多边贸易体制下的关税同盟法律问题研究
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摘要
本文探讨多边贸易体制下的关税同盟法律问题。研究多边贸易体制从GATT到WTO的发展过程中,关税同盟法律规则的形成背景和产生的法律问题。解释关税同盟经济理论和国际政治经济学说对关税同盟法律问题产生的影响；通过研究欧洲、拉丁美洲和非洲的关税同盟相关问题,解析多边贸易中关税同盟法律规则在这些地区的实践结果,取得的经验和存在的问题,并对中国同关税同盟发展贸易关系有所提示。
本文共六章可以分为四个部分。第一部分,即第一章,介绍有关关税同盟的基础理论。第二部分,即第二章,分析有关多边贸易体制中的关税同盟法律条款的形成和发展。这一部分研究了GATT第二十四条、授权条款和GATS第五条条款形成的过程,初步分析它们之间的法律关系。第三部分,即第三章、第四章和第五章,研究关税同盟贸易自由化法律问题,涉及关税同盟成员间的贸易自由化法律制度,针对非同盟成员的贸易法律问题和争端解决中的法律问题。第四部分,即第六章,研究建立关税同盟成功的经验和存在的问题,并提出了解决问题的思路。
随着区域主义的兴起、关税同盟传统理论发生了变化,在第二次世界大战结束后,与多边贸易体制中的其他区域一体化方式相比,关税同盟形成了自己的特征和法律定义。任何一个国家或者政治实体在选择关税同盟作为经济一体化的方式时,都有自己的政治经济判断。也由此,根据不同的标准产生出不同类型的关税同盟。
多边贸易体制下的关税同盟相关法律条款经历了一个形成和发展的过程。主要有三个最为密切的条款规制关税同盟,GATT第二十四条、授权条款和GATS第五条。在这些条款的形成过程中,经济理论和多边贸易法律规则呈现离合的关系。通过对GATT第二十四条的目的和法律后果与关税同盟经济理论进行了比较,发现了其政治目的超越了经济逻辑。在授权条款的产生过程中,发展中国家对GATT第二十四条提出挑战,以经济理论的新发展为依据要求改变建立关税同盟时遭遇到多边贸易规则的钳制。通过对理论和实证两方面的分析,厘清在两种不同的理论支持下的法律条款对关税同盟的不同法律效力。
尽管关税同盟的法律规则和制度具有差异性,但共通的是规避多边规则束缚的倾向,多边规则留下的“空隙”被关税同盟利用,追求经济理论中有利于关税同盟成员的向内偏转的经济效果。对外共同关税、原产地规则和竞争规则是关税同盟为了保护内部利益而经常采用的贸易限制工具,同样补偿性谈判和争端解决被认为是维护多边纪律的重要制度。
欧盟的实践积累了很多经验,形成了政治经济良性互动,法律规则稳定不失灵活的局面。作为建立关税同盟最为活跃的非洲和拉丁美洲地区,受到了地区形势和经济不稳定等因素的影响,关税同盟的法律规则运行均出现了不同程度的问题。发展中国家改善关税同盟现状,应当借鉴欧盟经验,杜绝单纯的模仿,在多边框架下积极谋求有利于自身的法律环境。中国同关税同盟发展贸易关系,应当积极主动地利用多边规则的有利方面。
The dissertation is focused on the research on the legal issues of customs union under the multilateral trade system, and the formation rules of law on customs union from GATT to WTO, with the analysis on background and legal issues. The dissertation employs the theories of economics and international political economics to interpret their impacts on customs union legal issues. Through researching issues related to the customs union in Europe, Latin America and Africa, to observe the results of practical application of the multilateral trade and customs union rules of law to obtain experiences and problems, it provides jurisprudent basis on legal relations between China and customs union, which are forming, existing or enlarging.
The dissertation with seven chapters can be divided into four parts. Chapter I, the first part of the dissertation, is focused on the basic theories on customs union. Chapter II, the second part, is based on the formation and development of the legal provisions on customs union in the multilateral trading system. As the third part, chapter III, chapter IV and Chapter V are concerned about study trade liberalization and legal issues on customs union. On trade liberalization in customs union among members, legal issues for trade with non-union members and legal issues in dispute settlement. Finally, chapter VI elaborates the successful experiences of customs unions, the problems and proposed solutions to those problems.
With the rising of regionalism, the traditional theories on customs union have been changing. After World War II, compared with other economic integration in the multilateral trade system, customs union became a type of regional integration holding its own characteristics and legal definition. Any state or political entity choose customs union as an economic integrated way, depending on specific economic motives and political theories. Due to the different standards, the existing customs unions could be classified into several types
The legal provisions on customs union in the multilateral trading system experienced a process of forming and developing. There are three clauses relating closely to customs union, such as GATT Article XXIV, the enabling clause and the GATS Article V. During the processes of these clauses forming, the relation between economic theory and law of multilateral trade is shown scenery from conflicting to coordinating. On the purpose of the GATT XXIV and its legal consequences, it is clear that the political purpose is beyond the economic logics. Process of the enabling clause appear, the developing countries challenge GATT Article XXIV by the new development of economic theory based on the requirements to change the grip of formation customs union. Nowadays, two different theories to support customs union create different legal effect of the provisions relating to customs union.
Different customs unions with legal rules and institutions share the common tendency to circumvent the multilateral rules, when the multilateral rules for customs union leave the "discretion" and the customs unions are in favor of the pursuit of inward deflection of the economic effects based on economic theory. Common external tariff, rules of origin, and competition rules are tools employed by customs union to protect its internal interests. Meanwhile, multilateral disciplines restrict the protection in case to derogate the multilateral rules. The system of compensatory renegotiations and dispute settlement could be recognized as the disciplines.
Accumulated a lot of experience to the practice of the European Union, it is suc-cessful to control the positive interaction of political and economic stability to support the rules of law keeping flexibility. Africa and Latin America as the most active areas to form customs unions, by the factors of the regional situation and economic instabil-ity, the legal rules of customs union exist problems at varying degrees. Developing countries to improve customs union status quo, should learn from the EU experience, and put an end to mere imitation, actively seeking legal environment conducive to their own under multilateral framework. China should take advantage of the multila-teral rules to develop the trading relations with customs unions.
本文共六章可以分为四个部分。第一部分,即第一章,介绍有关关税同盟的基础理论。第二部分,即第二章,分析有关多边贸易体制中的关税同盟法律条款的形成和发展。这一部分研究了GATT第二十四条、授权条款和GATS第五条条款形成的过程,初步分析它们之间的法律关系。第三部分,即第三章、第四章和第五章,研究关税同盟贸易自由化法律问题,涉及关税同盟成员间的贸易自由化法律制度,针对非同盟成员的贸易法律问题和争端解决中的法律问题。第四部分,即第六章,研究建立关税同盟成功的经验和存在的问题,并提出了解决问题的思路。
随着区域主义的兴起、关税同盟传统理论发生了变化,在第二次世界大战结束后,与多边贸易体制中的其他区域一体化方式相比,关税同盟形成了自己的特征和法律定义。任何一个国家或者政治实体在选择关税同盟作为经济一体化的方式时,都有自己的政治经济判断。也由此,根据不同的标准产生出不同类型的关税同盟。
多边贸易体制下的关税同盟相关法律条款经历了一个形成和发展的过程。主要有三个最为密切的条款规制关税同盟,GATT第二十四条、授权条款和GATS第五条。在这些条款的形成过程中,经济理论和多边贸易法律规则呈现离合的关系。通过对GATT第二十四条的目的和法律后果与关税同盟经济理论进行了比较,发现了其政治目的超越了经济逻辑。在授权条款的产生过程中,发展中国家对GATT第二十四条提出挑战,以经济理论的新发展为依据要求改变建立关税同盟时遭遇到多边贸易规则的钳制。通过对理论和实证两方面的分析,厘清在两种不同的理论支持下的法律条款对关税同盟的不同法律效力。
尽管关税同盟的法律规则和制度具有差异性,但共通的是规避多边规则束缚的倾向,多边规则留下的“空隙”被关税同盟利用,追求经济理论中有利于关税同盟成员的向内偏转的经济效果。对外共同关税、原产地规则和竞争规则是关税同盟为了保护内部利益而经常采用的贸易限制工具,同样补偿性谈判和争端解决被认为是维护多边纪律的重要制度。
欧盟的实践积累了很多经验,形成了政治经济良性互动,法律规则稳定不失灵活的局面。作为建立关税同盟最为活跃的非洲和拉丁美洲地区,受到了地区形势和经济不稳定等因素的影响,关税同盟的法律规则运行均出现了不同程度的问题。发展中国家改善关税同盟现状,应当借鉴欧盟经验,杜绝单纯的模仿,在多边框架下积极谋求有利于自身的法律环境。中国同关税同盟发展贸易关系,应当积极主动地利用多边规则的有利方面。
The dissertation is focused on the research on the legal issues of customs union under the multilateral trade system, and the formation rules of law on customs union from GATT to WTO, with the analysis on background and legal issues. The dissertation employs the theories of economics and international political economics to interpret their impacts on customs union legal issues. Through researching issues related to the customs union in Europe, Latin America and Africa, to observe the results of practical application of the multilateral trade and customs union rules of law to obtain experiences and problems, it provides jurisprudent basis on legal relations between China and customs union, which are forming, existing or enlarging.
The dissertation with seven chapters can be divided into four parts. Chapter I, the first part of the dissertation, is focused on the basic theories on customs union. Chapter II, the second part, is based on the formation and development of the legal provisions on customs union in the multilateral trading system. As the third part, chapter III, chapter IV and Chapter V are concerned about study trade liberalization and legal issues on customs union. On trade liberalization in customs union among members, legal issues for trade with non-union members and legal issues in dispute settlement. Finally, chapter VI elaborates the successful experiences of customs unions, the problems and proposed solutions to those problems.
With the rising of regionalism, the traditional theories on customs union have been changing. After World War II, compared with other economic integration in the multilateral trade system, customs union became a type of regional integration holding its own characteristics and legal definition. Any state or political entity choose customs union as an economic integrated way, depending on specific economic motives and political theories. Due to the different standards, the existing customs unions could be classified into several types
The legal provisions on customs union in the multilateral trading system experienced a process of forming and developing. There are three clauses relating closely to customs union, such as GATT Article XXIV, the enabling clause and the GATS Article V. During the processes of these clauses forming, the relation between economic theory and law of multilateral trade is shown scenery from conflicting to coordinating. On the purpose of the GATT XXIV and its legal consequences, it is clear that the political purpose is beyond the economic logics. Process of the enabling clause appear, the developing countries challenge GATT Article XXIV by the new development of economic theory based on the requirements to change the grip of formation customs union. Nowadays, two different theories to support customs union create different legal effect of the provisions relating to customs union.
Different customs unions with legal rules and institutions share the common tendency to circumvent the multilateral rules, when the multilateral rules for customs union leave the "discretion" and the customs unions are in favor of the pursuit of inward deflection of the economic effects based on economic theory. Common external tariff, rules of origin, and competition rules are tools employed by customs union to protect its internal interests. Meanwhile, multilateral disciplines restrict the protection in case to derogate the multilateral rules. The system of compensatory renegotiations and dispute settlement could be recognized as the disciplines.
Accumulated a lot of experience to the practice of the European Union, it is suc-cessful to control the positive interaction of political and economic stability to support the rules of law keeping flexibility. Africa and Latin America as the most active areas to form customs unions, by the factors of the regional situation and economic instabil-ity, the legal rules of customs union exist problems at varying degrees. Developing countries to improve customs union status quo, should learn from the EU experience, and put an end to mere imitation, actively seeking legal environment conducive to their own under multilateral framework. China should take advantage of the multila-teral rules to develop the trading relations with customs unions.
