do
7.欧盟缔结之国际协定网址：http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/accords/accords.htm
8.欧盟法律文件(EUR-Lex):http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm
9.欧盟官方公报(Official Journal):http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOIndex.do?ihmlang=en
10.欧盟简报(Bulletin):http://europa.eu/bulletin/en/bullset.htm
11.欧盟委员会立法提案与通讯数据库(Prelex):http://ec.europ.eu/prelex/apcnet.cfm?CL=en
12.欧盟立法摘要:http://europa.eu/scadplus/scad_en.htm
13.欧盟对外关系：http://europa.eu/pol/ext/index_en.htm
14.欧盟委员会之中欧关系网址：http://ec.euroropa.eu/extermal_relations/china/intro/index.htm
15.欧盟人权活动：http://europa.eu/pol/rights/index_en.htm
16.欧盟人权与民主化政策http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/human_rights/doc/index.htm
17.欧盟《里斯本条约》专题：http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/index_en.htm
18.中华人民共和国外交部：http://www.fmprc.gov.cn
19.中华人民共和国商务部：http://www.mofcom.gov.cn
20.欧盟驻华代表团：http://www.delchn.ec.europa.eu/index.php?=&1=cn
21.中国驻欧盟使团：http://www.chinamission.be/chn/default.htm
22.联合国：http://www.un.org
23.世界贸易组织：http://www.wto.org
24.英国欧盟改革中心：http://www.cer.org.uk
25.欧盟观察家：http://euobserver.com
② Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice,T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004, pp.4-6.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.154-155.
①在著名的“欧洲陆路运输协定案”(the AETR case),欧洲法院认为,当欧共体为实施基础条约中的一项共同政策而通过制定有关共同规则时,无论这类规则采取何种形式,成员国都无权单独或集体地向第三国承担影响该规则的义务。欧洲法院进一步强调,当此类共同规则出现时,欧共体应单独对第三国承担或开展契约性的义务,亦即欧共体享有专属性的缔约权能,并且欧共体内部措施不应与对外关系分离。See Case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1970] ECR 263, paras.17-19.
②《欧洲联盟条约》第17条规定：“共同外交与安全政策应包括与欧盟安全相关的所有问题,这些问题包括逐步(progressive)形成共同防务政策,并有可能形成共同防务——如果欧洲理事会作此决定的话……”。作为对科索沃战争中欧盟无所作为的反思,自1998年以来,共同安全与防务政策成长迅速,无论是在制度设计和机构建设方面,抑或在军事、民事危机管理能力的提升和对外行动的开展方面,都呈现出方兴未艾的发展趋势。共同安全与防务政策近年来发展的典型是2004年欧洲防务局的成立(European Defence Agency,简称EDA)。
③梁西主编：《国际法》,武汉大学出版社2000年第2版,第342-343页。
④ European Commission, Community Membership at International Organizations, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office, 07/05/2008.
①当然,严格意义上而言,仅有《欧共体特权与豁免议定书》第17条规定了第三国向欧共体委派使团,但欧盟基础条约中并未规定欧盟有派遣外交使团的权能,欧盟委员会代表团只是委员会的派出机构,不能单独代表欧盟。See I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1998, pp.208-209.
②在国际关系中,将国际组织缔结的条约统称为“国际协定”是一种惯例,并且这些条约也通常是以“国际协定”为名。See H. G. Schermers and N. M. Blokker, International Institutional Law:Unity within Diversity,4th edn, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2003, pp.1111-1112.
③ Opinion 1/75 Re OECD Local Costs Standard [1975] ECR 1355.
④该条明确规定条约应为书面协定,而“第1/75号咨询意见”中的定义并不局限于此。
⑤截至目前,欧盟在共同外交与安全政策领域共缔结了59项协定。See EU's treaty-making activity in the field of CFSP, at http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/searchByActivity.do, accessed 28/02/2009.
⑥有学者鲜明地指出,没有哪一个国际组织能够像欧盟那样具有类似国家的特征,也没有哪一个国际组织能够像欧盟那样与第三国和其他国际组织广泛缔结国际协定。See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press,2004, pp.8-9.
⑦欧共体在其专属权能领域之内单独与第三国缔结的协定则被称为“欧共体型协定”(Community agreement)。有关混合协定与欧共体型协定的区别,参见曾令良：《欧洲共同体与现代国际法》,武汉大学出版社1992年7月版,第154-155页。同时参见后文第一章第四节和第三章第四节有关混合协定缔约机制和实施机制的论述。
①由于欧盟的权能有限,代表欧盟缔结多边协定的是欧共体,以及在混合协定的情况下包含成员国。
② K. Lenaerts and E. De Smijter, "The European Community's Treaty-making Competence", Yearbook of European Law, Vol.16,1996, p.1.
③ See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004,p.102.
① See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004, pp.259-268.
②本文为表述方便,将条约的“暂停实施”称作“中止”。
③ See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.466; see also Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, "Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community:An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice", European Journal of International law, Vol.9,1998, p.472.
① European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.5.
② European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.6.
③ See Case 11/70 Internationle Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr-und Vorratstelle fur Getreide und Futtermittel [1970] ECR 1125,para.4.
④辩护权利例如：获取有效司法救济的权利、获取法律援助的权利、律师和代理人获得通讯的权利、自我辩护的权利等。有关欧盟法体系中基本权利的类别,See Damian Chalmers et al., European Union Law:Text and Materials, Cambridge University Press,2006, pp.237-238.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Arts.6 (1), (2).
⑥ Ibid., Art.49.
⑦ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.7(3); see also Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Arts.309 (1),(2).
① Damian Chalmers et al., European Union Law:Text and Materials, Cambridge University Press,2006, pp.246-258.
② See EC Commission, Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, SEC(2001)380/3.该文件要求欧盟委员会的任何立法提案和草案都应首先通过与《欧盟基本权利宪章》相容性的审查,并且那些与《宪章》有具体联系的立法提案和草案应以正式声明的形式表明这种相容性,并指出与《宪章》条款的联系。
③ European Parliament, Report on the situation as regards fundamental rights in the European Union (2000/2231(INI)), A-5223/2001.
④详细信息,参见http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/cfr_cdf/index_en.htm,2009年3月20日访问。
⑤ Council Regulation(EC) No 168/2007 of 15 February 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [2007] OJ L53/1.
①有关欧盟基本权利局的活动信息,详见：http://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/home/home_en.htm,2009年3月20日访问。
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, p.2.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.11(1).
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Arts.172,181.
⑤弗兰西斯·斯奈德教授将“软法”界定为：“原则上不具有法律约束力,但会产生实际效果的行为规则”。关于欧盟法律渊源中“软法”的概念、表现形式及特征, 参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以(欧洲宪法条约)为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第153-156页。
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (1995)216 final.
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final.
③ European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final.
④ European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final.
⑤ European Commission, Communication on Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners, COM (2003)294 final.
⑥ See http://ec.europa.eu/external relations/human_rights/guidelines/index.htm,2009年3月30日访问。
⑦“属于少数群体的人的权利”(rights of persons belonging to minorities),简称为“少数人的权利”(minority rights)。《公民权利与政治权利国际公约》第27条规定：“在那些存在着人种的、宗教的或语言的少数人的国家中,不得否认属于这种少数群体的人同他们的群体中的其他成员共同享有自己的文化,信奉和践行自己的宗教或使用自己的语言的权利。”国际劳工组织大会第七十六届会议于一九八九年六月二十七日通过了专门的《土著人民和少数群体的权利公约》(第169号公约,1991年9月5日生效)。联合国大会一九九二年十二月十八日第47/135号决议通过了《在民族或族裔、宗教和语言上属于少数群体的人的权利宣言》(E/CN.4/2004/75)。有关少数人权利的介绍,参见联合国官方网站：http://www.un.org/chinese/hr/issue/ minorities.htm,2009年2月20日访问。
⑧ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, pp.29-59; see also EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.27-53.
①2005年1月,索拉纳任命麦克·马瑟森(Michael Matthiessen)作为首任“人权私人代表”,2007年1月29日,瑞娜·孔佳(Riina Kionka)女士继任这一职务。
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, p.9.
③ Ibid., p.87.
④ European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.3.
⑤ See Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policy:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.194-195.
①在欧盟内部,人权经常以“基本权利”(fundamental rights)这一限制性的概念形式出现,并且欧盟重点提及的国际人权文件也基本限于《欧洲人权公约》,其他的国际人权文件鲜有提及。这实际上反应了欧盟内部人权政策的重点仍然是公民权利与政治权利——尽管欧盟近年来也开始逐步重视经济、社会和文化权利。在对外关系层面,欧盟提倡人权的普遍性、相互依赖性和不可分割性,同时“国际人权宪章”(包括《世界人权宣言》、《公民权利与政治权利国际公约》、《经济、社会与文化权利国际公约》)也是欧盟经常对第三国援引的人权规范。这说明欧盟对外人权政策中的人权概念从一开始就要广于内部人权政策中的人权概念。
②关于欧洲法院与欧洲人权法院在人权保护之间的冲突与合作关系, See Sionaidh Douglas-Scott, "A Tale of Two Courts:Luxembourg, Strasbourg and the Growing European Human Rights Acquis", Common Market Law Review, Vol.43, No.3,2006, pp.629-665.
③ Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policy:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004, p.195.
④ See European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.15.
⑤欧盟对外人权政策的“超常”发展虽然符合欧盟及其成员国的利益,但是欧盟在内外人权政策之间奉行“双重标准”(double standard)的做法有损欧盟对外人权政策的一致性和公正性,不利于欧盟在对外关系中开展“人权外交”。对此问题的集中论述,See Anneli Albi, "Ironies in Human Rights Protection in the EU: Pre-Accession Conditionality and Post-Accession Conundrums", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1,2009, pp.46-69; see also Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policy:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004; see also Philip Alston and J.H.H. Weiler, "An'Ever Closer Union'in Need of a Human Rights Policy:The European Union and Human Rights ", in Philip Alston(ed.), The European Union and Human Rigths, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp.3-66.
①欧盟委员会认为,消除贫困的目标,以及全球化对贫困人口和弱势群体的冲击客观上也要求欧盟在全球推行人权和民主化政策。See European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.4.
② See EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999-2008,aialable at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/ human_rights/doc/index.htm.
③ See European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INI)), A6-0153/2008.
④ See European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.20.
⑤有学者将“人权条件”界定为：一国或国际组织将保护人权和促进民主作为授予他国以利益的前提条件。这些利益通常包括：援助、贸易减让、合作协定、政治接触、国际组织的成员资格等等。See K.E. Smith, "The Use of Political Conditionality in the EU's Relations with Third Countries:How Effective?", EUI Working Paper, SPS No.97/7,1997, p.6.
⑥ European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.10同时参见作者在附录1中有关“人权条款”的统计信息。
① Dominic McGoldrick, International Relations Law of the European Union, Longman Ltd.,1997, pp.191-193.
② Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.475-481.
③ Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas. "Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community:An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice", European Journal of International Law, Vol.9,1998, pp.473-477.
④ Elizabeth Shaver Duquette, "Human Rights in the European Union:Internal Versus External Objectives", Cornell International Law Journal,Vol.4,2001, pp.381-382.
①欧洲自由贸易联盟国家包括瑞士、挪威、冰岛和列支敦士登。
② See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.73-78.
① Council Declaration on the situation in Uganda, adopted 21 June 1977, in Bull EC 6-1977, para.2.2.59.根据这一政策,欧共体拖延或取消了欧洲发展基金(European Development Fund,简称EDF)中的财政提案。结果,从《洛美协定Ⅰ》生效至阿明政权倒台,乌干达仅分配到5%的欧洲发展基金,并且这些基金只被用于建设医院等小型项目。
②《世界人权宣言》第3条规定：“人人有权享有生命、自由和人身安全”；第5条规定：“任何人不得加以酷刑或施以残忍的、不人道的或有辱人格的待遇或处罚”。
③ E. Fierro, The EU's Approach to Human Rights Conditionality in Practice, Kluwer Law International,2003, p.55.
① European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.11.
② See Lome IV Convention [19891 OJ L229/1, Art.5.
③ Framework Trade and Cooperation Agreement between the EEC and Argentina [19901 OJ L295/67, Art.1.
④ Trade and Cooperation Agreementthe EEC between the EEC and Albania [1992] OJ L343/2, Art.1.
⑤ E.g. Trade and Cooperation Agreement between the EEC and Estonia [1992] OJ L403/2, Art.21.
① Bull EC 5-1992. Point 1.2.13.
② Ibid., Point 1.2.12.
③ See European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216 final,23 May 1995, Annex 1.
④ European Commission, Communication on Human Rights, Democracy and Development Cooperation Policy, SEC (1991)61, p.7.
⑤ Luxembourg European Council, Declaration Concerning Human Rights,28-29 June 1991, Bull EC 6-1991.
⑥ Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Developmen，t 28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991.
⑦但是,以上文件未能在“人权条款”与中止援助和中止协定之类的“消极措施”之间建立明确的法律联系,而同时期海地与前南斯拉夫发生的事件也反映了欧共体有必要在协定中规定中止条款。
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216 final,23 May 1995.
②这些协定最典型的当属欧共体在20世纪90年代初与10个申请加入欧盟的中东欧国家缔结的《欧洲协定》。随着罗马尼亚和保加利亚在2007年1月1日的正式入盟,《欧洲协定》已经成为历史。此外,像欧共体与南非在1994年缔结的合作协定也由于新协定的缔结而失效。
③有关含有“人权条款”的国际协定,参见欧盟委员会条约司的统计。See European Commission, Inventory of Agreements containing Human Rights Clause, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/ agreements/default.home.do. (?)司时参见作者在附录1中有关欧共体含有“人权条款”之国际协定的统计信息。
④由于巴勒斯坦的特殊国际法地位,欧共体与巴勒斯坦当局缔结的地中海协定属于临时协定。
⑤欧共体与白俄罗斯、土库曼斯坦和塔吉克斯坦缔结的协定由于欧盟对这三个国家人权与民主状况的质疑而至今未获批准。
①非加太集团目前由78个国家组成,其中有48个非洲国家、16个加勒比国家和14个太平洋国家。古巴在2000年成为非加太集团的一员,并先后于2000年和2003年两次申请加入《科托努协定》,欧盟以“人权条款”为由阻止古巴加入该协定。
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements. DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, p.31.