引文
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[1]信息来源：http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/region_e.htm; http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicAIIRTAList.aspx.2012-01-05
[2]2007年9月在一次公开会议上作题为“引发关注的区域贸易协定扩增”报告,其间提出了“多边化的区域主义”概念,试图消解区域化趋势与多边体制之间的对立。See http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/spp167_e.htm.2010-10-25
[1]出现最早可以追述到1897年美国牧师查尔斯·泰兹·罗素(Charles Taze Russell),他被认为第一次使用了“全球化”来描述神职组织的庞大(corporate giants)。See Ramon Mullerat. International corporate Social Responsibility:the role of corporations in the economic order of the 21st century[M]. The Netherlands:Kluwer Law International,2010:120.
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[7]James Gustave Speth. World Apart:globalization and the environment[M]. Washington D.C. Island Press,2003:1.
[8]巴格瓦蒂以全球化卫士著称于学界,与杰克逊前后立场不一致相比,巴格瓦蒂对全球化的积极态度始终如一,在他的著作和论述中保持一如既往地连贯和统一,他反对将经济全球化与人的尊严对立起来。See Jagdish N. Bhagwati. In Defense of Globalization [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2007:51-134.
[9]Richard Langhorne. The Coming of Globalization:its evolution and contemporary conse-quences[M]. Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2000:2.
[10]Susan Strange. The Retreat of the State:the diffusion of power in the world economy[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,1996:5.
[11]Nina Bandelj, Elizabeth Sowers. Economy and State:a sociological perspective[M]. Maiden, MA:Polity,2010:187.
[12]Alfred Alman. The Globalization State:A Future-Oriented Perspective on the Public/Private Distinction, Federalism, Democracy [J]. Vand, J, TRansnat'l 1.,1998, Vol.31:780.
[13]Ted C. Lewellen. The Anthropology of Globalization:cultural anthropology enters the 21st century [M]. Westport:Greenwood Publishing Group,2002:7-8.
[14]Richard Baldwin, Patrick Low. Multilateralizing regionalism [M]. New York:Cambridge Uni-versity Press,2009:ⅹⅰ.
[15]我们为什么要花特别的精力去了解全球化?两个重要的原因：全球化的过程和结果正在改变我们个人生活的基础,他们正在改变我们过去集体性的组织机构,这些机构在经济、社会和政治关系上提供了形式和可预测性。第二个理由在于这个词使用得如此广泛以至于在所有层面上意义被混淆而不是明了,以至于限制了思维逻辑所带来的问题的难度比全球化本身更甚。Richard Langhorne. The Coming of Globalization:its evolution and contem-porary consequences[M]. Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2000:1.
[16]鲁丹萍.国际贸易理论与实务[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：106.
[17]本表参考以下文献资料编制,严云鸿.国际贸易理论与实务[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2004：53-54；卓骏.国际贸易理论与实务[M].北京：机械工业出版社,2006：94；David A. Lynch. Trade and Globalization:an introduction to regional trade agreements[M]. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield,2010:21.
[18]See Arvind Panagariya. Regionalism in Trade Policy:essays on preferential trading[M]. Lon-don:World Scientific,1999:5.
[19]See Jagdish Bhagwati. Termites in the Trading System:how preferential agreements under-mine free trade[M]. Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press,2008:116.
[20]See David A. Lynch. Trade and Globalization:an introduction to regional trade agreements[M]. Lanham, Md.:Rowman & Littlefield,2010:1.
[21]Jagdish Bhagwati, Arvind Panagariya. The Economics of Preferential Trade Agreements[M] Washington, D.C.:The AEI Press,1996:4.
[22]http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/rta_pta_e.htm.2012-03-29.
[23]Philippe Sands, Pierre Klein. Bowett's Law of International Institutions[M]. London:Sweet & Maxwell,2009:473.
[24]佟家栋.欧盟经济一体化的发展道路论析[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版),2000,(2)：66.
[25]Dilip K. Das. Regionalism in Global Trade[M]. Northampton, MA:Edward Elgar,2004:9.
[26]周王失去政权控制最主要地表现于,王室控制地域极其狭小、财政收入微薄,军事控制和实力均名存实亡。诸侯对外战争以不再需要征得周天子的同意,哪怕是名义上的,正 所谓“礼乐征伐自天子出”不再被遵循,且以“礼乐征伐自诸侯出”取而代之。参见齐涛.简明中国通史[M].济南：泰山出版社,2000：70-72.
[27]周鲠生.国际法[M].上册.北京：商务印书馆,1981：41.
[28]王铁崖.国际法[M].北京：法律出版社,1981：10.
[29]杨德森在其《中国海关制度沿革》中指出,“我国古代国际贸易之设关征税,虽史无详确考证,而东西学者咸信其比在极早时期”。杨德森.中国海关制度沿革[M].北京：商务印书馆,1925：1.
[30]顾德融,朱顺龙.春秋史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：460.
[31]《礼记·曲礼》
[32]赵德馨.中国经济通史[M].第一卷.长沙：湖南人民出版社,2002：1027.
[33]商这个词来自与周,当时周公允许原殷商的遗民从事贸易,周人向来重视农业,而商人则重视交易,周公就允许商的遗民经商。参见赵靖.中国经济思想通史[M].第一卷.北京：北京大学出版社出版,1991：43.
[34]《史记·货殖列传》
[35]《国语·齐语》
[36]春秋时期,王室衰微,霸主渐起,诸侯国通过结盟的方式组成政治军事集团,而处于礼制规范尚存的背景下,对于盟主不仅仅是国家实力上的臣服,而且在德行上需要得到承认。用孟子的话讲,“以力假仁者霸,霸必有大国。以德行仁者王,王不待大,汤以七十里,文王以百里。以力服人者,非心服也,力不赡也；以德服人者,中心悦而诚服也”,外在强势与内在认同的共同作用构成霸主地位的正当性。参见《孟子·公孙丑上》。
[37]徐传保.先秦国际法之遗迹[M].上海：上海书店,1991：218-219.
[38]《左传·襄公十一年》
[39]参见丁建弘.德国通史[M].上海：上海社会科学出版社,2002：129.
[40][德]京特.法比翁克,吴薇芳译.弗里德里希.李斯特[M].北京：商务印书馆,1983：10.
[41]参见卡尔.艾利希.博恩等,张载扬等译.德意志史：第三卷[M].下册.北京：商务印书馆,1991：528-550.
[42][英]C.W.克劳利.新编剑桥世界近代史：第9卷[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1999：73.
[43]See George Douglas Howard Cole, Raymond William Postgate. The Common People,1746-1938[M]. London:Taylor & Francis,1938:435.
[44]See John Holland Rose, Henry Dodwell. Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol.4 [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,1959:402.
[45]See National Institute of Economic and Social Research. Trade Regulations and Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,1943:22-25.
[46]See K. Krishna Reddy. General Studies History for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Ex-amination[M]. New Delhi:Tata McGraw-Hill,2006:C.88.
[47]See Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official Year Book of the Common-wealth of Australia, No.47-1961 [R].1961:488-489.
[48]美国宪法第一条第八款。
[49]美国宪法第一条第十款。
[50][美]汉密尔顿,杰伊,麦迪逊,程逢如等译,联邦党人文集[M].北京：商务印书馆,1995：60-61.
[51]该表的整理参阅,Jacob Viner. The Customs Union Issue[M]. New York:Carnegie Endow-ment for International Peace,1950:157-169.
[52]曹亮.区域经济一体化的政治经济学分析[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2006：31.
[53]See Jacob Viner. The Customs Union Issue[M]. New York:Carnegie Endowment for Interna-tional Peace,1950:91-123.
[54]See Harry G. Johnson. The Economic Theory of Customs Union [A]. In:Jagdish Bhagwati, Pravin Krishna, and Arvind Panagariya. Trading Blocs:alternative approaches to analyzing prefe-rential trade agreements[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,1999:129-130.
[55]See Murray C. Kemp, Henry Y. Wan. An Elementary Proposition Concerning the Formantion of Customs Unions[J]. Journal of International Economics,1976, (6):95-97.
[56]参见[英]凯恩斯,何瑞英译.货币论[M].上卷.北京：商务印书馆,1986：60-64.
[57]Jagdish Bhagwati, Arvind Panagariya. Preferential Trading Areas and Multilateralism-Strangers, Friends, or Foes[A]. In:Jagdish N. Bhagwati. Trading Blocs:altenative approaches to analyzing preferential trade agreements[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,1999:55-56.
[58]张汉林等.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：69.
[59]See David Besanko, et al. Economics of Strategy[M]. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley,2010:43.
[60]See James E. Meade. The Theory of Customs Unions[M]. Amsterdanm:North-Holland Pub-lishing Company,1955:121.
[61]米德的另一个贡献是他发现了“间接贸易偏转”现象,如果经济一体化的成员国之间取消了内部关税但对外依旧保持各自的关税水平,当高关税成员国的需求弹性非常大,以至于其国内价格降低,需求量就会大增,从而造成供不应求的局面,低关税成员国就会用进口产品向高关税成员国出口。于是,原来要以较高进口关税才能进入高关税的非成员国产品,现在同过低关税国成员国的转手便可进入高关税成员国,因为存在这种现象,米德得出了自由贸易区不如关税同盟的结论,“间接贸易偏转”也为原产地规则在自由贸易区的适用提供了理论基础。
[62]See Warner Corden. Economies of Scale and Customs Union Theory[J]. Journal of Political Economy,1972, Vol.80:465-475.
[63]Jeffrey Frankel, Ernesto Stein, Shang-Jin Wei. Trading Blocs and the Americas:the natural and unnatural and the super-natural[M]. Journal of Development Economics,1995, Vol.47:61.
[64]Paul Krugman. Is Bilateralism Bad? Working Paper No.2972 [R]. National Bureau of Econom-ic Research, MA:Cambridge Press,1989.
[65]樊勇明.西方国际政治经济学[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：7.
[66]樊勇明.西方国际政治经济学[M].第二版.上海：上海人民出版社,2006：153.
[67][德]李斯特,陈万煦译.政治经济学的国民体系[M].北京：商务印书馆,1983：333.
[68]参见王逸舟.论综合安全[J].世界经济与政治,1998,(4)：8-9.
[69]Michael Schulz, Fredrik Soderbaum, Joakim Ojendal. Regionalization in a Globalizing World: a comparative perspective on forms, actors, and processes[M]. New York:Zed Books,2001:8.
[70]王逸舟.全球化时代的国际安全[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1999：128.
[71][美]罗伯特·吉尔平,杨宇光,杨炯译.全球政治经济学：解读国际经济秩序[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：391.
[72]Charles P. Kindelberger. International Public Goods without International Government[J]. The American Economic Review,1986, Vol.76(1):8.
[73]张建新.国际公共产品理论：地区一体化的新视角[A].见：国际公共产品与地区合作[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2009：49.
[74]何晓兵.关税理论政策与事务[M].北京：中国商务出版社,2007：163.
[75]Raj Bhala. Modern GATT Law:a treatise on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade[M]. London:Sweet & Maxwell,2005:229.
[76]王仕英.欧洲一体化与美国战后多边自由贸易体系的兴衰[J].山东师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2011,(5)：110.
[77][美]罗伯特·吉尔平,杨宇光,杨炯译.全球政治经济学：解读国际经济秩序[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：393.
1781 Raul Prebisch. The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems[J]. Economic Bulletin for Latin Amertca,1962,7(1):1.