③例如,欧共体以往与格鲁吉亚、哈萨克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦、亚美尼亚、俄罗斯、乌克兰、黎巴嫩缔结的协定在生效以前一直适用的临时协定中包含“人权条款”。目前欧共体与土库曼斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、波黑、阿尔巴尼亚、黑山适用的临时协定中也包含有“人权条款”。
① See Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3.
② See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3.
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM(1995)216 final, Annex 1.
② See Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EC/MS and the FYROM [2004] OJ L84/13, Art.2; See also Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EC/MS and Croatia [2005] OJ L26/3, Art.2.
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, p.6.
④详见第二章第二节有关人权与民主、法治、良治原则关联性的阐述。
① Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the EC/ MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/3, Art.2.
② See Community Declaration in relation to the Essential Element, in Agreement on Trade, Development and Cooperation between the EC/ MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311, p.413.
③ See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317, Arts.9(3),97.
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
② Ibid.
③ See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96.
① See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209, p.40.
② See European Commission, Agreements containing a Suspension-Human Rights Clause, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office, available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do同时参见作者在附录1中有关“人权条款”的统计信息。
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
①参见附录1有关联合声明的统计信息。
②这种灵活性一定程度上也是由于不同文本的翻译所造成,这将影响到“人权条款”法律性质的认定。参见第二章第一节有关“人权条款”法律性质的争议。另外,瑞德尔(Riedel)和威尔(Will)也强调,“人权条款”规范的多变性会损害标准条款的优势,所以应尽量避免之。但在必要的情形下,如为了确保与第三国缔结某项协定,“人权条款”可以允许出现一定的变动,但此时务必维持该条款之精神。See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.743-744.
① Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1759, para.27.
② Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.470.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.169.
① Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, "Human Rights and the External Relations of the European Community:An Analysis of Doctrine and Practice"'.European Journal of International Law,Vol.9,1998, p.474.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.5.
③参见附录1中有关欧共体纳入“人权条款”之法律基础的统计。
① See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.734.
② Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR 1-6177.
③ Ibid., paras.16-17.
① Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, paras.19-24.
② Ibid., para.26.
③ Ibid., para.29.
④ See The Opinion of the Advocate General in Portugal v. Council, point 29.
⑤ Luxembourg European Council, Declaration concerning Human Rights,28-29 June 1991, Bull EC 6-1991, para.11.
⑥ Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development,28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991.
⑦《维也纳宣言和行动纲领》第8段也指出：“民主、发展和尊重人权和基本自由是相互依存、相辅相成的”
① European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, pp.2-6.
② Case 12/86 Meryem Demirel v. Stad Schwabisch Gm und [1987] ECR 3747, para.9.
③该标准设立的第一项条件是：“(候选国必须显示)存在确保民主、法治和人权,以及尊重和保护少数人权利的稳定机制”。See Christophe Hillion, "The Copenhagen Criteria and Their Progeny", in Christophe Hillion (ed.), EU Enlargement:A Legal Approach, Oxford-Portland Oregon:Hart Publishing,2004, pp.1-22.
① Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, p.47.
①张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”,《欧洲研究》2007年第6期,第62页。
②Opinion 1/75 Local Cost Standard[1975] ECR 1355,p.1362.
③Opinion 1/78 Agreement on Natural Rubber [1979] ECR 2871,paras.43-45.
① Case 45/86 Commission v. Council (GSP) [19871 ECR 1493, paras.17-18.
② Opinion 2/00 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety [2001] ECR 1-9713, paras.37,40.
③ Case C-281/01 Commission v. Council [2002] ECR 1-12049, paras.38-41.
① Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR 1-5267, para.89.
② Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, para.28.
③ Alan Dashwood, "The Limits of European Communities Powers", European Law Review, Vol.21,1996, p.123.
④ Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, para.29.
① Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, Paras.34,35.
② See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005,p.197.
③ See A. Arnull, "Left to Its Own Devices? Opinion 2/94 and the Protection of Fundamental Rights in the European Union", in Alan Dashwood (ed.), EC External Relations Law:New Perspectives, London:Sweet & Maxwell,2000, p.71.
④ Philip Alston and J. H. H. Weiler, "An'Ever Closer Union'in need of a Human Rights Policy:The European Union and Human Rights", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.24-25.
① Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, para.29.
② Case 29/69 Stauder v.City of Ulm [1969] ECR 419, para.7.
③ Case 11/70 Internationale Handelsgesellschaft [1970] ECR 1125, p.1134.
① Case 4/73 Nold v. Commission [1974] ECR 491, p.505.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.3.③参见第五章有关《里斯本条约》对欧盟人权政策改革及其对“人权条款”之影响的论述。
④瑞德尔(Ridel)和威尔(Will)即认为,保护人权是欧共体的一项不成文的整体目标(unwritten general objective)。既然“人权条款”是在欧共体对外关系中实现尊重人权的必要手段之一,第308条应涵盖这一条款。不过,他们同时也强调,第308条是欧共体与发展中国家缔结含有“人权条款”之协定的充分的法律基础(a sufficient basis),对于发展中国家以外的其他国家,该条款仍然只是保留性的法律基础(a reserve basis)。 See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.736.
① J. H. H. Weiler and S. C. Fries, "A Human Rights Policy for the European Community and the Union:The Question of Competences", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Cambridge University Press,1999, pp.147-165.
② Piet Eeckhout, "The EU Charter of Fundamental Rights and the Federal Questions", Common Market Law Review, Vol.39,2002, p.983.
③ Enzo Cannizzaro, "The Scope of the EU Foreign Power:Is the EC Competent to Conclude Agreements with Third States Including Human Rights Clauses?", in Enzo Cannizzaro (ed.), The European Union as an Actor in International Relations, Kluwer Law International,2002, pp.297-319.
① Case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1970] ECR 263.
② Joint Cases 3.4, and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others[1976] ECR 1279.
③ Opinion 1/76 (Re the Draft Agreement for a Laying-up Fund for Inland Waterway Vessels) [1977]ECR 741.
① I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.49-53.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.220.
② Opinion 1/78 (Re Natural Rubber Agreement) [1979] ECR 2871, para.55.
③ Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR I-5267, para.68.
① Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR 1-6177, para.39.
② Ibid., paras.45 and 47.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(1).
②这类决定有别于《欧共体条约》第249条(原第189条)中规定的一般性的决定文件。自成一类的决定适用于欧共体机构运作和相互间的关系,具有法律约束力。一般性的决定原则上对其发布的对象具有整体的约束力。判断某一法律文件是否属于决定,不能单从其名称出发,而应考察其实体规定。
③“第133条委员会”的主要职能在于协调欧共体的贸易政策,一股每周召开一次会议,讨论议题广泛,大至WTO谈判事项,小至某一产品的出口问题,同时考虑其他政策涉及的贸易层面以确保欧共体贸易政策的一致性。在谈判时,“第133条委员会”辅助欧盟委员会的谈判工作。参见张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”,《欧洲研究》2007年第6期,第70页。
④欧盟委员会坚持理事会任命的特别委员会只应发挥咨询作用,而理事会和成员国虽然尊重委员会的谈判职能,但希望特别委员会能尽可能地直接参与谈判工作。See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press,2004, pp.107-108.
① See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.172.
②1986年《维也纳条约法公约》第2条第1款b项之二对“正式确认行为”的解释是：“国际组织用以在国际上确定其同意受一项条约拘束并相当于一国表示批准的国际行为”。
③参见1969年和1986年《维也纳条约法公约》第11条。
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(2).
⑤欧盟理事会作出缔结协定的决定一般包括两方面的内容：一是表明欧盟各机构在各自权能范围内已经完成了国际协定的批准程序,二是建议欧共体有关代表按照国际协定中规定的程序向其他缔约方表示欧共体同意承受协定的拘束。See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press,2004, p.113.
① See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.175-176.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(6).
① Opinion 1/75 (Re OECD Local Cost Standard) [1975] ECR 1355, paras.11,12.
②《欧洲法院程序规则》第107条第2款也规定,咨询管辖权处理的问题限于：拟议中的协定是否与《欧共体条约》兼容,以及欧共体或其机构是否享有达成协定之权能。See Rules of Procedure of the Court of Justice, Art.107(2).
③ I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.112-113.
④ Framework Agreement on Relations between the European Parliament and the Commission [2001] OJ C121/122.属于欧盟的机构间协定。有关此类文件法律地位的详细论述,See Herwig C. H. Hofmann, "Agreements in EU Law", European Law Review, Vol.31,2006, pp.800-820.
①《欧共体条约》第251条和第252条是关于欧盟机构立法中的“共同决定”程序和“合作”程序的规定,欧洲议会与理事会同时在这两种程序中享有较大立法决策权能。但第300条第3款第1段却特别强调若内部规则的通过需适用这类程序时,相关领域的对外协定的缔结只要求理事会与欧洲议会进行磋商即可而不要求议会同意,即仅仅适用一般的缔约程序规定。这无疑背离了“平行主义原则”,因而招致批评。Eeckhout即认为,由于国际协定在欧盟法中一般具有直接效力,这就使之类似于内部立法,很难理解为何欧共体在内部立法时要求议会同意,但在缔结相同领域的国际协定时仅要求议会磋商,这种做法是不协调的。See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.177-178.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(3)(1).
③ Ibid., Art.300(3)(2).
④参见第三章第四节中有关混合协定基本法律问题的论述。
① See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.216.
② See I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.151-152.
③ Ibid., pp.152-153.
④ See Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.218-219.
① See Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the EC/MS and the Republic of San Marino [2002] OJ L84/43.
② Michel Petite, " Current Legal Issues in the External Relations of the European Union", EUI Working Papers, Law No.2006/38, p.4.
① Agence Europe, No 6901,p.10.
② Agence Europe, No 6903, p.8.
③ Vaughne Miller, "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.33-34.
④ Maria Koblanck, "What's in a human rights clause? Its development, its application, and an insight into the construct of a European identity", KU Leuven, June 2003, June 2003, p.29.
⑤ Agence Europe, No 7004, p.6.
① See European Commission delegation to Australia and New Zealand website, available at http://www.ecdel.org.au/ eu_and australia/jointdeclaration/jointdeclaration.htm.
② Agence Europe, No 7004, p.6.
③ See European Commission delegation to Australia and New Zealand website, available at www.ecdel.org.au/ newzealand/JointDeclaration2007/index.htm.
① Vaughne Miller. "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.43-44.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.60-61.
①《联合国宪章》第55条规定：“……联合国应促进……(寅)全体人类之人权及基本自由之普遍尊重与遵守,不分种族、性别、语言、或宗教”。第56条规定：“各会员国担允采取共同及个别行动与本组织合作,以达成第55条所载之宗旨”。
① Antonio Cassese, International Law, Oxford University Press,2001, p.104.
① See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.96.
①例如欧共体与阿根廷、智利、巴西、印度、澳门、蒙古、巴拉圭、斯里兰卡、乌拉圭和越南缔结的双边协定,参见附录1。
②例如欧共体与以色列和突尼斯缔结的双边坍定,参见附录1。
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96 (2).
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.6 (2).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.6 (1).
② Stabilisation and Association Agreement between the EC/MS and FYROM [2004] OJ L84/13, Art.2.
① See European Communities-Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/AB/R,7 April 2004, paras.145-147.
② See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.89-93.
③ See Francis Snyder, "The Gatekeepers:the European Courts and WTO Law", Common Market Law Review, Vol.40,2004, p.333.
① See Enzo Cannizzaro, "The Scope of the EU Foreign Power:Is the EC Competent to Conclude Agreements with Third States Including Human Rights Clauses?", in Enzo Cannizzaro (ed.), The European Union as an Actor in International Relations, Kluwer Law International,2002, pp.301-302.
②[瑞典]格德门德尔·阿尔弗雷德松、[挪威]阿斯布佐恩·艾德：《(世界人权宣言>：努力实现的共同标准》,中国人权研究会翻译,四川人民出版社1999年6月版,第5-8页。
③ Scott Davidson, Human Rights, Open University Press,1993, pp.64-67.
④ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy: from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final,pp.5-6; European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998)146 final, p.4.
① Barbara Brandtner and Allan Rosas, "Trade Preference and Human Rights", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.707.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999, p.15; EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2000, p.33.
②[英]A.米尔恩：《人的权利与人的多样性——人权哲学》,中国大百科全书出版社1995年3月版,第7页。
① Jack Donnelly, International Human Rights, Westview Press,1993, p.20.
②[英]A.米尔恩：《人的权利与人的多样性——人权哲学》,中国大百科全书出版社1995年3月版,第7页。
③张华：“论尊重人权作为国际法的基本原则及其对中国和平发展的影响”,《法学评论》2007年第2期,第68页。
④ Antonio Cassese, International Law, Oxford University Press,2001, p.104.
⑤ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, pp.178-179.
⑥ See Edward Lawson, Encyclopedia of Human Rights,2nd edn, Taylor & Francis,1996, p.348.
①国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程(第一卷)》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版,第10页。
②参见《维也纳宣言和行动纲领》,第5段。
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, pp.5-6;
④ European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998)146 final, p.4.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.27-53.
① Agreement amending the Fourth ACP-EC Convention of Lome(Lome Convention IV bis)Signed in Mauritius on 4 November 1995, Art.5(2).
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ 317/3, Art.9(2).
① Christophe Hillion, "The Copenhagen Criteria and their Progeny", in Christophe Hillion (ed.), EU Enlargement: A Legal Approach, Oxford and Portland Oregon:Hart Publishing,2004. pp.1-22.
② Council Regulation(EC) No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2005] OJ L169/1.
③ Regulation(EC) No 1889/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on establishing a financing instrument for the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide [2006] OJ L386/1.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Arts.6(1),49.
① M. Nowak, "Human Rights Conditionality in Relation to Entry to, and Full Participation in, the European Union", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.694.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.7.
③ Ibid., Art.6(2).
①在1978年的“爱尔兰诉英国案”中,欧洲人权法院将“违反人权的惯行”界定为：“与《欧洲人权公约》不符之惯行由相同或类似的违反累积而成,这种违反充分多数,并相互关联,以致无法简单等同于孤立的事件或例外情形,而是一种模式或体制。没有这些违反,惯行本身是不构成对尊重人权原则的违反的”。See Ireland v. United Kingdom,18 January 1978, Series A-25, para.159.
② Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, pp.198-202.
③ Antonio Cassese, International Law, Oxford University Press,2001, p.104.
④ Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [19991 OJ L311, p.411.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96.
①国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程(第二卷)》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版,第91页。
②《2005年世界首脑会议成果》,第119段。全文参见：http://www.un.org/chinese/ga/60/docs/ares60_4.htm,2008年10月12日访问。
③联合国《促进和巩固民主文件》(E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/36),2002年6月10日,第96段。全文参见联合国人权事务网站：http://www.un.org/chinese/hr/issue/index.html,2008年10月12日访问。
④同上,第99段。
⑤同上,第101段。
① European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final.
② See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.9.
③ Vaughne Miller, "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.40-41.
① Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/1, Art.2.
② Ibid., p.413.
③ Ibid., p.414.
④参见联合国《促进和巩固民主文件》(E/CN.4/Sub.2/2002/36),2002年6月10日,第15、19、91-94段。
⑤ European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final, p.5.
① D.J. Harris, Cases and Materials on International Law,6th edn., Sweet and Maxwell,2004, p.554.
②2001年通过的《国家责任条款草案》是联合国国际法委员会近四十年努力工作的成果。James Crawford将之誉为“对国际法基础篇章之编撰与逐渐发展的一项贡献”,堪与1966年的《条约法条款草案》相媲美——后者在1969年经过细微修改后上升为《条约法公约》。See James Crawford, The International Law Commission's Articles on State Responsibility:Introduction, Text and Commentaries, Cambridge University Press,2002, p.60.
① Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Rep.7, Paras.85,87.
①贺其治：《国家责任法及案例浅析》,法律出版社2003年11月版,第306页。
② Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.229.
① European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
② Ibid., Annex 2.
①参见《罗马条约》第226条。
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.15.
③ Ibid., Art.120.
④ Ibid., Art.134.
⑤ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart 2001, p.232..
⑥参见第四章有关“人权条款”在欧盟对外关系中的现实作用的论述。
①联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第52条第1款。
② European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
①联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第52条第2款。
②贺其治：《国家责任法及案例浅析》,法律出版社2003年11月版,第321页。
③联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第52条。
① Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/1, Arts.2,3.
②联合国国际法委员会：《国家对国际不法行为的责任条款草案(二读)》,第50条。
③ Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311, p.411.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96.
①此处为贴合《维也纳条约法公约》条款中之顺序安排,使用“条约终止/中止”一词,但实际上中止(暂停实施)一般为终止的前奏,因此文章其他部分在论述“人权条款”的实施时,使用“中止/终止”一词,以表明先后顺序。
① ILC, "Draft Articles on the Law of Treaties and Commentaries(reprinted)", American Journal of International Law,Vol.61,1967, pp.426-427.
② Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997] ICJ Rep.7, Paras.102-103.
① Gabcikovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) [1997]ICJ Rep.7, Para.104.
② Ibid.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, p.13.
④ D. Bosma, " The Dutch-Surinam Treaty on Development Assistance:A Correct Appeal to a Fundamental Change of Circumstances?", Leiden Journal of International Law, Vol.3,1990, p.214.
① A. Leenen, Community Law and International Law:A Study into the Scope of Its Own Legal Order of the European Communities, Deventer:Kluwer,1984, p.176.
② Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.328.
③ Rache是德国的一名贸易商,从事进口科索沃酒类饮料的业务,由于欧共体中止与前南斯拉夫的合作协定,其丧失了原本享有的关税减让待遇,因而在德国联邦财政法院提起诉讼。德国法院请求欧洲法院就部长理事会中止条例是否有效的问题作出初步裁决。
④ Case C-162/96 Racke v. Hauptzolamt [1998] ECR 1-3655.
⑤ See Delano R. Verwey, The European Community, the European Union and the International Law of Treaties:A Comparative Legal Analysis of the Community and Union's External Treaty-Making Practice, T.M.C.Asser Press, 2004, pp.146-149.
① Yearbook of International Law Commission(YBILC), Vol.Ⅱ, p.255.
②[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》, 江国青译, 中国人民大学出版社2005年版,第231-233页。
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
① Case C-162/96 Racke v. Hauptzolamt [1998] ECR 1-3655, para.59.
② Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.224.
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
① Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.96(2)(c).
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press. 2005, p.129.
① Agreement on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3, Arts.90-95.
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.14.
③ Ibid., Art.15.
① Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.16.
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [20001 OJ L317/3, Art.17.
③ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, Annex 1.
①参见附录1中有关“争端解决条款”的相关信息。
② Agreement on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3, Art.101.
③ Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an Association between the EC/MS and Morocco [2000] OJ L70/2, Art.86.
① Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/3, Art.104.
② Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.98.
①参见附录1中有关“人权条款”的统计信息。
①根据《国际法院规约》第36条,国际法院的诉讼管辖范围分为三大类：自愿管辖、协定管辖和任意强制管辖。理论上,欧盟成员国与第三国可以通过自愿管辖的形式将“人权条款”的争端提交给国际法院。但是很难想象双方会就管辖权问题达成一致。有关国际法院诉讼管辖更为详细的论述,参见[英]伊恩·布朗利：《国际公法原理》,曾令良、余敏友等译,法律出版社2003年8月版, 第786-793页。
② Agreement on Trade, Development, and Cooperation between the EC/MS and South Africa [1999] OJ L311/3, Art.104(10).
① Case 26/62 Van Gend en Loss [1963] ECR 1, p.13.
① Case 2/74 Reyners [1974] ECR 631.
② Alan Dashwood. "The Principle of Direct Effect in the European Community Law", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.16,1978,p.231.
③根据《欧共体条约》第249条(原第189条),指令仅在要取得的结果上对其所发布的成员国具有约束力,但各国当局有权选择具体的方式。从欧洲法院的判例来看,指令仅具有纵向的直接效力。有关指令直接效力问题的详细论述,参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第174-176页。
① Case 12/86 Demirel v. Stadt Schwabisch Gm und [1987]ECR 3719, para.14; Case C-162/96 Racke GmbH& Co v. Hauptzollamt Mainz [1998] ECR 1-3655, para.41.
② Case 12/86 Demirel v. Stadt Schwabisch Gm und [1987]ECR 3719, para.14; Case C-18/90 ONEM v. Kziber [1991] ECR 1-199, para.15;Case C-162/96 Racke GmbH& Co v. Hauptzollamt Mainz [1998] ECR 1-3655, para.31.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.281-292.
④ Case C-149/96 Portugal v. Council [1999] ECR 1-8395.
⑤曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版, 第179页。
① I.Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.135-136.
② Case 21-24/72 International Fruit Company [19721 ECR 1219.
③ Case C-149/96 Portugal v. Council [1999] ECR I-8395.
④ Case C-280/93 Germany v. Council (Bananas case) [1994] ECR I-4973, para.111.
⑤ See Case C-69/89 Nakajima v. Council [1991] ECR I-2069.
⑥ See Case 70/87 Fediol v. Commission [1989] ECR 1781.
⑦ E.g. Case C-76/00 Petrotub [2003] ECR 1-79; Case C-352/96 Italy v. Council [1998] ECR I-6937.
① Case C-280/93 Germany v. Council (Bananas case) [1994] ECR I-4973, para.112.
② See Anthony Arnull et al., Wyatt and Dashwood's European Union Law,4th edn, Sweet & Maxwell,2006. pp.192-193.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.302-303.
④ Ibid., p.305.
① T.C. Hartley, The Foundations of European Community Law,6th edn,2007, Oxford University Press, P.193.
②不过,如果该条款与其他更为清晰地规定成员国义务的条款一道适用的话,则有可能产生直接效力。但是,这种情形并不绝对。See Case 9/73 Schluter[1973] ECR 1135, para.39; see also Case 44/84 Hurd v. Jones (Inspector of Taxes) [1986] ECR 29, paras.47-48.
①See Case 70/87 Fediol v.Commission [1989] ECR 1781,para.19.
②See Case C-69/89 Nakajima v. council[1991] ECR I-2069,paras.30-31.
① I.Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, p.125.
②国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程(第一卷)》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版,第5-6页。
① European Convention for the Proctection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms(1950), Art.1.
② European Convention for the Proctection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms(1950), Art.8.
③ Von Hannover v. Germany [2005] 40 EHRR 1, para.57.
④ See K. Lenaerts and A. Verhoeven, "Towards a Legal Framework for Executive Rule-Making in the EU? The Contribution of the New Comitology Decision", Common Market Law Review, Vol.37,2000, p.654.
⑤有学者认为,欧盟承担的人权义务并不局限于内部的法律体系,特别是《欧洲人权公约》。作为国际法主体,欧盟自然直接或间接地受到与人权相关的国际习惯法和国际条约的约束。在欧盟内部,传统认为欧盟仅承担不违反人权的义务,亦即一种消极的尊重人权义务。但随着欧盟承担的国际义务的扩展,从国际法层面来看,欧盟在其权能范围之内负有保护和实现人权的积极义务。See Tawhida Ahmed and Israel de Jesus Butler, "The European Union and Human Rights:An International Law Perspective", European Journal of International Law, Vol.17, No.4,2006, pp.771-801.
⑥《欧共体条约》第230条-232条规定欧洲法院可以对欧盟机构的行为进行司法审查。成员国、欧盟机构及个人可以基于缺乏权能、违反必要程序要求、违反基础条约或与其适用相关的任何法律规则、滥用权利这些理由向欧洲法院提起废除(撤销)之诉(annulment actions),同时还可就欧盟机构的不作为(failure to act)提起诉讼。有关欧洲法院对欧盟机构行为司法审查的详细论述,参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第279-303页。
①关于成员国在混合协定中的法律义务,详见后文第四节有关论述。
② Opinion 1/94 WTO [19941 ECR 1-5267.
③ Case 104/81 Kupferberg [1982] ECR 3641, para.14.
④《欧共体条约》第10条的规定是：“成员国应采取一切适当的措施——无论是一般性的还是特殊性的,以确保本条约所产生的,或由欧共体机构采取行动所造成的义务得以履行。成员国应促进欧共体各项任务的完成”。
①《欧共体条约》第226条赋予了欧盟委员会在保证和监督成员国实施欧盟法方面的具体权利；第227条规定了成员国之间相互监督的程序。
② Opinion 2/00 (Biosafety Protocal) [2001] ECR 1-9713, para.6.
③例如,1969年的《维也纳条约法公约》第27条规定：“一当事国不得援引其国内法规定为理由而不履行条约”;1986年的《维也纳条约法公约》第27条规定：“为一条约当事方的国际组织不得援引该组织的规则作为不履行条约的理由”。
①1997年的《阿姆斯特丹条约》将第三支柱中的“签证、庇护、移民及其他与人员自由流动相关的政策”转移至第一支柱第四编,即在此领域实现了“共同体化”,第三支柱相应地被改称为“刑事事项的警务与司法合作’
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.11.
②所谓“共同体成果原则”,就是指成员国在扩展和深化欧洲一体化的进程中遵行已经制定的各种法律、政策和措施以及业已采取的各种行动,同时要求欧盟各机构在行使其权能时不得违背欧盟的既定成果,而必须以既定成果为基础,以保证欧盟法律、政策、措施和行动的连贯性、一致性和持续性。参见曾令良：《欧洲联盟法总论——以<欧洲宪法条约>为新视角》,武汉大学出版社2007年5月版,第43-45页。
③“一致性原则”有双重含义,首先是要求欧盟确保其内部的一致性,但更重要的是要求欧盟在不同条款和支柱中之行动和措施的一致性。See Birgit Weidel, "Regulation or Common Position? The Impact of the Pillar Construction on the European Union's External Policy", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, p.34.
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.1.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.2(5).
⑥ Ibid.,Art.3(1).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.3(2).
② Ibid., Art.47.
③ Joint Action 96/197 on airport transit visas [1997] OJ L63/8.
④ Case C-170/96 Commission v. Council [1998] ECR 1-2763.
⑤ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.149.
① Birgit Weidel, "Regulation or Common Position? The Impact of the Pillar Construction on the European Union's External Policy", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, p.49.
② Ibid.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.13.
④ Decision 1999/414/CFSP, Common Strategy of the European Union on Russia [1999] OJ L157/1.
⑤ Decision 1999/877/CFSP, European Council Common Strategy on Ukraine [1999] OJ L331/1.
⑥ Decision 2000/458/CFSP, Common Strategy of the European Council on the Mediterranean region [2000] OJ L183/5.
⑦1995年11月底,首届欧盟—地中海南岸国家部长级会议在巴塞罗那举行。会议首次提出“欧盟—地中海伙伴关系计划”,又称“巴塞罗那进程”。其目的主要是通过政治和安全对话实现地区和平与稳定、通过经济和财政合作逐步争取在2010年前建立欧盟与地中海南岸国家的自由贸易区,以及通过加强各国社会、文化和人员的交流,促进欧盟和地中海国家之间的全面合作。
① Birgit Weidel, "Regulation or Common Position? The Impact of the Pillar Construction on the European Union's External Policy", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, pp.52-53.
②《欧共体条约》第297条规定：“在严重内部动乱影响到维护法治与秩序的情况下,在战争或严重的国际紧张局势构成战争威胁的情况下,或者为了履行其为维护和平与国际安全而接受的义务,对于此时成员国可能被要求采取的措施,成员国应相互协商以求一起采取步骤,防止其影响共同市场的运行。”
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.424-425.
④共同商业政策的管辖范围最初限于货物贸易。欧洲法院发布“第1/94号咨询意见”后,历次欧盟基础条约的修改都试图扩大其管辖范围。《尼斯条约》将之扩大至服务贸易和知识产权的商业层面,《欧洲宪法条约》和《里斯本条约》进一步将之扩大至外国直接投资(FDI)。有关共同商业政策涵盖领域的详细论述,参见张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”,《欧洲研究》2007年第6期,第60-74页。
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.301.
② Ibid., Art.60.
③ See Case C-84/95 Bosphorus v. Minister for Transport, Energy and Communications, Ireland and the Attorney General[1996] ECR I-3953;Case C-124/95 The Queen, ex parte Centro-Com v. H M Treasury and Bank of England [1997] ECR I-81;Case C-177/95 Ebony Maritime and Loten Navigation v. Prefetto della Provincia di Brindisi and others [1997] ECR I-1111.