[79]Raul Prebisch. Commercial Policy in the Underdeveloped Countries[J]. American Economic Review,1959,49(2):251.
[80]高铦.第三世界发展理论探讨[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,1992：34.
[81][巴]特奥托尼奥.多斯桑托斯,杨衍永等译.帝国主义与依附[M].北京：社会科学出版社,1999：302.
[82]不平等交换论由希腊经济学家伊曼纽尔(Arghiri Emmanuel)提出,他认为自由贸易中 一国的收益是通过牺牲他国的利益而取得的,而这种收益的基础是不平等的交换。参见[希]伊曼纽尔,文贯中译.不平等交换[M].北京：中国对外经济贸易出版社,1988：1.
[83]Olivier Dabene. The Politics of Regional Integration in Latin America:theoretical and com-parative explorations[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:17.
[841陈玉刚.国家与超国家—欧洲一体化理论比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：149.
[85](原文)Union:a uniting; the state of being united; the state of wedlock; a united whole; combination; a growing together in healing; the incorporation of states in a federation or in a sin-gle state; general concord; the state; a single state(or sometimes a federation) formedin this way; an association or league. The Chambers Dictionary[M]. Edinburgh:Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd,1994:1909.
[86](原文)Union:any joining together of persons, organizations, or things for a particular pur-pose. Daniel Oran. Oran's Dictionary of the Law[M]. St. Paul, MN:West,2000:503.
[87](原文)Union:the action or fact of joining together or being joined together, especially in a political context; a state of harmony or agreement;a political unit consisting of a number of states or provinces with the same central government. The New Oxford Dictionary of English[M]. Ox-ford:Clarendon Press,1998:2022.
[88](原文)Union:the act or an instance of uniting or joining two or more things into one; a unified condition; combination or junction; a association of independent individuals or groups for some common purpose; the formation of such a political unit. The New Penguin English Dictio-nary[M]. London:Penguin Group,2000:1541.
[89]唐司空图：蒲帅燕国太夫人石氏墓志。参见陈文新.中国文学编年史：隋唐五代卷[M].长沙：湖南人民出版社,2006：303.
[90]明张居正：七贤咏。参见陈维昭,张兵.中国文学研究[M].第十一辑.北京：中国文联出版社,2008：152.
[91]辞海编辑委员会.辞海[M].上海：上海辞书出版社,2000：554.
[92]Article XXIV 8, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[93]Article l(k), International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonisation of Customs Procedures, (Kyoto Convention).
[94]朱秋沅.国际海关法研究[M].北京：法律出版社,2011：217.
[95]童蒙正.关税论[M].上海：商务印书馆,1934：82-83.
[96]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：72.
[97]See Armin von Bogdandy. Law and Politics in the WTO-Strategies to Cope with a Deficient Relationship [J]. Max Plank UNYB,2001, (9):609-674.
[98]Malcolm Shaw. International Law [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2008:9.
[1][美]沃伦·科恩.剑桥美国对外关系史[M].下册.北京：新华出版社,2004：221.
[2]林德(Peter H. Lindert)的研究表明,在二十世纪前50年,美国在钢铁、汽车、纺织服装、造船和飞机制造等基础产业领域保持统治或者领先地位,尽管有些优势在战争结束后 不久便开始受到挑战,然而,战争结束之初美国完整的经济体系是世界上仅有的。See Stanley L. Engerman, Robert E. Gallman. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000:408-448.
[3]See Robert A. Polland. Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War:1945-1950[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1985:2.
[4]Kenneth W. Dam. The GATT:Law and International Economic Organization [M]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1970:12.
[5]See Ernest F. Penrose. Economic Planning for the Peace[M]. Princeton, NJ:Princenton Univer-sity Press,1953:89-90.
[6]参见王绳祖.国际关系：1929-1939[M].第五卷.北京：世界知识出版社,1995：317-318.
[7]Douglas A. Irwin, Petros C. Mavroidis, Alan Sykes. The Genesis of the GATT[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2008:29.
[8]Randall B. Woods. A Changing of the Guard:Anglo-Amereican Relations,1941-1946[M]. London:The University of North Carolina Press,1990:18.
[9]当然,对参与自由贸易最强烈的反对来自于凯恩斯,他认为战后经济政策最优先考虑的应该是保持充分就业。凯恩斯将目光集中于金融体系,他认为多边贸易体制的建立应当更集中于多边支付与信用体系,以此替代双边协定的解决方式。See L. S. Pressnell. External Economic Policy Since the War:Volume I, The Post-War Financial Settlement[M]. London: HMSO,1986:104.
[10]See J. A. S. Grenville. A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Centurey[M]. London: New York Tayler&Francis Routledge,2005:332.
[11]Douglas A. Irwin, Petros C. Mavroidis, Alan Sykes. The Genesis of the GATT[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2008:16.
[12]澳大利亚、比利时-卢森堡同盟、巴西、加拿大、智利、中国、古巴、捷克斯洛伐克、法国、印度、黎巴嫩、荷兰、新西兰、挪威、南非联盟、美国和英国参加了伦敦筹备会议,而苏联始终保持沉默,没有派代表出席。See UN Economic and Social Council, Prepara-tory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, UNECOSOC, E/PC/T/INF/2,17 October 1946.
[13]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, pp.4-6.
[14]按照会议议程的程序,在美国代表发言结束后代表团按照英语国名的首字母顺序作各自表述,比利时和卢森堡早在1921年通过双边协定的方式组成了经济同盟,1944年比利时、荷兰与卢森堡三国流亡政府在伦敦签订了伦敦海关公约(London Customs Convention),依据该公约规定1948年正式启动关税同盟(Benelux customs union),在 这次伦敦会议上,比利时和卢森堡就是以经济同盟的身份共同参会的。
[15]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, pp.18-19.
[16]参见陈治世.国际法[M].台北：台湾商务印书馆,1990：91.
[17]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, p.37.
[18]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/3,17 October 1946, p.45.
[19]尽管1839年秘鲁-玻利维亚邦联解体,墨西哥、阿根廷、哥伦比亚和委内瑞拉依旧试图维护建立联邦的可能性；时隔十年,哥伦比亚、厄瓜多尔、玻利维亚、智利和秘鲁首脑举行峰会,研究邦联计划。See Olivier Dabene. The Politics of Regional Integration in Latin America:theoretical and comparative explorations [M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:14.
[20]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, p.23.
[21]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/3,17 October 1946, p.32.
[22]对区域贸易安排可能损害多边贸易体制的说法,黎巴嫩的观点正相反,从长期看,区域贸易将会发展起来,与其他国家的贸易将有所增进。如果此制度理性操作,适用其的区域工业将得到发展,在该区域人民的生活水平提高,对其他区域产品需求更多,最终导致国际贸易增长。See UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the Interna-tional Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/3,17 October 1946, pp.43-44.
[23]See Douglas A. Irwin, Petros C. Mavroidis, Alan O. Sykes. The Genesis of the GATT [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2008:8.
[24]See UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/30,24 November 1946, p.13; Draft Report of the Drafting Committee of the Preparatory Committee of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Em-ployment, E/PC/T/C.6/97,22 February 1947, p.127.
[25]UN Conference on Trade and Employment, General Commercial Policy Annotated Agenda for Chapter IV-Commercial Policy, E/CONF.2/C.3/1,2 December 1947, p.23.
[26]法兰西最高委员会代表黎巴嫩和叙利亚为国际法律行为,例如,1926年巴勒斯坦、叙利亚和黎巴嫩划定边界协议,缔约双方就是代表巴勒斯坦的英国政府和代表叙利亚和黎巴嫩的法国政府。See Official Documents:Palestine-Syria-Lebanon[J]. Am. J. Int'l L. Sup,1927, Vol.21(1):147.
[27]1919年之前,黎巴嫩不存在现代工业,仅有一些丝棉纺织的手工作坊。直到1926年至 1940年,工业投资开始出现,手工业者成为工人。由于缺乏原材料和重工业,黎巴嫩希望通过与工业化程度较高的叙利亚建立关税同盟实现工业化转型。See Joseph Donato Leba-non and Its Labour Legislation [J]. Int'l Lab. Rev.,1952:67.
[28]See Protocol, GATT/1/53/ADD.2,22 March 1948; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Consolidated Text, GATT/CP/2,14 October 1948.
[29]See Paul A. Samuelson. International Trade and the Equalisation of Factor Prices [J]. The Eco-nomic Journal,1948,230(58):183-184.
[30]See UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, pp.15-17.
[31]参见刘光溪.试析关税与贸易总协定中的“授权条款”[J].国际贸易问题,1989,(5)：27.
[32]肖枫.西方发展学与拉美的发展理论[M].北京：世界知识出版社,1990：133.
[33]Raul Prebisch. The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems[J]. Economic Bulletin for Latin Amertca,1962,7(1):18.
[34]See CEPAL. The Latin American Common Market [M]. Mexicl, D.F.:The United Nations, 1959:5.
[33][希]伊曼纽尔,文贯中译.不平等交换[M].北京：中国对外经济贸易出版社,1988：274.
[36]尽管,发展中闳家对于谈判结果形成的文本并不满意,特别是对“毕业条款”的怨言颇多,但是出于美国和欧盟的压力,不得不签署决议文件,因为美国和欧盟在谈判阶段声称,将在新起草的法典中拒绝施予那些未签字国家利益,迫使发展中国家接受了妥协文本。See Robert E. Hudec. GATT and Developing Counties[J]. Colum. Bus. L. Rev.,1992, Vol. 1992, Issue 1:73.
[37]Economic Commission for Africa. Assessing Regional Integration in Africa, Vol.1[M]. New York:United Nations Publications,2004:52.
[38]Economic Commission for Africa. Assessing Regional Integration in Africa, Vol.1[M]. New York:United Nations Publications,2004:53.
[39]希望临时协定获得展期的区域贸易协定应当提供具有说服力的理由。See Committee on Regional Trade Agreement, Background Survey by the Secretariat, WT/REG/W/46,5 April 2002, p.18.
[40]See Harry G. Johnson. The Economic Theory of Customs Union[A]. In:Jagdish Bhagwati, Pravin Krishna, and Arvind Panagariya. Trading Blocs:alternative approaches to analyzing prefe-rential trade agreements[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,1999:129-130.
[41]Mohammad F. A. Nsour. Rethinking the World Trade Order:towards a better legal under-standing of the role of regionalism in the multilateral trade regime[M]. Leiden:Sidestone Press, 2000:114.
[42]如在满足GATT第二十四条第五款(a)项的要求时,一缔约方提议以与GATT第二条规定不一致的方式提高任何关税税率,则应适用GATT第二十八条所列程序,在提供补偿性调整时,应适当考虑同盟的其他成员削减相应关税而已经提供的补偿。See paragraph 6, article 24, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947.
[43]See Report of the Panel, European Communities-Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Prefe-rences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/R,1 December 2003, para.9.2.
[44]Report of the Appellate Body, United States-Subsidies on Upland Cotton, WT/DS267/AB/R,3 March 2005, para.764.
[45]WTO Ministerial Conference, Ministerial Declaration Adopted on 14 November 2001, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1,20 November 2001, para.44.
[46]Negotiating Group on Rules, Discussion Paper on Regional Trading Arrangements, Communi-cation from India, TN/RL/W/114,6 June 2003, para.8.
[47]Request by the United States for Notification under Article XXIV and for the Establishment of a Working Party, L/7029,5 June 1992.
[48]Committee on Trade and Development, Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) Agreement, Revision, WT/COMTD/1/Add.5/Rev.l,6 November 1996, p.l.