④ Panos Koutrakos, Trade, Foreign Policy and Defence in EU Constitutional Law, Oxford-Portland,2001, pp.72-76.
① Council of the European Union, Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions), Brussels,7 June 2004,10198/1/04 REV 1, Annex 1.
② " actus contrarius "这一拉丁语在法律中被称作“相反行为原则”(contrary act/contrary action),是指某一特定行为适用与其相反行为(存在明确的法律规定)同样的法律待遇。该原则仅适用于不存在明确法律规定的具体行为。相关解释,参见http://www.economy-point.org/a/actus-contrarius.html。
③ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.240.
④ Ibid., p.241.
⑤参见第四章有关“人权条款”在欧盟对外关系中的现实作用的论述。
①根据《欧共体条约》第301条,欧共体在实施经济制裁应以理事会在共同外交与安全政策下通过的联合行动或共同立场为前提,但实践中,理事会一直是通过共同立场要求欧共体实施经济制裁。
②欧盟依据制裁的目的和预期的效果而采取具体的制裁措施。这些措施通常包括：冻结资金和经济资源、入境限制、武器禁运、对可能被用于内部镇压的设备的禁运、其他的出口限制、进口限制、航班禁止、禁止提供金融服务等。See Council of European Union, Guidelines on implementation and evaluation of restrictive measures (sanctions) in the framework of the EU Common Foreigh and Security Policy, Brussels,2 December 2005, 15114/05, p.7.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty establishing the European Community, OJ C325/33,2002, Art.300(2).
① Opinon of the Committee on Development and Cooperation for the Committee on Foreign Affairs,Security and Defence Policy, in EP Report on the Communication from the Commission on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries (COM (95)216), A4-0212/96, point 2.2.
② Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.) The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.739.
① Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, pp.245-246.
②在论述新出现的习惯法规则能否取代先前的条约规则时,安托尼·奥斯特指出：“国际法上并不存在相反行为原则,根据该原则,一项规则只有通过一项具有同样法律性质的规则始得更改”。参见[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》,江国青译,中国人民大学出版社2005年版,第12-13页。
③ Council Decision 91/602 denouncing the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia [1991] OJ L325/23.
④ See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.746-748.
⑤ Council Decision of 11 March 1999 on the procedure for implementing Article 366a of the fourth ACP-EC Convention (1999/214/EC) [1999] OJ L75/31.
① Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Hart,2001, p.248.
② Internal Agreement between the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/376.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.9(3).
② European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.12.
①关于混合协定产生的具体原因,参见张华：“刍议欧共体对外关系中的混合协定”,《国际论坛》2007年第3期,第69-70页。
② Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR I-5267.
③ Ruling 1/78 (Re Draft Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Materials) [1978] ECR 2151, para.35.
① Allan Rosas. "Mixed Union-Mixed Agreements", in Martti Koskenniemi (ed.), International Law Aspects of the European Union, Kluwer Law International,1998, p.135.
②有学者指出：“坦率而言,尽管这种权能划分原则上似乎可行,但实践中存在一定的难度。在混合协定中,清晰划分欧共体与成员国之间的权能如果说不是不可能的话,那也至少是经常被付之阙如”。See Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, p.737.
① Decision of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States of the European Communities, meeting within the Council of 11 March 1999 amending the internal agreement on the measures to be taken and the procedures to be followed in applying the fourth ACP-EC Convention(1999/213/EC) [1999] OJ L75/3.
② Internal Agreement Between the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/376.
① Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209/27.
② Internal Agreement between the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, amending the Internal Agreement of 18 September 2000 on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2006] OJ L247/48.
① "LAN Case"-Customs Classification of Certain Computer Equipment, Panel Report, WT/DS62/R, WT/D67/R and WT/D68/R,5 Feb.1998, paras.1.1-1.11.
② Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v. Australia) [1992] ICJ rep.240, at 260-262, paras 54-57.
③ Oil Platforms (Islamic Republic of Iran v. USA) [2005] ICJ rep.802, Separate Opinion of Judge Simma, at para. 65.
④ European Commission, Agreements with a Declaration of Competence by the EC, DG RELEX/B2-Treaties Office,available at http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do,2009年2月20日访问。
① See Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp.155-160.
② See Declaration concerning the Competence of the European Community with regard to Matters governed by the United Nations Convention against Corruption [2008] OJ L287/3.
① Case-316/91 Parliament v. Council (Lome Convention) [1994] ECR I-625, para.29.
② Ibid., para.69.
③ Martin Bjorklund, "Responsibility in the EC for Mixed Agreements-Should Non-Member Parties Care?", Nordic Journal of International Law, Vol.70,2001, pp.383-384.
①消极措施(negative measures),是与积极措施(positive measures)相对的概念,由限制性措施(restrictive measures)或曰制裁,和中止/终止协定组成。
① European Parliament, Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.12.
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999, pp.15-16.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2000, p.33.
④ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2003, p.42.
① Vaughne Miller, "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, p.30.
② E. Fierro, The EU's Approach to Human Rights Conditionality in Practice, Martinus Nijhoff,2003, p.309.
③ Piet Eeckhout, External Relations of the European Union:Legal and Constitutional Foundations, Oxford University Press,2004, p.480.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.12,67,73,79.
① Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven,June 2003, pp.36-37.
② Ibid., p.37.
③ Ibid., pp.37-38.
④ Council Decision of 18 February 2002 concluding consultations with Zimbabwe under Article 96 of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2002] OJ L50/64.
① Council Decision of 18 February 2002 concluding consultations with Zimbabwe under Article 96 of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2002] OJ L50/64, Annex.
② Council Common Position 2002/145/CFSP of 18 February 2002 concerning restrictive measures against Zimbabwe[2002]OJ L50/1.
① Council Regulation 310/2002 Concerning Certain Restrictive Measures in respect of Zimbabwe [2002] OJ L50/4.
① Council Common Position 2003/115/CFSP of 19 February 2003 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [20031 OJ L 46/30.
② Council Common Position 2004/161/CFSP of 19 February 2004 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2004] OJ L 50/66.
① Council Common Position 2007/120/CFSP of 19 February 2007 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2007] OJ L51/25.
② Council Common Position 2008/135/CFSP of 18 February 2008 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [20081 OJ L43/39.
③ Council Common Position 2009/68/CFSP of 26 January 2009 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2009] OJ L23/43.
① Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven, June 2003, pp.31-35.
②“格鲁吉亚将俄罗斯告上国际法院”,参见人民网：http://pic.people.com.cn/GB/42590/7875288.html,2008年9月9日访问。
① Renata Goldirova, "EU ministers keep Russian partnership on hold", www.euobeserver.com,2008年10月13日访问。
② Euro-Mediterranean Agreement establishing an association between the EC/MS and Israel [2000] OJ L147/3, Art.2.
① Vaughne Miller. "The Human Rights Clause in the EU's External Agreements", House of Commons Library, Research Paper 04/33,2004, pp.52-53.
②自2008年12月27日以来,以色列对巴勒斯坦加沙地区发动了历时22天的猛烈袭击。以军以死13人、伤数十人的代价,打死1400多名巴勒斯坦人,另有5500多人受伤,其中绝大多数是平民,并且多为妇女儿童。这是一场极其不对称的战争,以军对巴勒斯坦民众的血腥杀戮遭到国际社会的严厉谴责。有关信息,参见新华网：http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2009-02/02/content_10751127.htm,2009年2月20日访问。另外,联合国人权理事会1月12日结束了就近来加沙暴力升级过程中的人权问题召开的第九次紧急会议并通过决议,强烈谴责以色列在加沙的军事行动。决议指出,以色列的军事行动造成了对巴勒斯坦人民的大规模人权侵犯。参见联合国网站：http://www.un.org/chinese/focus/gazacrisis/news.shtml,2009年2月20日访问。
③2009年1月4日由捷克、法国和瑞典三国外长率领的欧盟代表团在访问埃及时表示,巴以冲突下的加沙地带面临严重的人道主义危机,必须对加沙进行人道主义救援。参见“欧盟代表团称加沙人道主义危机严重”,中青在线：http://news.cyol.com/content/2009-01/05/content_2495579.htm,2009年2月20日访问。
① Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, para.27.
② Allan Rosas, "Mixed Union-Mixed Agreements", in M. Koskenniemi (ed.), International Law Aspects of the European Union, Kluwer Law International,1998, p.145.
③ Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, para.28.
① Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, pp.63-64.
② Cooperation Agreement between the EC and India on Partnership and Development [1994] OJ L223/24.
③ Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, para.26.
④ Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177, p.60.
① See Economic partnership, political co-ordination and cooperation agreement between EC/MS and Mexico [2000] OJ L276/45, Arts.36,38,39.
② See Partnership and co-operation agreement between the EC/MS and Georgia [1999] OJ L205/3.
③ Eibe Riedel and Martin Will, "Human Rights Clause in External Agreements of the EC", in Philip Alston (ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.742-743.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999, pp.15-16.
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2000, pp.32-33.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2002, pp.169-170.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2003, p.42.
② EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2004, p.49.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2005, p.46;EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2006, p.20.
④ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, p.24;EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.19.
① Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development,28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991, Para.11.
② European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216,23 May 1995, p.2.
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy:from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final, p.11.
① European Commission, Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998)146 final,p.16.
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.9.
③ European Commission. Communication on Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners, COM (2003)294 final, p.11.
① Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, p.68.
② European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.8.
① Council of the European Union, European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, pp.1-2, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/human_rights/guidelines/index.htm.
② See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/3, Art.8.
③ European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, p.4.
④ Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven,June 2003, p.44.
① European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, p.8.
② European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.11.
① European Union Guidelines on Human Rights Dialogues,2001, p.9.
② European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.7.
③ European Commission, Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final, p.6.
① Copenhagen European Council, Declaration on Democracy, Bull EC 3-1978, p.6.
② D. Turk, "Annex 1:Declaration on the 'Guidelines on the Recognition of New States in Eastern Europe and Soviet Union'", European Journal of International law, Vol.4,1993, p.72.
③ Christophe Hillion,"The Copenhagen Criteria and their Progeny", in Christophe Hillion (ed.), EU Enlargement: A Legal Approach, Oxford and Portland Oregon:Hart Publishing,2004, pp.1-22.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights Conditionality in the EU's International Agreements, Oxford University Press, pp.53-56.
②委员会于1997年7月提交《2000年议程》文件,主要内容是：阐明过于含糊的“哥本哈根标准”,同时审议十个提交加入申请的中东欧国家的情况,并提出是否开启入盟谈判的意见。See European Commission, Agenda 2000:For a Stronger and Wider Union, EU Bulletin Supplement 5/97.
③不过,欧盟内部人权政策的监督与实施机制较之于候选国加入时苛刻的“人权条件”要宽松许多,这就产生了一个非常矛盾的现象：中东欧国家在努力成为欧盟正式成员后,为确保欧共体法的优先性,牺牲了原本国内对基本权利的高度保护。有关这一矛盾现象的详细论述,See Anneli Albi, "Ironies in Human Rights Protection in the EU:Pre-Accession Conditionality and Post-Accession Conundrums", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, pp.46-69.
① Council Decision 822/2001 on the association of the overseas countries and territories with the European Community [2001] OJ L314/1.
② Council Regulation 975/1999, OJ L120/1,as amended by Regulation 1882/2003 and Regulation 2110/2005; Council Regulation 976/1999, OJ L120/8, as amended by Regulation 907/2003, Regulation 2242/2004 and Regulation 2112/2005.
③ European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, p.15.
④ Ibid.
① See Sandra Bartelt, "The Institutional Interplay Regarding the New Architecture for the EC's External Assistance", European Law Journal, Vol.14, No.5, September 2008, pp.655-679.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)[2006] OJ L210/82.
① Council Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 Laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument [2006] OJ L3I0/I.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1905/2006 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 establishing a financing instrument for development cooperation [2006] OJ L378/41.
① Council Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)[2006[ OJ L210/82, Art.20.
② Council Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 Laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument [2006] OJ L310/1,Art.5.
③ Council Regulation(EC) No 1889/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on establishing a financing instrument for the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide [2006] OJ L386/1.
④ Commission Decision on the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) Strategy Paper 2007-2010 (C 2007/3765), at http://ec.europaeu/extemal_relations/human_rights/doc/2007_eidhr_en.pdf.
①有关欧盟普惠制立法、报告和文件的详细信息,参见欧盟官方网站中的普惠制专题,网址：http://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/global/gsp/legis/index en.htm,2009年2月22日访问。
② European Union agrees to maintain trade preferences for developing countries, Brussels,23 July 2008, IP/08/1192.
③ Council Regulation No 2501/2001 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2001] OJ L1346/1.
④ Council Regulation No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2005] OJ L169/1.
①附件三B部分列举的11项与环境和治理原则相关的国际公约是：《关于消耗臭氧层物质的蒙特利尔议定书》、《控制危险废物越境转移及其处置的巴塞尔公约》、《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》、《野生动植物濒危物种国际贸易公约》、《生物多样性公约》、《卡塔赫纳生物安全议定书》、《联合国气候变化框架公约之京都议定书》、《联合国麻醉药品单一公约(1961年)》、《联合国精神药物公约(1971年)》、《联合国禁止非法贩运麻醉药品和精神药物公约(1988年)》、《联合国反腐败公约》。
② Council Regulation No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences[2005]OJ L169/1,Arts.10, 11,16.
③European Parliament,Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union Policy on the Matter(2007/2007/2274(INI),A6-0163/2008,p.31.
④ Council Regulation(EC)No 732/2008 of 22 July 2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011[2008]OJ L211/1.
⑤这些公约和第980/2005号普惠制条例附件3中列举的27项国际公约完全一致.
⑥ Commission Decision on the list of the beneficiary countries which qualify for the special incentive arrangement for sustainable development and good governance,provided for in Council Regulation(EC)No 732/2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011[2008]OJ L334/90.
⑦The Generalised System of Preferences(GSP)2009-2011,Brussels,23 July 2008,MEMO/08/524.
① European Commission, Furthering Human Rights and Democracy across the Globle, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities,2007, pp.8-9.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.13.