[49]See Report of the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements to the General Council, WT/REG/15,3 November 2005.
[50]See Mr. Jean-Marie Noirfalisse. Report of the Committee on Regional Trade Agreement to the General Council, WT/REG/7,30 November 1998.
[51]See Mr. Krirk-Krai Jirapaet. Report of the Committee on Regional Trade Agreement to the General Council, WT/REG/8,11 October 1998.
[52]See http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/trans_mecha_e.htm,2011-02-05
[53]James H. Mathis. Regional Trade Agreements in the GATT/WTO, Article XXIV and the In-ternal Trade Requirement[M]. The Hague:T.M.C. Asser Press,2002:100.
[54]General Council, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, Decision of 14 December 2006, WT/L/671,18 December 2006, para.8.
[55]WTO, Regional Trade Agreements Notified to the GATT/WTO and in Force Chart,15 De-cember 2008, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/summary_e.xls,2011-08-22.
[56]General Council, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, Decision of 14 December 2006, WT/L/671,18 December 2006, para.10.
[57]Christoper Hermann. Regional Trade Agreements as a Challenge to the Multilateral Trading System [M]. EUI LAW Working Paper No.2008/2009,2008:16.
[58]孙南申.服务贸易总协定之法律分析[J].政治与法律,1994,(2)：28.
[59]参见任际.国际服务贸易法与《服务贸易总协定》：特质与宗旨[J].武汉大学学报(社会科学版),2002,(4)：472.
[60]Footnote 1, General Agreement on Trade in Service.
[61]Paragraph l(b), article V, General Agreement on Trade in Service.
[62]Paragraph 4, article V, General Agreement on Trade in Service.
[1]MiroslayN. Jovanovic. International Handbook on the Economis of Integration:general issues and regional groups[M]. Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing,2011:137.
[2]Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778,29 November 1957, para.30.
[3]Ibid,6S/100,para.34.
[4]World Trade Organization. Guide to GATT Law and Practice:analytical index, vol.2[M]. Lan- ham, MD:Bernan,1995:825-827.
[5]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on the Meetings of 16-18 and 20 Febru-ary 1998, WT/REG/M/16,18 March 1998, para.115.
[6]Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[7]Dencho Georgiev. The World Trade Organization and International Economic Integration:legal aspects[A]. In:Miroslav N. Jovanovic. International Handbook on the Economis of Integration: general issues and regional groups[M]. Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing,2011:141.
[8]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on the Meetings of 16-18 and 20 Febru-ary 1998, WT/REG/M/16,18 March 1998, para.112.
[9]Appellate Body Report, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.48.
[10]Andrew D. Mitchell, Nicolas J.S. Lockhart. Legal Requiremnets for PTAs under the WTO[A]. In:Simon Lester, Bryan Mercurio Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements:commentary and analysis[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2009:96.
[11]Ibid, p.97.
[12]王传丽.补贴与反补贴措施协定条文释义[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社,2006：28.
[13]这些例外分别依据GATT1994第十一条、第十二条、第十三条、第十四条、第十五条和第二十条。
[14]该案全称为“土耳其纺织品与服装产品进口限制案”,See Report of the Appellate Body, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999.
[15]Appellate Body Report, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.3.
[16]Report of the Panel, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/R,31 May 1999, para.9.135.
[17]See Ibid, paras.9.135-9.139.
[18]Ibid,para.9.148.
[19]Ibid, para.6.89.
[20]Ibid, para.9.135.
[21]Ibid, para.9.151.
[22]See Appellate Body Report, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.50.
[23]James H. Mathis. Regional Trade Agreements and Domestic Regulation:What Reach for 'Other Restrictive Regulations of Commerce'? in Lorand Bartels, Federico Ortino, Regional Trade Agreements and the WTO Legal System[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006:82.
[24]See Andrew D. Mitchell, Nicolas J.S. Lockhart. Legal Requirements for PTAs under the WTO[A]. In:Simon Lester, Bryan Mercurio. Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements:Commen-tary and Analysis[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009:97.
[25]1957年3月25日,法国、西德、意大利,荷兰,比利时和卢森堡六国的政府首脑和外长在罗马签署《欧洲经济共同体条约》和《欧洲原子能共同体条约》。后来人们把这两个条约统称为《罗马条约》,GATT审查的内容主要集中于《欧洲经济共同体条约》。
[26]See Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778, Annex IV,29 November 1957, para.26.
[27]Paragraph 2, article 18, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[28]Kenneth W. Dam. The GATT:Law and International Economic Organization[M]. Chicago and London:University of Chicago Press,1970:226-227.
[29]See article 26 Protection of Infant Industries,2002 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement.
[30]See article 21 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[31]World Trade Organization. Guide to GATT Law and Practice:analytical index, vol.1 [M]. Lanham, MD:Bernan,1995:603.
[32]该表的编制参照以下文献资料,Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, European Communities, WT/TPR/S/214,2 March 2009, pp.38-48; GATT, Re-port Submitted by the Member States of the Andean Group, L/6737,12 October 1990, pp.24-27; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, General Treaty on Central American Economic Inte-gration, Biennial Report on the Operation of the Agreement, Communication from the Parties, WT/REG93/R/B/2,6 October 2004, pp.2-3; United Nations Economic Commission for Latin and the Caribbean, Trade Policy in CARICOM:overview of the main trade policy measures[R], LC/CAR/G.591,30 December 1999, pp.3-11; Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Gabon, WT/TPR/S/188,27 August 2007, pp.27-40; Committee on Trade and Development, East African Community, Communication from the Parties, Addendum, WT/COMTD/25/Add.1,1 November 2006; Working Party on the Accession of the Russian Fed-eration, Report of the Working Party on the Accession of the Russian Federation to the World Trade Organization, WT/ACC/RUS/70,17 November 2011; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Customs Union between the European Community and the Principality of Andorra, Communication from the European Community, WT/REG53/3,12 November 1998, pp.2-3; Committee on Trade and Development, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Revised Treaty, Communication from the Parties to the Agreement, WT/COMTD/54, 26 September 2005; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Customs Union between Turkey and the European Communities, Weighted Average Tariff Rates and Customs Duties Collected, Note by the Secretariat, WT/REG22/11,2 May 2006; Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L84/43,28 March 2002; The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) Secretariat General, The Economic Agreement between the GCC States,31 December 2001; Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Se-cretariat, Brazil, WT/TPR/S/212/Rev.l,11 May 2009, pp.31-45; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Draft Factual Presentation, Southern African Customs Union (Goods), Report by the Secretariat, WT/REG231/2,3 October 2008, p.10; Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Re-view, Report by the Secretariat, Niger and Senegal, WT/TPR/S/223,7 October 2009.
[33]See Petros C. Mavroidis, Patrick A. Messerlin, Jasper M. Wauters. The Law and Economics of Contingent Protection in the WTO, Northampton:Edward Elgar Publishing,2008:289.
[34]See Robert Hudec, James D. Southwick. Regionalism and WTO Rules, Problems in the Fine Art of Discriminating Fairly[A]. In:Miguel Rodriguez Mendoza, Patrick Low, Barbara Kotschwar. Trade Rules in the Making:Challenges in Regional and Multilateral Negotiations[M] Washington DC:OAS:Broolings,1999:67-71.
[35]Report of the Appellate Body, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Prod-ucts, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.48.
[36]Ibid.
[37]Ibid.
[38]Report of the Appellate Body, Argentina-Safeguard Measures on Imports of Footwear, WT/DS121/AB/R,14 December 1999, para.8.96.
[39]See Negotiating Group on Rules, Compendium of Issues Related to Regional Trade Agree-ments-Background Note by the Secretariat, TN/RL/W/8/Rev.1,1 August 2002, para.73-75.
[40]尽管保护的程度降低是已经是明确的趋势,但是某些选择性的,单边的保护措施的使用例如反倾销和反补贴措施则上升明显。P. K. M. Tharakan. Political Economy and Contin-gent Protection[J]. The Economic Journal,1995, Vol.105:1550-1564. [41] Robert Teh, el et. Trade Remedy Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements[M]. In:Antoni Estevadeordal, el et. Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009:245.
[42]杰克逊认为贸易救济措施具有接合、缓冲和保障贸易流向合理调整的作用。参见[美]约翰H杰克逊,张乃根译.世界贸易体制：国际经济关系的法律与政策[M].上海：复旦大学 出版社,2001：303-305.
[63]该表依据Robert Teh等2009年公布的研究数据整理而成,See Table4.5,4.6,4.7,4.8,Robert Teh, el et. Trade Remedy Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements[M]. In:Antoni Este-vadeordal, el et. Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge Uni-versity Press,2009:195-241.
[44]See Sociaal Fonds v Brachfeld and Chougol Diamond Co, [1969] ECR 211.
[45]See article 3, Treaty of Asuncion Establishing the Common Market of the Southern Cone, 1991, and article 1, article 2, Annex IV.
[46]See article 1, Treaty of Asuncion Establishing the Common Market of the Southern Cone, 1991.
[47]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, East African Community, Report by the Secretariat, WT/TPR/S/171,20 September 2006, para.16.
[48]周林彬,郑远远.WTO规则例外和例外规则[M].广州：广东人民出版社,2000：8.
[49]胡加祥.国际贸易争端的解决与国家安全利益的保护一以GATT第二十一条为研究视角[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2008,(4)：16.
[50]GATT 第二十一条(c)项属于“履行联合国宪章下的义务,为维护世界和平与安全而采取的行动”,不允许成员方单方面擅自采取行动,因此不在本文讨论范围。
[51]例如,《罗马条约》规定,取消各成员国间的数量限制的各项规定不影响因公共道德、公共秩序或公共安全而采取的进出口或过境禁止或限制。See, Article 36, Treaty of Eu-ropean Community.再如,《欧亚共同体海关法典》第六条第七款规定,采取措施保护关税同盟成员在人类生命和健康,动植物和环境方面的成员国国家安全。See article 6, Customs Authorities and their Main Task, Decision of Interstate Council the Euroasian Economic Commu-nity, Customs Code of Customs Union,27 November 2009.
[521 See Notification Pursuant to Article XXI of the GATT 1994 and Article XIVbis of the GATS, 21 February 2000, S/C/N/115.
[53]See Nicaragua-Measures Affecting Imports from Honduras and Colombia, Request for the Es-tablishment of a Panel by Colombia, WT/DS188/2,28 March 2000.
[54]争端解决机构虽然接受了哥伦比亚的请求,但是建议由该机构主席出面与争议双方协商评审团的审查范围。然而,该争议的评审团至今仍未成立。参见胡加祥.国际贸易争端的解决与国家安全利益的保护——以GATT第二十一条为研究视角[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2008,(4)：16.
[55]黄勇.国际竞争法研究[M].北京：中国友谊出版社,2002：1.
[56]Incidence与贸易关系有关的内涵至少包含：“某事件的发生几率、影响及其方式的范围和程度、税收规费的负担以及关联性等”。参见陆谷孙.英汉大词典[M].第二版.上海： 上海译文出版社,2007：956.
[57]Philippe Brusick et al. Competition Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements:How to Assure Development Gains[M]. New York:UNCTAD,2005:69.
[58]该表根据联合国贸易与发展会议报告整理而成,See Experiences Gained so Far on Inter-national Cooperation on Competition Policy Issues and the Mechanisms Used, UNCTAD, TD/RBP/CONF.6/12,14 September 2005.
[59]彭心倩.欧盟东扩过程中的制度因素—以竞争法为中心分析[J].暨南学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,33(4)：65.
[60]参见孙永福,刘有厚,马社.欧盟商务政策指南[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：81.