③ See Common Strategy 1999/414/CFSP on Russia [1999] OJ L157/1; Common Strategy 1999/877/CFSP on Ukraine [1999] OJ L L331/1;Common Strategy 2000/458/CFSP on the Mediterranean region [2000] OJ L183/5这些文件有一定的期限限制,欧盟对之适时进行了更新。
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C325/5,2002, Art.14.
⑤ Ibid., Art.15.
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.16.
② Ibid., pp.16-19.
③例如,美国《对外援助法案》将军事与安全援助、经济与发展援助和接受国的人权政策挂钩,当这些国家“以一种持续的方式严重违反国际公认的人权”时,美国将取消军事与经济援助。See Thomas Buergenthal et al., International Human Rights,3 rd edn, West Group,2003, pp.377-385.
①关于“欧共体普惠制案”的具体案情及裁决,See WTO, European Communities-Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Preferences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/AB/R,7 April 2004.
②“第980/2005号普惠制条例”于2008年底到期。从2009年1月1日起,“第732/2008号普惠制条例”开始适用,其第8条中的“特殊激励安排”同样规定了人权条件。See Council Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 of 22 July 2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011 [2008]OJ L211/1, Art.8.
③ Elena Fierro, "Legal Basis and Scope of the Human Rights Clauses in EC Bilateral Agreements:Any Room for Positive Interpretation?", European Law Journal, Vol.7,2001, pp.66-67.
①联合国前秘书长安南报告：《大自由：人人共享的发展、安全与人权》(A/59/2005),第14,17段。
② D. J. Marantis, "Human Rights, Democracy and Development:The European Community Model", Harvard Human Rights Journal, Vol.7,1994, p.5.
③ K. Lenaerts and E. De Smijter,"The European Community's Treaty-Making Competence", in A. Barav and D. A. Wyatt(eds.), Yearbook of European Law, Vol.16,1996, p.45.
④ Maria Koblanck, "What's in a Human Rights Clause:Its Development, Its Application, and an Insight into the Construct of a European Identity", KU Leuven, June 2003, pp.56-57.
⑤ European Commission, Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (95)216,23 May 1995, p.5.
①欧洲议会认为人权不属于一国的内政,因而在此领域不干涉内政原则是相对的。欧洲议会同时认为,在人权受到严重威胁时,不仅存在干涉的权利,而且存在事实上的干涉义务See Reinhard Rack and Stefan Lausegger, "The Role of the European Parliament:Past and Future", in Philip Alston(ed.), The EU and Human Rights, Oxford University Press,1999, pp.801-837.
② See Peter Hilpold, "Human Rights Clause in the EU-Association Agreements", in Stefan Griller & Birgit Weidel(eds.), External Economic and Foreign Policy in the European Union, Springer-Verlag Wien,2002, pp.376-377.
③洪德钦：“欧盟对外贸易与发展协定之人权条款——规定与实践”,《欧美研究》(台湾),2004年第34卷第1期,第191页。
④例如,Allan Rosas强调,包含在合作协定中的“人权条款”是建立在对等性的基础之上的,所以欧盟已经承诺尊重民主原则和人权,并且原则上已经接受在欧盟机构和成员国方面出现严重违反人权情势时,其他缔约方有中止协定的权利。See Allan Rosas, "The European Union and International Human Rights Instruments", in Vincent Kronenberger (ed.), The European Union and the International Legal Order:Discord or Harmony?, T.M.C. Asser Press,2001, p.62
① See Stephan Breitenmoser, "Sectoral Agreements between the EC and Switzerland:Contents and Context", Common Market Law Review, Vol.40,2003, pp.1137-1186.
①[德]菲舍尔：“从国家联盟到联邦：对欧洲一体化最终形式的思考”,载曹卫东编：《欧洲为何需要一部宪法》,中国人民大学出版社2004年6月版,第14页。
① See Declaration on the Future of the Union annexed to the Treaty of Nice, OJ C80,2001, p.85.
②《莱肯宣言》指出了欧盟改革的四项主题：更好地划分和界定欧盟的权能;简化欧盟的法律文件；欧盟运作更加民主、透明、高效：向贴近欧洲公民的宪法发展。See Laeken Declaration on the Future of the European Union (15 December 2001), available at http://european-convention.eu.int/pdf/LKNEN.pdf.
③ Declaration on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the signature of the Treaties of Rome, part.Ⅲ.
① Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels European Council (21/22 June 2007), Brussels 23 June 2007,11177/07, CONCL 2,para.8.
② See IGC 2007, Draft Treaty amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the European Community, Brussels,23 July 2007 (30.07), CIG 1/07.
③“艾欧尼娜条款”又称“艾欧尼娜妥协”(loannina compromise),源于1994年3月29日在希腊城市艾欧尼娜举行的一次非正式的欧盟成员国外长会议。会议上通过了一项有关欧盟扩大后适用特定多数表决机制的理事会决定。该决定规定,如果代表了23票至26票的理事会成员明确反对理事会以特定多数方式作出决定,理事会应在一段合理的时间内,在其权能范围内尽其所能地寻求解决之道(至少应在87票中获得68票)。这一特殊的决策机制在实践中很少适用,《尼斯条约》对理事会的投票权重进行了重新安排后,这一机制停止适用。See http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/ioannina_compromise_en.htm。
① Renata Goldirova, "EU agrees new'Lisbon Treaty'", http://euobserver.com/18/2500,2007年10月19日访问。
② Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels European Council (21/22 June 2007), Annex Ⅰ.
① Jens-Peter Bonde, From EU Constitution to Lisbon Treaty, pp.26-28, available at www. Bonde.com or www.euabc.com.
① Helena Spongenberg, "Lisbon Treaty made to avoid referendum, says Giscard", http://euobserver.com/9/25052,2008年10月29日访问。
② Jens-Peter Bonde, From EU Constitution to Lisbon Treaty, p.23.
③著名欧盟法专家保罗·克瑞格(Paul Craig)在2008年的一篇文章中也曾对《里斯本条约》和《欧洲宪法条约》进行了比较,结论是：“《里斯本条约》在绝大多数方面复制了《欧洲宪法条约》的相关条款,这一结论难以抗拒”See Paul Craig, "The Treaty of Lisbon:Process, Architecture and Substance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.2,2008, p.165.
① Treaty of Lisbon, OJ C306/01,17/12/2007, Art.6.
① Protocol on the enlargement of the European Union in Treaty of Nice, OJ C 80/49.
② Millward Brown IMS, Post Lisbon Treaty Referendum Research Findings, September 2008, http://www.dfa.ie/ uploads/documents/Publications/Post%20Lisbon%20Treaty%20Referendum%20Research%20Findings/post%20lisb on%20treaty%20referendum%20research%20findings sept08.pdf.
③刘明礼：“爱尔兰否决《里斯本条约》和欧洲一体化前景”,《国际资料信息》,2008年第7期,第30页。
① "Agreements reached on climate change, economic recovery and Lisbon treaty in historic summit", available at http://ec.europa.eu/news/economy/081212_1_en.htm,2008年12月20日访问。
②2009年1月中旬,捷克议会批准《里斯本条约》,使爱尔兰成为欧盟27国中唯一没有批准的国家。有关《里斯本条约》批准程序的最新进展信息,参见欧盟官方网站：http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/index_en.htm,2009年3月30日访问。
③欧盟内部人权政策与对外人权政策之间的发展缺乏一致性(incoherence),成为制约“人权条款”实施效能的重要法律障碍。安德鲁·威廉斯(Williams)对两者之间的差异进行了详细分析,并认为在人权的概念、监督机制和实施机制方面,欧盟的内外人权政策之间出现了“分叉”(bifurcation),使欧盟在推行对外人权政策时的公正性和可信度大打折扣。See Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policies:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press, pp.193-204.④有关《里斯本条约》改革的全面论述,See Paul Craig, "The Treaty of Lisbon:Process, Architecture and Substance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.2,2008, pp.137-166:see also Michael Dougan,"The Treaty of Lisbon 2007:Winning Minds, Not Hearts", Common Market Law Review, Vol.45, No.3,2008, pp.617-703.
①为区别于目前的《欧洲联盟条约》,本章将经《里斯本条约》修改后的《欧洲联盟条约》称为“新《欧洲联盟条约》”,并注明时间。
Consolidated Version of The Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.2.
Ibid., Art.3.
① Consolidated Version of The Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008., Art.21.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.214.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.352.
① European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.98.
② Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union(2007/C 303/01), Art.51.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.6(2).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C 115/47,09/05/2008, Art.218.
② Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1061, paras.27-36.
① Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union(2007/C 303/01), Art.52(3).
②目前所有欧洲委员会(Council of Europe)成员国中只有俄罗斯尚未批准该议定书,因此该规定尚未正式生效。当然,为确保欧盟的加入,公约仍需进行一系列技术层面的修改。但这些特殊安排表明,欧盟将以国际组织,而非国家的身份加入《欧洲人权公约》。
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.1.
② Ibid.,Art.24(1).
③ Ibid., Art.47.
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.215.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.25.
① See EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, P.24.
②欧洲法院的管辖权扩张至此。
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.21.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.22.
② Ibid.,Art.23.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.205.
④ Ibid., Arts.206-222.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.18.
② Ibid., Art.22.
③ Ibid., Art.26.
④ European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.190.
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.27(2).
②目前的共同外交与安全政策代表不享有提案权,这一职能是由轮值主席国和其他成员国实施,但实践表明,这一限制不利于共同外交与安全政策代表与第三国进行广泛的谈判和对话。《里斯本条约》在提案权方面给予高级代表以极大程度的灵活性。See Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13, 09/05/2008, Art.30.
③ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.27.
① European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.49.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.16(4).
③ Protocol on Transnational Provisions in The Treaty of Lisbon, OJ C306/159,17/12/2007, Art.3(2).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008. Art.16(4).
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.238.
③ European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, pp.53-54.
④有学者指出,欧洲议会权力的提升是以欧盟委员会权力的下降为代价的。See Paul Craig, "The Treaty of Lisbon:Process, Architecture and Substance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.2,2008, p.158.
⑤ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.13.
⑥ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.14(1).
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.294.
② Ibid., Art.289.
③ European Union Committee of House of Lords (UK), The Treaty of Lisbon:An Impact Assessment (Volume: Report),10th Report of Session 2007-08, p.66.
④ Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.314.
⑤ Ibid., Art.289.
①《欧洲联盟运行条约》第207条第2款规定,欧洲议会应与理事会一道根据普通立法程序以条例形式行动,通过有关共同商业政策的实施法规。
②《欧共体条约》第133条没有规定理事会与欧洲议会的磋商义务,第300条允许这一例外的存在。
③《欧洲联盟运行条约》第218条第10款规定：“在程序的所有阶段,应立即和充分通知欧洲议会”。
① Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.19(1).
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, OJ C115/47,09/05/2008, Art.275.
①有关《里斯本条约》改革之缺漏的详细论述,See Jukka Snell, "'European Constitutional Settlement', an Ever-Closer Union and the Treaty of Lisbon:Democracy or Relevance", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.5,2008, pp.619-642; Panos Koutrakos, "Primary law and policy in EU external relations-Moving away from the big picture", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.5,2008, pp.666-686; Robert SchUtze, "Lisbon and the Federal Order of Competences:A Prospective Analysis", European Law Review, Vol.33, No.5,2008, pp.709-722.
② Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, OJ C115/13,09/05/2008, Art.6(1).
③ Ibid., Art.6(2).
① European Parliament, Report on the communication from the Commission on the inclusion of respect for democratic principles and human rights in agreements between the Community and third countries( COM(95)0216-C4-0197/95), A4-0212/1996-T4-0499/1996.
② European Parliament, Report on the European Union's role in promoting human rights and democratisation in third countries (COM(2001)252-C5-0653/2001-2001/2276(COS)), A5-0084/2002.
① European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2002 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2002/2011(INI)), A5-0274/2003, pp.11-12.
② European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2003 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2003/2005(INI)), A5-0270/2004, pp.12-13.
③ European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2004 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2004/2151(INI)), A5-0086/2005, p.12.
④ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06.
⑤ European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006.
⑥ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)),P6_TA(2006)0056.
① Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, p.65.
② European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.14.
③ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, paras.8,10.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056, para.11.
② European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.14.
③ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.9.
④ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06,p.67.
①关于欧盟基本权利局的成立及运作。See Council Regulation (EC) No 168/2007 of 15 February 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [2007] OJ L53/1.
② European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.15.
③ European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, pp.15-16.
④ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.12.
① European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006,p.16.
② European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056,para.15.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, pp.67-68.
④ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056, para.17.
⑤ Council of European Union, Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions), Brussels,7 June 2004,10198/1/04 REV 1,p.3.
⑥ Council of European Union, Guidelines on implementation and evaluation of restrictive measures (sanctions) in the framework of the EU Common Foreign and Security Policy, Brussels,2 December 2005,15114/05, p.10.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.16.
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, pp.68-69.
③ Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreeme DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06,,p.69.
① European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, p.17.
② European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6 TA(2006)0056, para.7.
③ European Parliament, Report on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements(2005/2057(INI)), A6-0004/2006, pp.17-18.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.7.
② Lorand Bartels, Human Rights and Democracy Clauses in the EU's International Agreements, DGExPo/B/PolDep/Study/2005/06, pp.65-66.
①Ibid., p.66.
②《巴托斯报告》只是简洁地规定：“(协定/伙伴关系)的目标是：(……)促进和保护尊重民主原则和人权”。
③《巴托斯报告》在这段文字后面还规定：“(缔约双方应制定并同意与这些义务有关之基准或指标,其中应考虑相关缔约方的特殊情势。基准是通过为遵守设立中期目标和时间表的形式而实现指标的机制。)”
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, p.24.
② European Parliament, Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INI)), A6-0163/2008, pp.30-31.
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.20.
①根据欧盟对外关系法中的“加拿大条款”('Canada Clause'),欧盟成员国在欧共体与第三国开展双边关系的同时,也可以与该国开展双边关系,其中包括缔结经济合作协定。在协定的序言、正文或谈判纪要中,该条款一般声称欧共体的缔约权能并不损害成员国的缔约权能。当然,成员国的活动也不能影响欧共体的权能,并要求遵守一定的磋商程序。该条款是欧盟法中权能辅助性原则(principle of subsidiarity)的体现,因最早出现于1976年欧共体与加拿大缔结的协定而得名。本文探讨的中欧关系不包括欧盟成员国与中国的双边关系。有关“加拿大条款”对欧盟成员国的意义,See I. Macleod et al., The External Relations of the European Communities:A Manual of Law and Practice, Clarendon Press, Oxford,1996, pp.234-235.
② Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China [1985] OJ L250/1.
① Agreement on Trade and Economic Cooperation between the European Economic Community and the People's Republic of China [1985] OJ L250/1, Art.1.
② Ibid., Art.10.
③ Ibid., Art.15(2).
④第一代协定(20世纪70年代)往往只规定合作条款,主要为发展援助形式；第二代协定(20世纪80年代)开始包含贸易条款；第三代协定(20世纪90年代)开始将贸易条款与政治对话、民主和人权联系起来。See Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith. "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, p.175.
⑤关于中欧双边关系的全面介绍,参见2009年2月13日最近更新的外交部网站http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/ wjb/zzjg/xos/gjlb/EuropeanUnion/default.htm,2009年2月20日访问。
⑥ Cases C-466/98-C-476/98 Open Skies Decisions [2002] ECR 1-09427.
⑦ Joint Statement of the 10th China-EU Summit(Beijing,28 November 2007), point.38.
① "An overview of the sectoral dialogues between China and the EU ", available at http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/china/sectoraldialogue_en.htm, accessed 01/02/2009.
②判断某一文件是否属于条约,不能简单地从其名称作出判断。谅解备忘录(MOUs)一般是不具法律约束力的“软法”文件,适用于国际关系的大多数领域,起到补充条约的作用。谅解备忘录由于形式灵活并具有保密性而广为适用。在但在例外的情形下,也有条约以谅解备忘录作为名称。参见[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》,江国青译,中国人民大学出版社2005年4月版,第20-21页,第27-46页。
① Antoine Sautenet, "The Current Status and Prospects of the'Strategic Partnership'between the EU and China: Towards the Conclusion of a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement", European Law Journal, Vol.13, No.6,2007, p.718.
② See Zeng Lingliang, " A Preliminary Perspective of Negotiations of EU-China PCA:A New Bottle Carring Old Wine or New Wine or Both?", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, pp.123-125.
① Antoine Sautenet, "EU-China Partnership & Cooperation Agreement Negotiations:Time for Balance", Tamkang University Eui Newsletter, No.20, December 2008, p.27.
②例如,欧共体与巴基斯坦缔结的《伙伴关系和发展合作协定》第17条规定：“本着提升合作层次的目的,缔约方可以经相互同意扩展本协定,并通过在具体部门或活动上达成一致的方式增加规定。关于本协定的实施,任何一方可以在考虑实施经验的同时,提出扩大合作的建议。”See Cooperation Agreement between the EC and Pakistan, relating to the Partnership and to development [2004] OJ L378/23, Art.17.
③ Antoine Sautenet, "The Current Status and Prospects of the'Strategic Partnership' between the EU and China: Towards the Conclusion of a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement", European Law Journal, Vol.13, No.6,2007, p.706.
④ European Commission, Communication on a Long Term Policy for China Europe Relations, COM (1995) 278 final.
① European Commission, Communication on Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, COM (1998) 181 final.
② European Commission, Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final.
③ EU Strategy towards China, Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a more Effective EU Policy, COM (2001)265. final.
④ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final.
⑤ Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final.
⑥ Commission Working Document accompanying COM(2006) 631 final:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities-A policy paper on EU-China trade and investment:Competition and Partnership, COM(2006) 632 final.
①参见[德]白小川：“欧盟的功能多边主义与中国崛起”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第2期,第53页。
②《中国对欧盟政策文件》全文,参见中华人民共和国外交部官方网站http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/chn/wjb/zzjg/ xos/gjlb/EuropeanUnion/smgb/t27700.htm。此外,中国政府先后于2006年1月12日和2008年11月5日发布了《中国对非洲政策文件》、《中国对拉丁美洲和加勒比政策文件》。
① Antoine Sautenet, "The Current Status and Prospects of the'Strategic Partnership'between the EU and China: Towards the Conclusion of a Partnership and Cooperation Agreement", European Law Journal, Vol.13, No.6,2007, p.705.
② Ibid., footnote 56.
③ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final,p.3.
④ Antoine Sautenet, "EU-China Partnership & Cooperation Agreement Negotiations:Time for Balance", Tamkang University Eui Newsletter, No.20, December 2008, p.26.
⑤参见2004年5月6日温家宝总理在访问欧盟总部期间出席中欧投资贸易研讨会时发表的题为《积极发展中国同欧盟全面战略伙伴关系》的讲话,http://www.people.com.cn/GB/shizheng/1024/2481360.html,2009年1月10日访问。
① European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, p.7.
② Ibid., p.8.
③ Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.2.
① Commission Communication,EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.2.
② Ibid., p.12.
③ Commission Working Document accompanying COM(2006) 631 final:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities-A policy paper on EU-China trade and investment:Competition and Partnership, COM(2006) 632 final, p.15.
① European Council, Conclusions on EU-China Strategic Partnership, Brussels,11-12 December 2006,16291/06 (Presse 353), para.1.
②张健：“欧盟对华认知变化及政策调整“,《现代国际关系》2007年第7期,第10-11页。
① Charles Grant & Katinka Barysch, Can Europe and China Share a New World Order?, Centre for European Reform,2008, pp.17-18.
② The Council of the EU, European Union Code of Conduct for Arms Exports, Brussels,5 June 1998,8675/2/98, available at http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cmsUpload/08675r2en8.pdf.值得注意的是,《欧盟武器出口行为守则》第2项标准是：“最终目的地国尊重人权”。有关《欧盟武器出口行为守则》的详细论述, See Panos Koutrakos, Trade, Foreign Policy and Defence in EU Constitutional Law, Oxford-Portland,2001, pp.199-220.
③ See Council Regulation (EC) No.1334/2000 on the control of exports of dual-use items and technology [2000] OJ L159/1; See also Council Regulation (EC) No 394/2006 of 27 February 2006(The amending Regulation) [2006] OJ L74/1.
④孙永福：“中欧经贸合作的现状与前景”,《开放导报》2005年第4期,第55页。
①关于欧盟拒绝承认中国完全市场经济地位的非技术性因素,参见曾令良、张英：“中欧关系中的非市场经济地位问题——纯粹技术性问题或远非如此?”,载《欧洲联盟法治50年：回顾与展望》(中国欧洲学会欧洲法律研究会2008年年会论文集),武汉,2008年11月22-23日,第458-470页。
②[英]斯坦利·克罗西克：“欧中战略伙伴关系走向”,《国际问题研究》2007年第4期, 第64页。
③ See Francis Snyder, "China, Regional Trade Agreements and WTO Law", Journal of World Trade, Vol.43, No.1, February 2009, pp.1-57.
④实际上,谈判时间持续愈长,欧盟以市场经济地位问题作为对中国施压的筹码将越来越不可行。因为根据《中国加入WTO议定书》第15(d)条,中国的非市场经济地位将在加入之日后15年——亦即2015年——终止。
⑤ Commission Communication,EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.4.
⑥具体包括：确保安全可持续的能源供应、应对气候变化和改善环境、提高有关就业和社会问题的交流、加强在国际发展问题上的协调、可持续经济增长。
⑦具体包括：坚持开放与市场准入、提供平等竞争平台、支持欧盟企业、保护欧盟的利益、加强双边关系
⑧具体包括：确保高质量不断增加的科技合作、建立一个有效的移民关系、扩大人与人之间的联系、让双边体系更有效。
⑨具体包括：东亚、台湾、中国军事开支与目标的透明度、武器禁运、防止核扩散。
⑩ Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.12.
① Charles Grant & Katinka Barysch, Can Europe and China Share a New World Order?, Centre for European Reform,2008, p.69.
② See Zeng Lingliang, " A Preliminary Perspective of Negotiations of EU-China PCA:A New Bottle Carring Old Wine or New Wine or Both?", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, p.140.
③ European Commission, Communication on a Long Term Policy for China Europe Relations, COM (1995) 278/final, p.7.
① European Commission,Communication on Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, COM (1998) 181 final, p.5.
② European Commission,Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final, pp.3-4.
③ EU Strategy towards China, Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a more Effective EU Policy, COM (2001)265 final, pp.8-9.
① European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, p.9.
② Ibid., p.10.
③ Joint Statement of the 10th China-EU Summit(Beijing,28 November 2007), point.6.
④2006年12月,由于欧盟与美国等国在联合国大会共同发起有关伊朗问题的决议,伊朗单方面宣布退出人权对话机制,欧盟对此表示遗憾,并承诺在适当条件下仍可重启人权对话机制。所以严格来讲, 目前只有中国与欧盟之间存在专门的人权对话机制。
⑤第26届中欧人权对话于2008年11月24-28日在北京举行。
① EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2007, pp.21-22.
②中国政府由于欧盟邀请两名非政府组织的代表出席而拒绝参加原定于2007年5月举行的司法研讨会,中欧人权司法研讨会直至2008年5月的人权对话上方得以恢复。
③在中断一年后,Bled司法研讨会为中欧的学者、官员以及在此领域的人权非政府组织提供了继续进行建设性交流的平台,但欧盟邀请的一些国际人权非政府组织拒绝参加此次研讨会。
④ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, pp.16-17.
① European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, pp.12-13.
②安德鲁·威廉斯(Williams)指出,欧盟在对外关系层面上向以践行人权卫士之职自居,并自视为道德之楷模(a beacon of virtue),而且欧盟认为其成员国内的人权标准要优于外部的人权状况。但从欧盟内外人权政策的“双重标准”,或曰“分叉”来看,这实际上是一个危险的假设(a dangerous assumption). See Andrew Williams, EU Human Rights Policies:A Study in Irony, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.200-201.
③ European Commission,Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final, p.7.
④ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final, p.13.
① “欧盟轮值主席国代表欧盟就西藏局势发表声明”,参见中国欧盟协会网站：http://www.ceua.org/ newsCenter/zx/1215105991 d44096.html,2009年1月12日访问。
②“欧盟轮值主席国代表欧盟就拘留胡佳及其他中国人权维护者发表声明”,参见中国欧盟协会网站：http://www.ceua.org/newsCenter/zx/1215105992d44097.html,2009年1月12日访问。
③ European Commission, Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003) final, p.12.
④ Ibid.
⑤ Ibid.
① Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, pp.4-5.
②欧盟年度人权报告的时间跨度一般为上一年度的7月至下一年度的7月,此处的报告期间是指2007年7月至2008年7月。
③ EU Annual Report on Human Rights 2008, p.78.
④欧洲议会对中国的人权状况和人权政策基本持批评态度,这些批评集中体现在欧洲议会2006年通过的《欧盟-中国关系决议》,See European Parliament, Resolution on EU-China Relations (2005/2161 (INI)), P6_TA(2006)0346, paras.47-77.
① Joint Statement of the 9th China-EU Summit(Helsinki,9 September 2006), Para.4.
②根据我国宪法规定,完善1985年《贸易与经济合作协定》的谈判应由商务部牵头,《中欧伙伴关系与合作协定》的谈判则由外交部牵头。前一项协定只需国务院批准,后一协定则需要全国人大常委会批准。See Zeng Lingliang, " A Preliminary Perspective of Negotiations of EU-China PCA:A New Bottle Carring Old Wine or New Wine or Both?", European Law Journal, Vol.15, No.1, January 2009, p.127.
① Draft partnership and cooperation agreement between the European Union and China, Negotiating directives adopted on 12 December, Bulletin EU 12-2005, point 1.6.71需要指出的是,欧盟公告栏只有标题,但具体授权内容是不对外公开的。
① Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith, "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, pp.181-182.
②需要指出的是,最后文件不具有严格的法律约束力。但是附件和议定书是协定的组成部分,因而具有法律约束力。See e.g. Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3,Art.108.
③ European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, para.10.
④ European Parliament, Report on the Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INl)), A 6-0163/2008, p.30.
①2001年的“9.11事件”后,欧共体开始在与第三国缔结的协定中纳入“反恐条款”。其主要内容是,缔约方承诺依照《联合国宪章》、国际法以及安理会有关决议,通过国际合作的方式打击恐怖主义。迄今为止,这类条款适用的第三国有：智利、前南斯拉夫马其顿共和国、埃及、阿尔及利亚和非加太国家。“反恐条款”的典型,See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209/27, Art.11 a.
②缔约方在该条款中承诺通过彻底实施现存的国际文件和建立有效的国家出口控制制度,反对大规模杀伤性武器扩散。欧共体与塔吉克斯坦签署的《伙伴关系与合作协定》中就包含“防止核扩散条款”。此外,欧共体与叙利亚缔结的联系协定,以及2005年新修订的《科托努协定》中也均含有该条款。See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [20051 OJ L209/27, Art.11b.
③缔约方在该条款下承诺批准和实施《国际刑事法院规约》及相关文件,对国内法律体系进行相应的改革,并通过国际法打击国际犯罪。欧共体2005年修订的《科托努协定》引进了这一条款,并且欧盟目前与新加坡和印度尼西亚正在谈判此条款。See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209/27, Art.11 (6).
④根据《欧共体条约》第300(3)条,欧洲议会在欧共体缔结国际协定时享有批准权的情形有：第310条下的联系协定；通过组织合作程序创设制度性安排的协定；对欧共体具有重要预算意义的协定；使根据第251条程序通过的立法文件有必要修订之协定。在实践中,若协定涉及“人权条款”之类的政治性条款,欧洲议会也享有批准权。
①在混合协定漫长的批准进程中,欧共体一般会另外缔结一项“临时协定”(interim agreement),以提前适用原协定中涉及贸易因素的部分条款。由于临时协定的法律基础是《欧共体条约》第133条(共同商业政策),属于纯粹的欧共体型协定,无须成员国的批准程序,通常较容易获得欧盟的批准。但欧盟与俄罗斯临时协定的批准程序也因人权问题被反复推迟。从欧共体近年来与士库曼斯坦、波黑等国缔结的临时协定来看,这些协定中也纳入了“人权条款”。
② Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith, "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, pp.181-182.
③ Commission Communication,EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.4.