[61]See Chapter Eight, Competition Policy and Consumer Protection, Revised Treaty of Chagua-ramas Establishing the Caribbean Community Including the Caricom Single Market and Economy.
[62]See article 173, Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas Establishing the Caribbean Community In-cluding the Caricom Single Market and Economy.
1631 Rafael A. Porrata-Doria, Jr. MERCOSUR:the common market of the southern cone[M]. Dur-ham, N.C.:Carolina Academic Press,2005:102-103.
[64]See Ibidpp.106-108.
[65]Article 40,2002 South African Customs Union Agreement.
[66]See article 41,2002 South African Customs Union Agreement.
[67]中美洲共同体成员中哥斯达黎加和巴拿马较早制定了自己的内国竞争法,其他成员内国竞争法的制定和机构设置处于初创阶段,更有甚者,如危地马拉即便其已经制定并实施了内国竞争法,但是国内各方势力对此的分歧依旧对立；并且,即使制定内国竞争法的成员国,也尚未就共同体竞争规则取得实质性的共识。See Claudia Schatan, Eugenio Rivera. Competition Policies in Emerging Economies:Lessons and Challenges from Central America and Mexico[M]. Ottawa:Springer,2008:178西非国家经济共同体(ECOWAS)的部分成员同时建立了西非经货同盟(WAEMU或UEMOA),因此,ECOWAS部分实现了共同竞争法,但是属于其自身的共同竞争法尚在讨论之中,目前尚未制定出被成员各方接受的草案,同时,由于ECOWAS有些成员经济处于极不发达状态,制定内国竞争法也存在困难。See ECOWAS-Regional Competition Policy Framework, available at http://www.ecowas.int/publications/en/actes_add_commerce/1.Regional_Competition_Policy_Fra mework-final-P.pdf.2011-05-20.
[68]See Michael Emerson. Andorra and the European Union[M]. New York:CEPS,2007:1.
[69]根据2008年的统计数据,安道尔和圣马力诺与欧盟的贸易额分别占欧盟出口总量的0.09%和0.02%。Raymond J. Ahearn. Europe's Preferential Trade Agreements:Status, Content, and Implications[R]. CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, March 2010:20.
[70]See Maher M. Dabbah. International and Comparative Competition Law[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2010:377.
[71]该表内容参阅以下文献资料整理编制。Maher M. Dabbah. International and Comparative Competition Law[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010:366-418; Robert Teh. Com-petition Provisions in Regional Trade agreement[A]. In:Antoni Estevadeordal, el et. Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009:418-491.
[72]同上注。
[73][美]保罗.克鲁格曼,茅瑞斯.奥伯斯法尔德,海闻等译.国际经济学：理论与政策[M].上册.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2010：123.
[74]World Bank. Trade Blocs [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2000:37.
[75]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：67.
[1]Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, WT/L/127,7 February 1996.
[2]Contracting Parties Twenty-Seventh Session, Summing up by chairman, L/3641,8 December 1971,para.4(c).
[3]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Standard Format for Information on Regional Trade Agreements, WT/REG/W/6,15 August 1996; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Standard Format for Information on Economic Integration Agreements on Services, WT/REG/W/14,6 May 1997.
[4]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on Procedures to Facilitate and Improve the Examination Process, WT/REG/W/9,9 October 1996, para.l 1.
[5]Section A:1, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, WT/L/671, Decision of 14 December 2006.
[6]See section B:3, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, WT/L/671, Deci-sion of 14 December 2006.
[7]Paragraph 2, Annex Submission of Data by RTA Parties, Transparency Mechanism for Region-al Trade Agreements, WT/L/671, Decision of 14 December 2006.
[8]《第二十四条谅解》第二款规定,根据第二十四条第五款(a)项评估一关税同盟形成前后适用的关税和其他贸易法规的总体影响范围,应根据加权平均关税税率和实征的关税全面评估关税和费用。该评估应根据关税同盟提供的前一代表期的进口统计数据,细分至税号,列出价值和数量,并按WTO的原产国别进行分类。
[9]See John Ravenhill. Global Political Economy [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2008: 104.
[10]这种比较以地理空间上距离接近或者接壤的成员间建立的自由贸易区,交通运输成本与关税同盟较为接近,不至于因其他成本的上升而改变关税对贸易流向的影响。
[11]Anne O. Krueger. Free Trade Agreements versus Customs Unions[M]. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working paper series 5084, Seminar papers,1995.
[12]Peter Robson. Economics of International Integration[M].4th Edition. New York:Taylor & Francis Routledge,1998:26.
[13]See paragraph 2, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[11]例如,增值税是由商人支付的,但是最终的部分负担落到了商人货物或服务的消费者身上。同样,公司支付公司税,但是如果公司提价或者减薪来抵充部分或者全部的税收,就可能出现所谓的负担转换(shifted the incidence). Dictionary of Finance and Banking[M]. 4th Ed. New York:Oxford University Press,2008:219.
[15]参见傅道忠,姚凤民.财政学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2004：37.
[16]除了三个基本要素外,关税法律关系还涉及到其他一些要素,它们包括：征税标准、税目、税率、税则、国别标准、纳税环节、纳税期限、关税减免、罚则和申诉。参见岑维廉等.关税理论与中国关税制度[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：152.
[17]吴国新.国际贸易：理论·政策·实务[M].上海：上海交通大学出版社,2004：147.
[18]See David N. Hyman. Public Finance:A contemporary Application of Theory to Policy[M].9th Edition. Mason, Ohio:Thomson South-Western,2008:447.
[19]要理解税负转嫁,必须把握几点：(1)税负转嫁是和价格的升降直接联系的,而且价格的升降幅度会影响税负转嫁的程度。(2)税负转嫁是各经济主体之间税收负担的再分配,其结果必然导致纳税人与负税人的不一致。(3)税负转嫁是纳税人主动的行为倾向。因为课税是纳税人自身经济利益的损失,纳税人为减少自身经济利益的损失,必须千方百计地将税负转嫁给他人。傅道忠,姚凤民.财政学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2004：310.
[20]傅道忠,姚凤民.财政学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2004：311.
[21]参见伟卜.国际贸易[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：181-182.
[22]Article ⅩⅩⅣ of GATT, Drafting history of the paragraphs relating to customs unions and free-trade areas, Notes Prepared by the Secretariat, W.12/18,7 November 1957, p.5.
[23]关税同盟并非对内完全取消成员间的关税壁垒,对于一些具有敏感性和特殊用途的货物依旧保持一定的关税,有的出于对各自环境、安全等因素的考虑,有的则是对经济欠发达成员的一种额外优惠或者出于产业扶持等目的。
[24]WTO在对关税同盟“总体影响范围”进行评估的过程中,加权平均关税的变化是通过同盟成员国别比较的方法确定的,例如,在CRTA在针对南非关税同盟关税约束水平进行前后比较时,分别对博茨瓦纳、莱索托、纳米比亚、南非和斯威士兰在2004年实施CET之前和嗣后的加权平均关税税率逐一对比。See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Southern African Customs Union, Weighted Average Tariff Rates and Customs Duties Collected, WT/REG231/1,3 October 2008, p.3.
[25]Article 23, The Treaty Establishing the European Community(1957).
[26]See article 26, The Treaty Establishing the European Community(1957).
[27]See article 24, The Treaty Establishing the European Community(1957).
[28]清单G所列按布鲁塞尔税则编号共计包括70大类商品,其中包括了作为日常生活必需品的鱼类及其制品、乳酪、面粉、食用油脂、可可制品、咖啡和茶及其制品、酒精饮料、各类盐及其原材料等；包括了铅锌、铁、铝镁在内的所有天然金属、石油及其制品、木材及其制品等；同时,还将汽车、飞行器和轮船及其配件也纳入此清单中。See List G, Annex I-List referred to in Article 32 of the Treaty, The Treaty Establishing the European Communi-ty(1957).
[29]1957年GATT专门成立的罗马条约委员会审查《欧洲经济共同体条约》(罗马条约)并起草报告,委员会讨论的议题包括：关税、数量限制的使用、农产品贸易、计划和时间表及海外国家及领土与欧洲共同市场的联系,分别由4个分委员会(sub-group)审议。
[30]Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778,29 November 1957, para.8.
[31]Ibid. para.9.
[32]Ibid.para.10.
[33]See Ibid, para.11.
[34]“罗马条约”第十三条至第二十七条均未被1997年《阿姆斯特丹条约》所继受。
[35]1992年6月为了达到亚松森条约所确立的目标,MERCOSUR四国首脑峰会在阿根廷的拉斯莱尼亚斯召开,会议作出了十项决定促进向共同市场过渡,并对1995年后的共同市场作了规划,上述决定和计划于同年11月的蒙特维地欧峰会获得通过。See Gary Clyde Huf-bauer, Jeffrey J. Schott. Western Hemisphere Economic Integration[M]. Washington, DC:Peter-son Institute,1994:106.
[36]Paragraph 6, Las Lenas Timetable was adopted by Communique of the Third Summit of the MERCOSUR's Heads of State in July 1992, CCM Dec. No 1/92.
[37]See Summary Fact Sheet, MERCOSUR (GOODS), Updated with information submitted up to the conclusion of the examination in April-May 2006, available at http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowRTAIDCard.aspx?rtaid=130.2010-06-06.
[38]See article 1, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (1910), available at http://www.sacu.int/main.php?include=docs/legislation/1910-agreement.html.2011-06-10.
[39]See paragraph 2, article 1, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (1910).
[40]See article 6, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (1969), available at http://www.sacu.int/main.php?id=467.2011-06-10.
[41]SACUA(2002)继受了SACUA(1969)有关同盟内欠发达国家通过进口附加税保护幼稚工业的基本规定,SACUA(2002)第二十六条有关幼稚工业的关税保护与SACUA(1969)第六条新兴工业的关税保护基本一致。
[42]See Soamiely Andriamananjara. Customs Unions[M]. In:Jean-Pierre Chauffour, Jean-Christophe Maur. Preferential Trade Agreement Policies for Development:A Handbook[M]. Washington, D.C.:World Bank,2011:117.
[43]Gerard McLinden, Enrique Fanta, David Widdowson, Tom Doyle. Border Management Mod-ernization[M]. Washington D. C.:World Bank Publications,2010:231.
[44]Massimo Fabio. Customs Law of the European Union[M].2nd Edition. Austin:Wolters Kluwer, 2010:1-17
[45]See article 48, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)1993 Revised Treaty.
[46]南非关税同盟共同关税分配的法律依据可参见,Part 6, Part 7,2002 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement,及其Annex A.
[47]See article XXIV (5), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[48]See article II, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[49]张哲.从欧盟扩大看GATT/WTO关于关税同盟补偿谈判的规定与实践[J].世界贸易组织动态与研究,2004,(11)：177.
[50]Paragraph 6, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[51]Paragraph 1, article XXVIII, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[52]Paragraph 2, article XXVIII, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[53]See paragraph 6, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[54]Paragraph 4, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[55]See note 4 to paragraph 1, Ad Article XXVIII, Annex 1, Notes And Supplementary Provisions, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[56]See note 5 to paragraph 1, Ad Article XXVIII, Annex 1, Notes And Supplementary Provisions, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[57]Note 7 to paragraph 1, Ad Article XXVIII, Annex 1, Notes And Supplementary Provisions, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[58]张哲.从欧盟扩大看GATT/WTO关于关税同盟补偿谈判的规定与实践[J].世界贸易组织动态与研究,2004,(11)：179.
[59]Procedures for Negotiations under Article XXVIII, Guidelines Proposed by the Committee on Tariff Concessions, C/113,5 November 1980.