①从2004年起,中国的外交政策和行动受到欧盟越来越多的抱怨和指责。一方面,欧盟指责中国的发展援助政策没有达到西方的治理和透明度标准；另一方面,欧盟称中国资源和能源导向型的外交政策与欧盟鼓励的良治政策形成冲突,不利于欧盟向全球推广其价值观体系。参见张健：“欧盟对华认知变化及政策调整”,《现代国际关系》2007年第7期,第8页。
② Commission Communication, EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.3.
③关于“中国责任论”的缘起及其对中国的影响,详见牛海彬：“‘中国责任论’析论”,《现代国际关系》2007年第3期；马振岗：“中国的责任与‘中国责任论’”,《国际问题研究》2007年第3期：刘建飞：“‘中国责任论’考验和平发展”,《现代国际关系》2007年第4期；胡键：“‘中国责任论’与和平发展道路”,《现代国际关系》2007年第7期。
④ European Commission, Communication on A Maturing Partnership-Shared Interests and Challenges in EU-China Relations, COM (2003) final, p.12;see also European Commission, Communication on EU-China:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities, COM (2006) 632 final, p.4.
⑤ See e.g. Agreements on Partnership and Cooperation between the EC/MS and the Russian Federation [1997] OJ L327/3.
① European Parliament, Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056, point N.
① Marcela Szymanski and Michael E. Smith. "Coherence and Conditionality in European Foreign Policy: Negotiating the EU-Mexico Global Agreement", Journal of Common Market Studies, Vol.43,2005, pp.185-186.
① See Agreement amending the Cotonou Partnership Agreement [2005] OJ L209, p.40.
① See Cotonou Partnership Agreement [20001 OJ 317/3, Art.98.
② “外交部发言人秦刚就第十一次中欧领导人会晤推迟事发表讲话”,参见外交部官方网站：http://www.fmcoprc.gov.mo/chn/gsxwfb/lxjzzdh/t524229.htm,2008年11月29日访问。
①[美]罗伯特·卡根：《天堂与实力——世界新秩序下的美国与欧洲》,肖蓉、魏红霞译,新华出版社2004年5月版,第2-3页。
②[英]马克·伦纳德：《为什么欧洲会领跑21世纪》, 廖海燕译,上海三联书店2009年3月版, 第36-49页。
③例如,英国的Tim Hillier教授认为,影响国际法实施的两个重要因素是：对等性原则和公共舆论。See Tim Hillier, Principles of Public International Law,2nd edn., Cavendish Publishing Limited,1999, pp.11-12.
④ Mielle Bulterman, Human Rights in the Treaty Relations of the European Community:Real Virtues or Virtual Reality?, Intersentia-Har, 2001, p.19.
①关于国际法“人本化”趋势的详细论述,参见曾令良：“现代国际法的人本化发展趋势”,《中国社会科学》2007年第l期,第89-103页；何志鹏：“全球化与国际法的人本主义转向”,《吉林大学社会科学学报》2007年第1期,第113-120页。
① EU-China Joint statement, Brussels,30 January 2009, available at http://ec.europa.eu/external relations/china/ docs/joint statement 300109%20en.pdf,2009年2月10日访问。
② "EC and China sign nine cooperation agreements and foster dialogue on global solutions to economic and financial crisis and climate change",Brussels,30 January 2009,IP/09/212.
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1. Common Position 2009/68/CFSP of 26 January 2009 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2009] OJ L23/43.
2. Common Position 2008/479/CFSP of 23 June 2008 amending Common Position 2007/140/CFSP concerning restrictive measures against Iran [2008] OJ L163/43.
3. Common Position 2008/369/CFSP of 14 May 2008 concerning restrictive measures against the Democratic Republic of the Congo and repealing Common Position 2005/440/CFSP [2008] OJ L127/84.
4. Common Position 2008/349/CFSP of 29 April 2008 renewing restrictive measures against Burma/Myanmar [2008] OJ L116/57.
5. Common Position 2008/135/CFSP of 18 February 2008 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2008] OJ L43/39.
6. Common Position 2007/734/CFSP of 13 November 2007 concerning restrictive measures against Uzbekistan [2007] OJ L295/34.
7. Common Position 2007/120/CFSP of 19 February 2007 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2007] OJ L51/25.
8. Common Position 2007/94/CFSP of 12 February 2007 amending Common Position 2002/960/CFSP concerning restrictive measures against Somalia [2007] OJ L41/19.
9. Common Position 2004/161/CFSP of 19 February 2004 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2004] OJ L50/66.
10. Common Position 2003/115/CFSP of 19 February 2003 renewing restrictive measures against Zimbabwe [2003] OJ L46/30.
11. Common Position 2002/145/CFSP of 18 February 2002 concerning restrictive measures against Zimbabwe[2002]OJ L50/1.
1. Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 of 22 July 2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011 [2008] OJ L211/1.
2. Regulation (EC) No 168/2007 of 15 February 2007 establishing a European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights [2007] OJ L53/1.
3. Regulation(EC) No 1889/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 December 2006 on establishing a financing instrument for the promotion of democracy and human rights worldwide [2006] OJ L386/1.
4. Regulation (EC) No 1905/2006 of The European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 establishing a financing instrument for development cooperation [2006] OJ L378/41.
5. Regulation (EC) No 1638/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 October 2006 Laying down general provisions establishing a European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument [2006] OJ L310/1.
6. Regulation (EC) No 1085/2006 of 17 July 2006 establishing an Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance (IPA)[2006] OJ L210/82.
7. Regulation(EC) No 980/2005 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2005] OJ L169/1.
8. Regulation (EC)310/2002 Concerning Certain Restrictive Measures in respect of Zimbabwe [2002] OJ L50/4.
9. Regulation (EC)No 2501/2001 Applying a Scheme of Generalised Tariff Preferences [2001] OJ L1346/1.
10. Regulation (EC) No.1334/2000 on the control of exports of dual-use items and technology [2000] OJ L159/1 (amending Regulation (EC) No 394/2006 of 27 February 2006 [2006] OJ L74/1).
1. Decision of 18 February 2002 concluding consultations with Zimbabwe under Article 96 of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2002] OJ L50/64.
2. Decision 822/2001 on the association of the overseas countries and territories with the European Community [2001] OJ L314/1.
3. Decision 2000/458/CFSP, Common Strategy of the European Council on the Mediterranean region [2000] OJ L183/5.
4. Decision of 11 March 1999 on the procedure for implementing Article 366a of the fourth ACP-EC Convention (1999/214/EC) [1999] OJ L 75/31.
5. Decision of the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States of the European Communities, meeting within the Council of 11 March 1999 amending the internal agreement on the measures to be taken nd the procedures to be followed in applying the fourth ACP-EC Convention(1999/213/EC) [1999] OJ L75/3.
6. Decision 91/602 denouncing the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Socilist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia [1991] OJ L325/23.
1. Europen Union guidelines on human rights dialogues(update 2009).
2. European Union guidelines on violence against women and girls and combating all forms of discrimination against them (2008)
3. Europen Union guidelines on human rights defenders(update 2008).
4. Europen Union guidelines on children and armed conflict(update 2008).
5. European Union guidelines to EU Policy towards third countries on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment(update 2008).
6. European Union guidelines to EU policy towards third countries on the death penalty (update 2008).
7. European Union guidelines for the promotion and protection of the rights of the child(2007).
8. European Union guidelines on promoting compliance with international humanitarian law(2005).
1. Decision on the list of the beneficiary countries which qualify for the special incentive arrangement for sustainable development and good governance, provided for in Council Regulation (EC) No 732/2008 applying a scheme of generalised tariff preferences for the period from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2011 [2008] OJ L334/90.
2. Decision on the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) Strategy Paper 2007-2010 (C 2007/3765).
3. Working Document accompanying COM(2006) 631 final:Closer Partners, Growing Responsibilities-A policy paper on EU-China trade and investment:Competition and Partnership, COM(2006) 632 final.
4. Communication on EU-China:Closer partners, growing responsibilities, COM (2006) 631 final.
5. Communication on Compliance with the Charter of Fundamental Rights in Commission legislative proposals:Methodology for systematic and rigorous monitoring, COM(2005) 172 final.
6. Communication on A maturing partnership-shared interests and challenges in EU-China relations, COM (2003)533 final.
7. Communication on Reinvigorating EU Actions on Human Rights and Democratisation with Mediterranean Partners, COM (2003)294 final.
8. Communication on EU Strategy towards China, Implementation of the 1998 Communication and Future Steps for a more Effective EU Policy, COM (2001)265 final.
9. Communication on the European Union's Role in Promoting Human Rights and Democratization in Third Countries, COM (2001)252 final.
10. Report on the Implementation of the Communication "Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China", COM (2000)552 final.
11. Communication on Building a Comprehensive Partnership with China, COM (1998) 181 final.
12. Communication on Democratisation, the Rule of Law, Respect for Human Rights and Good Governance:the Challenges of the Partnership between the European Union and the ACP States, COM(1998) 146 final.
13. Communication on the European Union and the External Dimension of Human Rights Policy: from Rome to Maastricht and beyond, COM (1995)567 final.
14. Communication on a Long Term Policy for China-Europe Relations, COM (1995) 278/final.
15. Communication on the Inclusion of Respect for Democratic Principles and Human Rights in Agreements between the Community and Third Countries, COM (1995)216 final.
16. Communication on Human Rights, Democracy and Development Cooperation Policy, SEC (1991)61.
1. Case C-281/01 Commission v. Council [2002] ECR I-12049.
2. Case C-76/00 Petrotub [2003] ECR I-79.
3. Cases C-466/98-C-476/98 Open Skies Decisions [2002] ECR I-09427.
4. Case C-352/96 Italy v. Council[1998] ECR I-6937.
5. Case C-170/96 Commission v. Council [1998] ECR I-2763.
6. Case C-162/96 Racke v.Hauptzolamt [1998] ECR I-3655.
7. Case C-149/96 Portugal v. Council [1999] ECR I-8395.
8. Case C-177/95 Ebony Maritime and Loten Navigation v. Prefetto della Provincia di Brindisi and others [1997] ECR I-1111.
9. Case C-124/95 The Queen, ex parte Centro-Com v. H M Treasury and Bank of England [1997] ECR I-81.
10. Case C-84/95 Bosphorus v. Minister for Transport, Energy and Communications, Ireland and the Attorney General [1996] ECR I-3953.
11. Case C-268/94 Portugal v. Council [1996] ECR I-6177.
12. Case C-280/93 Germany v. Council (Bananas case) [1994] ECR I-4973.
13 Case-316/91 Parliament v. Council (Lome Convention) [1994] ECR I-625.
14. Case C-18/90 ONEM v. Kziber [1991] ECR I-199.
15. Case C-69/89 Nakajima v. Council [1991] ECR I-2069.
16. Case 70/87 Fediol v. Commission [1989] ECR 1781.
17. Case 45/86 Commission v. Council (GSP) [1987] ECR 1493.
18. Case 12/86 Demirel v. Stadt Schwabisch Gmund [1987]ECR 3719.
19. Case 104/81 Kupferberg [1982] ECR 3641.
20. Cases(Joint)3,4, and 6/76 Cornelis Kramer and others [1976] ECR 1279.
21. Case 2/74 Reyners [1974] ECR 631.
22. Case 21-24/72 International Fruit Company [1972] ECR 1219.
23. Case 22/70 Commission v. Council [1970] ECR 263.
24. Case 11/70 Internationle Handelsgesellschaft v. Einfuhr-und Vorratstelle fur Getreide und Futtermittel [1970] ECR 1125.
25. Case 26/62 Van Gend en Loss [1963] ECR 1.
26. Opinion 2/00 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety [2001] ECR I-9713.
27. Opinion 2/94 (Re European Convention on Human Rights) [1996] ECR I-1759.
28. Opinion 1/94 WTO [1994] ECR I-5267.
29. Opinion 1/78 Agreement on Natural Rubber [1979] ECR 2871.
30. Opinion 1/76 (Re the Draft Agreement for a Laying-up Fund for Inland Waterway Vessels) [1977]ECR 741.
31. Opinion 1/75 Local Cost Standard [1975] ECR 1355.
1. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2007 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2007/2274(INI)),A6-0153/2008.
2. Resolution on EU-China Relations(2005/2161(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0346.
3. Report on EU-China Relations(2005/2161(INI)), A6-0257/2006.
4. Resolution on the human rights and democracy clause in European Union agreements (2005/2057(INI)), P6_TA(2006)0056.
5. Report on the Human Rights and Democracy Clause in European Union Agreements(2005/2057(INI)),A6-0004/2006.
6. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2004 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2004/2151 (INI)), A5-0086/2005.
7. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2003 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2003/2005(INI)),A5-0270/2004.
8. Annual Report on Human Rights in the World 2002 and the European Union's Policy on the Matter(2002/2011(INI)), A5-0274/2003.
9. Report on the European Union's role in promoting human rights and democratisation in third countries (COM(2001)252-C5-0653/2001-2001/2276(COS)), A5-0084/2002.
10. Report on the situation as regards fundamental rights in the European Union (2000/2231(INI)), A-5223/2001.
11. Report on the communication from the Commission on the inclusion of respect for democratic principles and human rights in agreements between the Community and third countries(COM(95)0216-C4-0197/95), A4-0212/1996-T4-0499/1996.
1. Internal Agreement between the Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, amending the Internal Agreement of 18 September 2000 on measures to be taken and Procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2006] OJ L247/48.
2. Internal Agreement Between the representatives of the governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on measures to be taken and procedures to be followed for the implementation of the ACP-EC Partnership Agreement [2000] OJ L317/376.
3. Internal Agreement between Representatives of the Governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, on the Financing and Administration of Community Aid under the Financial Protocol to the Partnership Agreement between the African, Caribbean and Pacific States and the European Community and its Member States signed in Cotonou(Benin) on 23 June 2000 and the allocation of financial assistance for the Overseas Countries and Territories to which Part Four of the EC Treaty applies [2000] OJ L317/355.
4. Internal Agreement on the measures and procedures required for implementation of the Fourth ACP-EEC Convention [1991] OJ L229/301.