[60]See Procedures for Negotiations under Article XXVIII, Guidelines Proposed by the Committee on Tariff Concessions, C/113,5 November 1980, para.2.
[61]See Procedures for Negotiations under Article XXVIII, Guidelines Proposed by the Committee on Tariff Concessions, C/113,5 November 1980, para.4.
[62]Ibid
[63]Ibid. para.5-6.
[64]Paragraph 5, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[65]See European Economic Community, Transmission of the Customs Tariff of the Community, L/1153,25 February 1960.
[66]EEC代表在缔约国全体会议上就所提供的数据内容进行了说明。See European Economic Community, Statement by the Representative of the Commission of the EEC at the Plenary Meet-ing, L/1372,18 November 1960.
[67]See Examination of the Common Tariff of the European Economic Community under Article XXIV:5(a), Note by the Chairman of the Contracting Parties, L/1377,18 November 1960.
[68]尽管同美国等主要贸易伙伴达成了补偿性调整的双边协议,但并没有满足所有缔约方的要求,例如,EEC没能与巴西和尼日利亚达成协议。奥地利、捷克斯洛伐克、瑞典和瑞士对补偿表示不完全满意,并保留根据第二十八条第三款实施报复性撤回减让的权利。EEC对此却认为补偿是充分的,如果对方一定要撤回那EEC成员也将保留对等的撤回权利。See Anwarul Hoda. Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations Under the GATT and the WTO: procedures and practices [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2002:101.
[69]See Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778, 29 November 1957.
[70]See GATT, Negotiations Under the Provisions of Article XXIV:6:Communication from the Commission of the European Communities, document TAR/16 dated 20 May 1981.
[71]Schedule XLV-Spain, Invocation of Paragraph 5 of Article XXVIII, L/4775,8 February 1979.
1721 See Fourth Certification of Changes to Schedules, Schedule XLV-Spain, L/4697,13 Septem-ber 1978; Fifth Certification of Changes to Schedules, Schedule XLV-Spain [Addendum], L/4697/Add.1,4 February 1980.
[73]See Enlargement of the European Economic Community, Accession of Portugal and Spain, Submission of Documentation [Addendum], L/5936/Add.4,8 July 1986.
[74]See Accession of Portugal and Spain to the European Communities, Communication from the Delegation of the United States, L/6172,25 May 1987.
[75]Accession of Portugal and Spain to the European Communities, Questions and Replies, L/5984, 18 June 1986, p.8.
[76]See paragraph 4, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[77]See Report of the Panel, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/R,31 May 1999, para.9.148.
[78]Report of the Panel, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/R,31 May 1999, para.9.151.
[79]Ibid
[80]Ibid
[81]See Andrew D. Mitchell, Nicolas J.S. Lockhart. Legal Requiremnets for PTAs under the WTO[A]. In:Simon Lester, Bryan Mercurio, Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements:commen-tary and analysis[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2009:103-104.
[82]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Systemic Issues Related to "Other Regulations of Commerce":Background Note by the Secretariat (Revision), WT/REG/W/17/Rev.l,5 February 1998, para.10.
[83]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Systemic Issues Related to "Other Regulations of Commerce":Background Note by the Secretariat (Revision), WT/REG/W/17/Rev.l,5 February 1998,para.11.
[84]See List of annex 1 A, Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods, available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm.2011-06-25.
[85]“《补贴与反补贴措施协定》是乌拉圭回合达成的多边贸易协定,它总体上取代了关贸总协定第六条和第十六条的规则。”赵维田.世贸组织(WTO)的法律制度[M].长春：吉林人民出版社,2000：321.
[86]此处仅讨论贸易救济措施的经济意义,理论上,实施贸易救济措施有经济和政治两种主要的出发点。参见[美]约翰·H·杰克逊,张乃根译.世界贸易体制：国际经济关系的法律与政策[M].上海：复旦大学出版社,2001：196-199.
[87]Vivian C. Jones. Trade Remedies and the WTO Rules Negotiations[R]. Congressional Re-search Service, CRS Report for Congress, June 7,2010:9, available at www.crs.gov.
[88]邵景春.欧洲联盟的法律与制度[M].北京：人民法院出版社,1999：56.
[89]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, European Com-munities, WT/TPR/S/214,2 March 2009, p.51.
[90]See article 7, The Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Principali-ty of Andorra, OJ N° L 374 of 31.12.1990.
[91]See article 10, The Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Principal-ity of Andorra, OJ N° L 374 of 31.12.1990.
[92]See article 7, Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 84/45,28 March 2002.
[93]See article 12, Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Econom-ic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 84/45,28 March 2002.
[94]See article 3, Acts Adopted By Bodies Created By International Agreements, Omnibus Deci-sion No 1/2010 of the Eu-San Marino Cooperation Committee of 29 March 2010, Official Journal of the European Union L 156/13,23 June 2010.
[95]David A. Gantz. Regional Trade Agreements:law, policy and practice[M]. Durham, N.C.:Carolina Academic Press,2009:372.
[96]Thomas Andrew O'Keefe. Latin American and Caribbean Trade Agreements:keys to a pros-perous community of the Americas[M]. Leiden:Brill,2009:191.
[97]See WTO Trade Policy Review Division, Mercosur:Objectives and Achievements, Staff Working Paper TPRD9702.WPF,23 June 1997, pp.16-17.
[98]《关于针对南方共同市场非成员国的进口保障措施适用共同条例》(Common Regula-tion on the Application of Safeguard Measures to Imports From Non-MERCOSUR, CMC/Dec.no.017/1996)在成员签署生效之后,正值阿根廷面临国内经济困难,为此阿根廷想南方市场理事会提出申请,要求延长其过渡期至1999年12月并被获准。See WTO, Dis-pute Settlement Reports 2000:Volume 2, Pages 573-1185[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2002:620-621.
[99]See Thomas Andrew O'Keefe. Latin American and Caribbean Trade Agreements:keys to a prosperous community of the Americas[M]. Leiden:Brill,2009:185-189.
[100]Trade policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Brazil, WT/TPR/S/212,2 February 2009, p.22.
[101]See article 24(1), Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Customs Union (2004).
[102]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, East African Community, WT/TPR/S/171,20 September 2006, pp.23-24.
[103]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Southern African Customs Union,30 September 2009, WT/TPR/S/222, p.27.
[104]WTO, Notification of Laws and Regulations Under articles 18.5 and 32.6 of the Agreements G/ADP/N/1/ZAF/2, G/SCM/N/1/ZAF/2,20 January 2004, pp.46-48.
[105]See article 11, South African Customs Union Agreement (2002).
[106]Trade policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Southern African Customs Union,30 September 2009, WT/TPR/S/222, p.viii.
[107]张庆麟.世界贸易组织原产地规则协定详解[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社,2006：7.
[108]Paragraph 1, article 1, Agreement on Rules of Origin.
[109]Article 2, Annex II:Common Declaration with Regard to Preferential Rules of Origin, Agreement on Rules of Origin.
[110]参见张庆麟.世界贸易组织原产地规则协定详解[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社, 2006：9.
[111]Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Rules of Origin Regimes in Regional Trade Agreements:Background survey by the Secretariat, WT/REG/W/45,5 April 2002, para.A.3.
[112]WTO, Compendium of Issues Related to Regional Trade Agreement, TN/RL/W/8/Rev.1,1 August 2002, para.78.
[113]Kala Krishna, Anne Krueger. Implementing Free Trade Areas:Rules of Origin and Hidden Protection[M]. NBER Working Paper No.4983,14 January 2000:1.
[114]See Patricia Augier, el et. The Impact of Rules of Origin on Trade Flows[J]. Economic Policy, 2005, Vol.20(Issue 43):576.
[115]厉力,刘平,郑冬阳.原产地规则研究：原理与实践[M].北京：法律出版社,2011：10.
[116]参见孟国碧.论优惠性货物原产地规则的双刃剑效应——兼及中国的实践[J].河北法学,2009,(4)：105.
[117]同上注
[118]本表数据参阅以下文献,Massimo Fabio. Customs Law of the European Union[M]. New York:Wolters Kluwer.2010, Chapter 3:1-27; Antoni Estevadeordal, Kati Suominen. Mapping and Measuring Rules of Origin around the world[M]. In:Olivier Cadot, et al. The Origin of Goods: rules of origin in regional trade agreements [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2006:88.
[119]欧盟一贯重视对制度型原产地规则的使用,早在1992年《共同体海关法典》生效之前,已经累计制定了将近十数种制度型原产地规则。See Edwin Vermulst, Paul Waer. Euro-pean Community Rules of Origin as Commercial Policy Instruments [J]. Journal of World Trade, 1990,24(3):55-99.
[120]WTO所规制的关税同盟中,目前只有欧盟对成员间“实质上所有贸易”取消关税和其他限制性贸易法规,而其余关税同盟则将“实质上所有贸易”限定于原产于同盟成员的范围内,因此,欧盟对斜边积累的宽容度要远高于其他关税同盟,适用范围也在不断扩大。See Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, European Union, Revision, WT/TPR/S/248/Rev.1,1 August 2011, p.33.
[121]参见南方共同市场汽车关税新动向[J].世界机电经贸信息,1999,(6).
[122]张庆麟.世界贸易组织原产地规则协定详解[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社,2006：197.
[1]J. G. Merrills. International Disputes Settlement[M].4th Ed. New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:279.
[2]该表的制作参考了以下法律文件,其中法语版本通过电子翻译软件转换为英语后参阅,The Treaty on European Union (1992); Charter of The Organization Central States (1962); Proto-col of Tegucigalpa to the Charter of the Organization of States Central America (2002); Treaty Creating the Court of Justice of the Cartagena Agreement (1996); Revised Treaty of Chaguarmas Establishing the Caribbean Community Including the Caricom Single Market and Economy (2001); Traite Instituant La Communaute Economique Et Monetaire De L'afrique Centrale (1991); Treaty of Establishing the West African Economic and Monetary Union (2004); Economic Com-munity of West African States (Ecowas) Revised Treaty (1993); The Treaty for Establishment of the East African Community (2007); The Treaty on the Establishment of Eurasian Economic Community (2000); Protocol of Ouro Preto Regarding the Institutional Structure Of Mercosur (1994); Olivos Protocol for the Solution of Controversies (2007); The Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Principality of Andorra (1990); Agreement on Coopera-tion and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and The Republic of San Marino (2002); Decision No 1/95 Of the EC-Turkey Association Council Of 22 December 1995 On Implementing The Final Phase Of The Customs Union(1995); Southern African Customs Un-ion (SACU) Agreement (2002); The Treaty establishing Common Market of East and Southern Africa (1993).
[3]1907年,在华盛顿召开的中美洲和平会议上,哥斯达黎加、萨尔瓦多、危地马拉、洪都拉斯和尼加拉瓜签署议定书,这不仅符合邻国间很为互助的时代大潮流,也是一项政策的直接结果,这项政策不断导致类似的会议召开,增进了中美洲国家更完全的合作。James Brown Scott. The Central American Peace Conference of 1907 The American Journal of Interna-tional Law,1908, Vol.2(1):121-143.“中美洲国家把维护和平作为国家间相互关系的第一要务。缔约国将尽最大努力进行协调,并通过有本次大会为解决争端而即日创设的中美洲法院,来解决缔约国之间可能出现的任何性质的争论和困难。" Article 1, General Treaty of Peace and Amity(1907).
[4]See article 253, Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
[5]See Ali El-Agraa, Brian Ardy. The European Union:Economics and Policies[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2011:59.
[6]参见刘世元.欧洲法院的管辖权及其在欧洲一体化进程中的作用[J].法学评论,1999,(4)： 25-27.
[7]See Gaston Schul Douane Expediteur BV v.Inspecteur der Invoerrechten en Accijnzen, Roo-sendaal, Case 15/81, [1982] ECR 1409, para.26.
[8]共同市场集团(CMG)由四名各个成员国指派的代表组成,这些代表来自经济、外交或金融管理部门,负责监督《亚松森条约》的执行,对理事会提出建议和确保理事会决定的,同时,负责对共同市场其他机构的提议给予分析并作出建议。See, article 14, Protocol of Puro Preto Regarding the Institutional Structure of MERCUSUR, December 17,1994.
[9]See article 7-9, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No.01/91.
[101 Article 25, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No. 01/91.
[11]Article 27-28, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No.01/91.
[12]Article 32, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/DecNo. 01/91.
[13]Colonia Protocol for the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments in MERCOSUR, MERCOSUR/CMC/Dec No.11/93.
[14]Customs Code of MERCOSUR, Dec.16,2004, Council dec.25/94.
[15]Protocol for the Defense of Competition in MERCOSUR, MERCOSUR/CMC/Dec No.18/96.
[16]Montevideo Protocol regarding the Trade in Services, MERCOSUR/CMC/Dec No.13/97.
[17]See article 23, article 26, article 29, Olivos Protocol for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No.18/02.
[18]Opinion Consultiva N°01/2009:Court of First Instance in the 2d Civil Turn-Autos:Frigorifi-co Centenario S.A. v. Ministry of Economy and Finance and others. Monies owed., IUE:2-43923/2007, available in Spanish at http://www.tprmercosur.org/es/docum/opin/OpinCon01_2009_es.pdf (last visited July 10,2010)(注：西班牙语文本通过电子翻译工具转换成英文文本引用)
[19]Article 13,2002 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement
[20]See article 13.2, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[21]See article 13.4, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[22]Panel report, European Community-Tariff Treatment on Imports of Citrus Products from Cer-tain Countries in the Mediterranean Region,7 February 1985, L/5776, para.4.15.
[23]David A. Gantz. Regional Trade Agreements:law, policy and practice[M]. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press,2009:45.
[24]Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, para.12.
[25]Paragraph 1, article 23, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dis-putes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[26]See paragraph 2, article 1, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[27]根据该条款规定的内容,成员方在对违反、取消或损害各有关协议所规定利益的行为或对实现各有关协议的任何目标设置障碍的行为作出补偿时,诉诸于DSB程序,也就意味着除非发生争端并提交DSB启动争端解决程序,否则在协定实施过程中的解释问题并不在DSB所辖范围内。See Paragraph 1, article 23, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Govern-ing the Settlement of Disputes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[28]Paragraph 1, article 133, Consolideted Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Com-munity, Official Journal of the European Communities, C 325/33,24 December 2002.
[29]Article.42(1), Treaty Creating the Court of Justice of the Andean Community.
[30]See article 22, Convention on the Statute of the Central American Court of Justice.
[31]Article XXI, Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice (2001).
[32]See article 24, Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice.
[33]加勒比法院经过审理认为,尽管加勒比法院是圭亚那的最终上诉法院,上诉人有权将涉及宪法事务的事项向加勒比法院提起上诉,但是由于上诉人已经超过上诉时限,因此不能得到法院的支持。See Brent Griffith v. Guyana Revenue Authority, Attorney General of Guyana, Judegment of the Caribbean Court of Justice, No.1,2006, para.11.
[34]See aticle 23, Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community as amended on 14th December,2006 and 20th August,2007.
[35]参见张文显.法律文化的释义[J].法学研究,1992,(5)：10.
[36]See article 24, Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Econom-ic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 84/45,28 March 2002.
[37]欧共体-安道尔关税同盟的争端解决机制和欧盟-圣马力诺关税同盟的内容几乎完全一致,唯一的差别在于行政机构的名称不同,欧共体-安道尔关税同盟的行政机构为联合委员会(the Joint Committee). See article 18, Agreement between the European Economic Com-munity and the Principality of Andorra.
[38]欧共体-土耳其关税同盟争端解决以关税同盟联合理事会磋商作为前置程序(the Asso-ciation Council). See article 61, Decision No 1/95 of the EC-Turkey Association Council of 22 December 1995 on implementing the final phase of the Customs Union (96/142/EC).
[39]See article 62.3, Decision No 1/95 of the EC-Turkey Association Council of 22 December 1995 on implementing the final phase of the Customs Union (96/142/EC).
[40]See article 13.1, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[41]See article 8, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[42]See article 27, The Economic Agreement Between the GCC States(2001).
[43]谷口安平,胡加祥,尹楠楠.从程序角度看WTO的争端解决[J].比较法研究,2011,(1)：153.
[441 Paragraph 6, aritle 8, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dis-putes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[45]杨国华,李泳箑,纪文华,于宁,蒋成华.WTO争端解决机制中的专家组程序研究(上)[J].法学评论,2004,(3)：81.
[46]Paragraph 7, aritle 8, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dis-putes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[47]Appellate Body, Annual report for 2010, WT/AB/15,18 July 2011, p.5.
[48]See article 7, Brasilia Protocol of Settlement of Disputes, Decisions of the Common Market Council Mercosur/CMD/DEC No.01/91.
[49]See Ricardo Olivera Garcia. Dispute Resolution Regulation and Experiences in MERCOSUR: The Recent Olivos Protocol[J]. Law and Business Review of the Americas,2002, Vol.8(4):544-545.
[50]See article 17, Olivos Protocol for the Settlement of Disputes in the Mercosur.
[51]Article 22, Olivos Protocol for the Settlement of Disputes in the Mercosur.
[52]肖建华,乔欣.仲裁法学[M].北京：人民出版社,2004：201.
[53]Paragraph 2, article 1, Olivos Protocol for the Settlement of Disputes in the Mercosur.
[54]该表参阅以下文献资料和来源整理制作。Amelia Porges. Dispute Settlement[A]. In:Jean-Pierre Chauffour, Jean-Christophe Maur. Preferential Trade Agreement Policies for Development: A Handbook[M]. Washington, D.C.:World Bank,2011:495-496; Welber Barral. The Brazilian Experience in Dispute Settlement[J]. New York:United Nations,2007; http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_by_country_e.htm,2011-11-30.
[1]张茂明.欧盟共同体外交与安全政策与中国—欧盟关系[M].北京：法律出版社,2002：34.
[2]田烨.欧洲一体化：区域民族主义与国家民族主义的交织[J].世界民族,2011,(2)：8.
[3][法]让·莫内.欧洲第一公民——让·莫内回忆录[M].成都：成都出版社,1993：467.
[4]龙远明.欧盟东扩的“贸易创造”和“贸易转移”效应[J].江苏商论,2005,(7)：84.
[5]伍贻康.理想、现实与前景：欧洲经济共同体三十年[M].上海：复旦大学出版社,1988：72.
[6]李世安.欧洲一体化史[M].石家庄：河北人民出版社,2003：83.
[7]宋新宁.国际政治学概论[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2001：109.
[8]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：67.
[9]钱运春.论欧洲一体化过程中的公平与效率[J].欧洲研究,2005,(4)：71.
[10]参见刘颖,邓瑞平.国际经济法[M].北京：中信出版社,2003：86.
[11]程琥.全球化与国家主权：比较分析[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2003：248.
[12]第一类,对软小麦、大麦、黑麦、玉米、大米、糖、奶制品、肉类、部分水果和蔬 菜、部分酒类等实行全面的价格支持和市场干预,并进行外贸保护,这类农产品约占所有农产品的70%；第二类,对不在第一类组织中的水果和蔬菜,另外一些酒类以及花卉、鸡蛋和家禽等非大宗食品,共同市场组织为防止外来产品的冲击,实行税收保护,这些产品在共同体内部的价格,允许自由浮动,这类农产品约占所有农产品的21%—25%；第三类,对硬小麦、橄榄油、油菜籽、葵花籽、烟草、棉花等共同体需要大宗进口的产品,为了鼓励共同体农民的生产,共同市场组织对这些产品提供直接补助,这类农产品约占所有农产品的2.5%；第四类,对棉籽、亚麻、大麻、啤酒花、蚕、种子以及脱水粗饲料等,为了支持这些产品的生产,共同市场组织根据统一标准,按照种植面积和产量给予援助和补贴。参见高铁生,张旭宏.欧洲统一市场建设经验及启示[J].中国商贸,1997,(1)：28.
[13]徐盛华,章征文.新编国际贸易学[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：113.
[14]参见苑倚曼.共同农业政策的演进[A].见：苏宏达.欧洲联盟的历史发展与理论辩论[M].台北：国立台湾大学出版中心,2011：382-384.
[15]See Huib Silvis, Roel Jongeneel. The Reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy [A]. In: Miroslav N. Jovanovic. International Handbook on the Economics of Integration, Volume III: Factor Mobility, Agriculture, Environment and Quantitative Studies [M]. Northampton:Edward Elgar Publishing,2011:209.
[16]从财政支出比例可以看出欧共体对农业产业的支持程度：1970年代,农业基金占共同体预算总开支的比例高达70%以上；1980年代平均占66%；1990年代虽有所下降,但仍占57%。参见伍贻康.三足鼎立?全球竞争体系中的欧美亚太经济区[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2001：33.
[17]朱贵昌,胡瑾.欧洲一体化与国家主权转让[J].山东大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2001,(2)：94.
[18]法国的戴高乐政府对欧洲一体化的蓝图另有一番认识,法国主张一个基于民族国家主体地位和民族身份意识的国家问联合的欧洲,有别于建立超国家的联邦或邦联的理想目标。参见胡谨,宋全成.欧洲早期一体化思想与实践研究[M].济南：山东人民出版社,2001：216.
[19]“辅从性原则”由《马斯特里赫特条约》创设,旨在修改《罗马条约》第三条,对共同体和成员国的权力进行划分,规定共同体在非专属的管辖问题上,应当根据辅从性原则采取行动,只有并在拟采取行动的目标范围内,成员国无力充分实现,以拟采取行动的适度或效果为由,由共同体行使效果更好的情况下,才能由共同体来实施。See article G, Provisions Amending the Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community with a View to Establishing the European Community, Official Journal C/191,29 July 1992.
[20]戴炳然.欧洲一体化中的国家主权问题——对一个特例的思索[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),1998,(1)：40.
[21]易善武.欧洲一体化中国家主权让渡现象和特征研究[J].甘肃农业,2006,(3)：175.
[22]张海冰.欧洲一体化制度研究[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,2005：78.
[23]参见李道刚.论欧共体法在成员国中的直接适用[J].山东社会科学,2002,(2)：96-98.
[24]欧洲议会的重要职责之一就是掌管欧盟的钱袋子,欧洲议会设有专门的预算委员会和预算监督机构委员会,对成员国财政预算政策的制定、协调、监督和惩罚做出了规定,加强了对于财政权的协同监控,形成了欧盟财政预算政策的总体构架。参见周长鲜.欧洲议会财政预算决定权的跨机构合作机制及其启示[J].新视野,2011,(4)：94-96.
[25]郇庆治.多重管治视角下的欧洲联盟政治[M].济南：山东人民出版社,2002：206.
[26]周弘,沈雁南.欧洲蓝皮书：2000-2001年欧洲发展报告[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2002：36.
[27]方岩.欧洲一体化背景下的法律统一之路[J].前沿,2011,(22)：81.