1. EU Council and Commission, EU Annual Report on Human Rights 1999-2008.
2. Joint Statement of the 10th China-EU Summit(Beijing,28 November 2007).
3. Presidency Conclusions of the Brussels Euuropean Council (21/22 June 2007), Brussels 23 June 2007,11177/07, CONCL 2.
4. Declaration on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the signature of the Treaties of Rome(2007).
5. Joint Statement of the 9th China-EU Summit(Helsinki,9 September 2006).
6. EU Council, Guidelines on implementation and evaluation of restrictive measures (sanctions) in the framework of the EU Common Foreigh and Security Policy, Brussels,2 December 2005, 15114/05.
7. EU Council, Basic Principles on the Use of Restrictive Measures (Sanctions), Brussels,7 June 2004,10198/1/04 REV 1.
8. EC Commission, Application of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, SEC(2001)380/3.
9. EU Council, European Union Code of Conduct for Arms Exports, Brussels,5 June 1998 8675/2/98.
10. Resolution of the Council and of the Member States meeting in the Council on Human Rights, Democracy and Development,28 Nov 1991, Bull EC 11-1991.
11. Declaration Concerning Human Rights, Luxembourg European Council,28-29 June 1991, Bull EC 6-1991.
12. Council Declaration on the situation in Uganda, adopted 21 June 1977, in Bull EC 6-1977.
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1.曾令良：“《中欧伙伴与合作协定》谈判：问题、建议与展望”, 《中国社会科学》2009年第2期。
2.张华：“欧洲联盟对外人权政策的法律分析”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第5期。
3.张华：“中欧伙伴关系协定中的‘人权条款’问题”, 《现代国际关系》2008年第8期。
4.刘明礼：“爱尔兰否决《里斯本条约》与欧洲一体化前景”, 《国际资料信息》2008年第7期。
5.房乐宪：“从第十次中欧领导人会晤看当前中欧关系特点”, 《教学与研究》2008年第4期。
6.曾令良：“欧洲联盟治理结构的多元化及其对中国和平发展的影响”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第3期。
7.张华：“欧盟对外关系中的‘人权条款’初探”, 《国际论坛》2008年第3期。
8.张效民：“中国和平外交战略视野中的对外援助”, 《国际论坛》2008年第3期。
9.郑春荣：“《里斯本条约》解析”, 《国际论坛》2008年第3期。
10.戴炳然：“解读《里斯本条约》”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第2期。
11.房乐宪：“中欧首脑会晤机制对中欧关系的政策含义”, 《国际关系学院学报》2008年第2期。
12.曾令良：“当代国际法视角下的和谐世界”, 《法学评论》2008年第2期。
13.中国社会科学院欧洲研究所项目组：“中国公众对欧盟及中欧关系看法的调查和初步分 析”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第2期。
14.吴江：“《里斯本条约》的出台：解析与展望”, 《欧洲研究》2008年第1期。
15.张华：“论《欧洲宪法条约》对欧共体共同商业政策的改革”, 《比较法研究》2008年第1期。
16.张华：“欧共体共同商业政策运行机制中的法律问题初探”, 《欧洲研究》2007年第6期。
17.刘超：“欧盟对外协定中人权条款的演进”, 《学术界》2007年第6期。
18.刘建飞：“欧盟对外关系中的民主因素”, 《新远见》2007年第11期。
19.[德]白小川：“能源安全：欧美中三角关系中的一大难题”,洪建军等译, 《现代国际关系》2007年第10期。
20.刘博：“欧盟对外贸易与发展政策中的人权向度——从《洛美协定》到《科托努协定》”,《山东社会科学》,2007年第4期。
21.[英]斯坦利·克罗西克：“欧中战略伙伴关系走向”,《国际问题研究》2007年第4期。
22.胡建：“‘中国责任’与和平发展道路”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第7期。
23.张健：“欧盟对华认知变化及政策调整”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第7期。
24.易显河：“人权观念在亚洲”, 《西安交通大学学报》2007年第3期。
25.张华：“刍议欧共体对外关系中的混合协定”, 《国际论坛》2007年第3期。
26.张华：“论尊重人权作为国际法的基本原则及其对中国和平发展的影响”, 《法学评论》2007年第2期。
27.廖诗评：“试论《科托努协定》”, 《法学评论》2007年第2期。
28.刘博：“欧盟扩大过程中的人权规定与实践”, 《山东师范大学学报》2007年第2期。
29.刘建飞：“‘中国责任论’考验和平发展”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第4期。
30.马振岗：中国的责任与“中国责任论”, 《国际问题研究》2007年第3期。
31.牛海彬：“‘中国责任论’析论”, 《现代国际关系》2007年第3期。
32.[德]白小川：“欧盟的功能多边主义与中国崛起”,洪建军等译, 《现代国际关系》2007年第2期。
33.施新洲：“中欧在民主问题上的分歧与中欧关系”, 《国际关系学院学报》2007年第1期。
34.曾令良：“现代国际法的人本化发展趋势”, 《中国社会科学》2007年第1期。
35.曾令良：“论中国和平发展与国际法的交互影响与作用”, 《中国法学》2006年第4期。
36.王新华、徐刚：“欧盟对华军售解禁：主要症结与影响”, 《军事经济研究》2005年第8期。
37.戴炳然：“走向成熟、健康、稳定的中欧关系——中欧建交30周年感言”, 《欧洲研究》2005年第2期。
38.刘宏松：“声誉、责任与公正：中国多边外交的三种需求”, 《国际观察》2004年第4期。
39.曾令良：“论《欧洲宪法条约草案》的两重性”,《中国国际私法与比较法年刊》2004年卷。
40.周弘：“论中欧伙伴关系中的不对称性与对称性”, 《欧洲研究》2004年第2期。
41.洪德钦：“欧盟对外贸易与发展协定之人权条款——规定与实践”,台湾《欧美研究》2004年第1期。
42.洪德钦：“绪论：欧洲联盟人权保障之建构与实践”,台湾《欧美研究》2004年第1期。
43.廖福特：“从人权宣言迈向人权法典——《欧洲联盟基本权利宪章》之实践”,台湾《欧美研究》2004年第1期。
44.曾令良：“论欧共体法与成员国法的关系”, 《法学论坛》2003年第1期。
45.朱力宇、张小劲：“中欧人权观的异同及其对中欧关系的影响”, 《国家行政学院学报》2002年第4期。
46.余敏友、陈卫东：“欧共体围绕WTO协定直接效力问题的争论及其对我国的启示”,《法学评论》,2001年第3期、第4期。
47.房乐宪：“欧盟对外关系中的政治条件性”, 《世界经济与政治》1999年第10期。
48.黄德明：“略论欧共体与欧洲联盟的法律人格”,《法学评论》1998年第6期。
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2.杨泽伟：《主权论——国际法上的主权问题及其发展趋势研究》,北京大学出版社2006年2月版。
3.陈志敏、古斯塔夫·盖拉茨：《欧洲联盟对外政策一体化——不可能的使命》,时事出版社2003年12月版。
4.贺其治：《国家责任法及案例浅析》,法律出版社2003年11月版。
5.朱晓青：《欧洲人权法律保护机制研究》,法律出版社2003年4月版。
6.李浩培：《条约法概论》,法律出版社2003年1月版。
7.中国政法大学国际人权法教程项目组：《国际人权法教程》,中国政法大学出版社2002年12月版。
8.余敏友、邵沙平主编：《国际法问题专论》,武汉大学出版社2002年11月版。
9.梁西：《国际组织法》,武汉大学出版社2001年3月版。
10.万鄂湘等：《国际条约法》,武汉大学出版社2000年5月版。
11.梁西主编：《国际法》,武汉大学出版社2000年3月版。
12.曾令良：《欧洲共同体与现代国际法》,武汉大学出版社1992年7月版。
1.[英]马克·伦纳德：《为什么欧洲会领跑21世纪》,廖海燕译,上海三联书店2009年3月版。
2.[美]安玛丽·斯劳特：《这才是美国：如何在一个危险的世界中坚守我们的价值》,马占斌等译,新星出版社2009年1月版。
3.[美]入江昭：《全球共同体：国际组织在当代世界形成中的角色》,社会科学文献出版社2009年1月版。
4.[西]圣地亚哥·加奥纳·弗拉加：《欧洲一体化进程：过去与现在》,朱伦等译,社会科学文献出版社2009年1月版
5.[奥]曼弗雷德·诺瓦克：《<公民权利和政治权利国际公约>评注》(修订第二版),孙世彦、毕小青译,生活·读书·新知三联书店2008年12月版。
6.[加]威廉姆·夏巴斯：《国际法上的废除死刑》,赵海峰等译,法律出版社2008年10月版。
7.[美]安德鲁·莫劳夫奇克：《欧洲的抉择——社会目标与政府权力：从墨西拿到马斯特里赫特》,赵晨、陈志瑞译,社会科学文献出版社2008年5月版。
8.[法]让-马克·夸克：《迈向国际法治：联合国对人道主义危机的回应》,周景兴译,三联书店2008年3月版。
9.[澳]杰里·辛普森：《大国与法外国家：国际法律秩序中不平等的主权》,朱利江译,北京大学出版社2008年1月版。
10.[德]奥特弗利德·赫费：《全球化时代的民主》,庞学诠等译,上海译文出版社2007年8月版。
11.[比]尤利·德沃伊斯特：《欧洲一体化进程——欧盟的决策与对外关系》,门镜译,中国人民大学出版社2007年6月版。
12.[法]德尼·西蒙：《欧盟法律体系》,赵海峰等译,北京大学出版社2007年4月版。
13.[美]杰里米·里夫金：《欧洲梦：21世纪人类发展的新梦想》,杨治宜译,重庆出版集团2006年9月版。
14.[英]克莱尔·奥维、罗宾·怀特：《欧洲人权法：原则与判例》,何志鹏、孙璐译,北京大学出版社2006年4月版。
15.[俄]格·童金：《国际法原论》,尹玉海泽,中国民主法制出版社2006年3月版。
16.[英]苏珊·马克斯：《宪政之谜：国际法、民主和意识形态批判》,方志燕译,上海世纪出版集团2005年10月版。
17.[比]约斯特·鲍威林：《国际公法规则之冲突：WTO法与其他国际法规则如何联系》,周忠海等译,法律出版社2005年6月版。
18.[法]法布里斯·拉哈：《欧洲一体化史(1945-2004)》,彭姝祎、陈志瑞译,中国社会科学 出版社2005年6月版。
19.[美]托马斯·伯根索尔、肖恩·D.墨菲：《国际公法》, 黎作恒译,法律出版社2005年5月版。
20.[美]路易斯·亨金：《国际法：政治与价值》, 张乃根等译,中国政法大学出版社2005年4月版。
21.[英]安托尼·奥斯特：《现代条约法与实践》,江国青译,中国人民大学出版社2005年4月版。
22.[美]罗伯特·卡根：《天堂与实力——世界新秩序下的美国与欧洲》,肖蓉、魏红霞译,新华出版社2004年5月版。
23.[意]玛利亚·格拉齐亚·梅吉奥妮著：《欧洲统一,贤哲之梦》,陈宝顺等译,世界知识出版社2004年5月版。
24.[美]约瑟夫·威勒：《欧洲宪政》,程卫东等译,中国社会科学出版社2004年3月版。
25.[德]贝娅特·科勒-科赫：《欧洲一体化与欧盟治理》,顾俊礼等译,中国社会科学出版社2004年3月版。
26.[英]伊恩·布朗利：《国际公法原理》,曾令良、余敏友等译, 法律出版社2003年8月版。
27.[美]戴维·卡莱欧：《欧洲的未来》,冯绍雷等译,上海人民出版社2003年6月版。
28.[日]大沼保昭：《人权、国家与文明：从普遍主义的人权观到文明相容的人权观》,王志安译,三联书店2003年1月版。
29.[德]哈拉尔德·米勒：《文明的共存——对塞缪尔·亨廷顿“文明冲突论”的批判》,丽红、那滨译,新华出版社2002年2月版。
30.[美]塞缪尔·亨廷顿：《文明的冲突与世界秩序的重建》,周琪等译,新华出版社2002年1月版。
31.[法]米海依尔·戴尔玛斯-马蒂：《世界法的三个挑战》,罗结珍等译,法律出版社2001年1月版。
32.[英]弗兰西斯·斯奈德：《欧洲联盟法概论》,宋英编译,北京大学出版社1996年6月版。
33.[英]A.J.M.米尔恩：《人的权利与多样性——人权哲学》,夏勇、张志铭译,中国大百科全书出版社1995年3月版。
1.欧盟英文官方网址：http://europa.eu/index_en.htm
2.欧盟委员会网址：http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm
3.欧盟理事会网址：http://www.consilium.europa.eu/showPage.ASP?lang=en
4.欧洲法院网址：http://curia.europa.eu/en/index.htm
5.欧洲议会网址：http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/public/default_en.htm
6.欧盟委员会条约司数据库http://ec.europa.eu/world/agreements/default.home.do
7.欧盟缔结之国际协定网址：http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/accords/accords.htm
8.欧盟法律文件(EUR-Lex):http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/index.htm
9.欧盟官方公报(Official Journal):http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOIndex.do?ihmlang=en
10.欧盟简报(Bulletin):http://europa.eu/bulletin/en/bullset.htm
11.欧盟委员会立法提案与通讯数据库(Prelex):http://ec.europ.eu/prelex/apcnet.cfm?CL=en
12.欧盟立法摘要:http://europa.eu/scadplus/scad_en.htm
13.欧盟对外关系：http://europa.eu/pol/ext/index_en.htm
14.欧盟委员会之中欧关系网址：http://ec.euroropa.eu/extermal_relations/china/intro/index.htm
15.欧盟人权活动：http://europa.eu/pol/rights/index_en.htm
16.欧盟人权与民主化政策http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/human_rights/doc/index.htm
17.欧盟《里斯本条约》专题：http://europa.eu/lisbon_treaty/index_en.htm
18.中华人民共和国外交部：http://www.fmprc.gov.cn
19.中华人民共和国商务部：http://www.mofcom.gov.cn
20.欧盟驻华代表团：http://www.delchn.ec.europa.eu/index.php?=&1=cn
21.中国驻欧盟使团：http://www.chinamission.be/chn/default.htm
22.联合国：http://www.un.org
23.世界贸易组织：http://www.wto.org
24.英国欧盟改革中心：http://www.cer.org.uk
25.欧盟观察家：http://euobserver.com
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