[28]先予裁决制度法律渊源是欧洲共同体的三个基础条约,即《欧洲煤钢共同体条约》《欧洲原子能共同体条约》及《欧洲共同体条约》,除《欧洲共同体条约》第一百七十七条外,《欧洲原子能共同体条约》第一百五十条及《欧洲煤钢共同体条约》第四十一条也对先予裁决制度作了规定。由以上这些条款可以看出,先予裁决中的“先予”,是相对于成员国法院对案件最后作出的判决而言的,同时它也表明,在提请先予裁决案件中,成员国法院对案件的判决是以欧洲法院的裁决为先决条件的。这里的“裁决”也不是司法判决,而是欧洲法院以裁决形式作出的法律解释。参见韩燕煦.欧洲联盟先予裁决制度初探[J].法学家,2000,(5)：123-124.
[29][英]弗兰西斯·斯奈德,宋英编译.欧洲联盟法概论[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：4.
[30]See Council regulation (EEC) No 459/68, Official Journal L93/1,5 April 1968.
[31]See paragraphl, article 21, Council Regulation (EC) No 1225/2009 on protection against dumped imports from counties not members of the European Community (condified version), L343/51,30 November 2009.
[32]参见罗英杰.利益与矛盾—冷战后俄罗斯与欧盟关系研究[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：92-94.
[33]参见张业亮.论欧盟东扩及其对欧洲一体化的影响[J].世界经济与政治论坛,1998,(4)：17-22.
[34]See Elspeth Guild. The European Agreements:The Right to establishment in the Central and Eastern European Agreements [A]. In:Elspeth Guild. The Legal Framework and Social Conse-quences of Free Movement of Persons in the European Union [M]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1999:127.
[35]See David Phinnemore. Association, Stepping-stone or Alternative to EU Membership? [M]. Sheffield:Continuum International Publishing Group,1999:57.
[36]张业亮.论欧盟东扩及其对欧洲一体化的影响[J].世界经济与政治论坛,1998,(4)：18.
[37]See paragraph 1, article 6, Act Concerning the Conditions of Accession of the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovak Republic and The Adjustments to the Treaties on which the European Union is Founded, AA2003/ACT/en.
[38]See paragraph 10, article 6, Act Concerning the Conditions of Accession, AA2003/ACT/en.
[37]张淑静.东扩对欧盟外贸的影响[J].国际经济合作,2005,(11)：61.
[40]参见肖海峰.欧盟东扩对欧盟农业的影响[J].世界农业,2001,(12)：7.
[41]See Robert Ackrill. The Common Agricultural Policy[M]. Sheffield:Continnuum International Publishing Group,2000:132.
[42]Pierre Bascou. Policy Reform and Adjustment in the European Union:Changes in the Com-mon Agricultural Policy and Enlargement [A]. In:David Blandford, Berkeley Hill. Policy Reform and Adjustment in the Agricultural Sectors of Developed Countries [M]. Oxfordshire:CAB Inter-national,2006:56.
[43]Supawat Rungsuriyawiboon, Alexej Lissitsa. Agricultural Producitivity Growth in the Euro-pean Union and Transition Countries [A]. In:Frank Fuller, John Christopher Beghin. European Agriculture:Enlargement, Structural Change, CAP Reform, and Trade Liberalization [M]. New York:Nova Publishers,2007:19.
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[45]乌拉圭和巴拉圭对巴西、阿根廷的不满甚至导致1994年乌拉圭一度退出南方共同市场关税谈判。参见方幼封.论南方共同市场的成就和问题[J].拉丁美洲研究,1995,(1)：40.
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[47]恩里克·伊格莱西亚斯,高静.拉丁美洲从金融危机中吸取的惨痛教训[J].拉丁美洲研究,2005,(3)：3.
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[50]1998年,拉美7个地区大国的资金流入突然中断,与国内债务杠杆作用的减弱和信贷的急剧减少同时发生。同时还造成经常账户的赤字相应减少和货币相应的实际贬值。其结 果是,它们的年均GDP增长率从危机前的7%下降到危机后的负2%。恩里克·伊格莱西亚斯,高静.拉丁美洲从金融危机中吸取的惨痛教训[J].拉丁美洲研究,2005,(3)：3.
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[531 See Brazil warns it is ready to respond to Argentina's new trade restrictions. http://en.mercopress.com/2012/01/14/brazil-warns-it-is-ready-to-respond-to-argentina-s-new-trade-restrictions.2012-01-21.
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[62]同上注,8-9.
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[69]See Paul Collier. The Bottom Billion:Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007:7.
[70]See Graham Harrison. Issues in the Contemporary Politics of Sub-Saharan Africa:The Dy-namics of Struggle and Resistance[M]. New York:Palgrave,2002:158-159.
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[73]Adama Bah, S. Jules-Armand Tapsoba. Civil Conflicts and Regional Economic Integration Outcomes in Africa, Document de travail de la serie, CERDI, Etudes et Documents, E 2010.09:3.
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[76]非洲国家在历史上曾经通过国有贸易企业控制对外贸易,在大部分外贸领域政府控制的国有贸易企业,有时这种经济模式可以更有效地履行经济一体化承诺,但有时却会造成市场竞争的扭曲。See Dharam P. Ghai, State Trading and Regional Economic Integration:The East African Experience[R], Discussion Paper No.145, presented at the 1972 Study Seminar held at Kampala,1972:9.
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[81]See Report by the Secretariat, Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Benin, Burki-na Faso and Mali, WT/TPR/S/236/Rev.1,22 November 2010, para.3.
[82]例如,咖啡(1%-12%),椰子(10%-30%),面粉 (1%-5%),食用油脂(1%-15%),茶叶(1%-12%),see, Report by the Secretariat, Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Benin, Burkina Faso and Mali, WT/TPR/S/236/Rev.l,22 November 2010, para.76.
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[85]在取消了贸易壁垒和放松人员流动的限制之后,由于弱小国家在政治、社会和经济等方面的管理能力的局限性,导致投资和人才向强国流动的趋势,整体上未必能从一体化中获益。See Paul Collier. The Bottom Billion:Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007:64-69.
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[90]冷战结束后,处于历史上日本与非洲较少的联系,通过发起TICAD加强同非洲的对话与合作,TICAD具有双重目标,即促进非洲领导人及其伙伴国的政治对话,及动员对非洲自身发展计划的支持。See http://www.ticad.net/about.shtml.2011-08-09
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[104]2008年8月,根据国际法院2002年的裁决,尼日利亚正式将领土争议持续达15年之久的Bakassi半岛移交给喀麦隆,该岛蕴藏着丰富的油气资源和渔业资源。尼日利亚对国际法院裁决的尊重表现出来其作为西非区域性大国正在走向成熟,给该区域内存在的资源领土争端的解决提供了示范作用。2011年11月,联合国秘书长潘基文祝贺喀麦隆和尼日利亚在实施国际法院裁决中取得的进展,认为该进程成功维护了民主。See http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=40486&Cr=cameroon&Crl=.2012-02-02.
[105]Robert E. Hudec. Developing Countries in the GATT Legal System[M]. Aldershot, Hampsire: Gower Publishing Company Limited,1987:13.
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[109]据南非商业日报报道,在上周举行的南非—巴西商务论坛上,巴西外贸工业发展部副部长Ivan Ramalho敦促南非尽快签署协议加入南非共同市场(Mercosur).信息来自商务部,http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/k/201007/20100707020544.html. 2012-01-12.
[110]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Accession of the Kyrgyz Republic to the Cus-toms Union between the Russian Federation, Belarus and Kazakhstan, Notification from the Kyr-gyz Republic, WT/REG71/N/1,21 April 1999.
See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Customs Union between the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian Federation, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan, WT/REG71/7,23 February 2001.
[112]俄罗斯联邦驻WTO谈判代表在2009年作为观察员的发言,WT/MIN(09)/ST/128
[113]http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2011-10/19/c_122177303.htm.2012-02-03
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[117]Ibid p.129.
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[120]Article 8, Abuja Treaty, http://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/abuja.htm#4,2011-12-11.
[121]参见中华人民共和国商务部,国际贸易经济合作研究院.中国对外经济贸易白皮书[M].北京：中信出版社,2003：215-216.
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[124]See article Ⅱ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
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[126]See paragraph 4, article Ⅴ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
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[128]See paragraph 7 article Ⅴ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
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[130]See article Ⅳ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
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[140]欧盟与中国2010年双边商品贸易额为3950亿欧元,2011年为4283亿欧元。信息来自商务部网站,http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/m/201202/20120207971917.html. 2012-03-30.
[141]http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/k/201111/20111107835566.html.2012-03-30.
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[143]参见傅林涌.欧盟东扩中欧补偿谈判的法律依据[J].对外经贸实务,2004,(9)：8-10.
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[1]商务部http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/
[2]海关总署http://www.customs.gov.cn/
[3]国家统计局http://www.stats.gov.cn/
[4]上海WTO事务咨询中心http://www.sccwto.net/
[1]世界贸易组织http://www.wto.org/
[2]联合国贸易与发展会议http://www.unctad.org/
[3]世界海关组织http://www.wco.org/
[4]欧洲联盟http://europa.eu/
[5]非洲联盟http://www.au.int/
[6]联合国拉丁美洲/加勒比海经济委员会http://www.eclac.cl/
[1]安第斯共同体http://www.comunidadandina.org/endex.htm
[2]西非经货联盟http://www.uemoa.int/index.htm
[3]海湾国家合作组织http://www.gcc-sg.org/eng/
[4]西非国家经济共同体http://www.ecowas.int/
[5]东非共同体http://www.eac.int/
[6]南方共同市场http://www.mercosur.int/
[7]加勒比共同体http://www.caricom.org/
[8]中非经货共同体http://www.cemac.int/
[9]南非关税同盟http://www.sacu.int/
[10]欧亚共同体http://www.eurasian-ec.com/
[11]东南非共同市场http://www.comesa.int/
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[5]See Paul Krugman. Is Bilateralism Bad? Working Paper No.2972 [R]. National Bureau of Eco-nomic Research, MA:Cambridge Press,1989.
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[9]See Richard Baldwin, Patrick Low. Multilateralizing regionalism [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2009.
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[11]See Per-Olaf Jonsson. The Projected Scandinavian Customs Union,1947-1959[M]. Ann Arbor: Mich.:UMI,1966; Arnold Friedrich Kroner. An Analysis of the Static Welfare Effects of a Cus-toms Union the European Economic Community,1958-1966[M]. Ann Arbor:Mich.:UMI,1971; Stephen Joel Ettinger. The Economics of the Customs Union between Botswana, Lesotho, Swazil-and and South Africa[M]. Ann Arbor:Mich.:UMI,1974; Norman McClure Johnson. The Austro-German Customs Union Project in German Diplomacy[M]. Ann Arbor:Mich.:UMI,1975; Van Der Ploeg, Stephen Sidney. Customs Union Theory, Collective Preferences, and Protectionism: analysis and historical perspective[M] Ann Arbor:Mich.:UMI,1977; Aleya Darmoul. Customs Union, Monetary Union, and Economic Integration in North-West Africa[M] Ann Arbor:Mich.: UMI,1977; T. K. Jayaraman. Economic Cooperation in the Indian Sub-Continent:a customs un-ion approach[M]. Bombay:Orient Longman,1978.
[12]以2006年至2009年为例,对多边体制与区域体制的比较研究开始增加。See Marc Schelhase, Globalization, Regionalization and Business:conflict, convergence and influence[M]. Basingstoke:New York Palgrave Macmillan,2008; David A. Gantz, Regional Trade Agreements: law, policy and practice[M]. Durham, N.C.:Carolina Academic Press,2009; Balthasar Hahn, Carl Jaeger. Trade Liberalization and Protectionism[M]. Hauppauge, NY:Nova Science Publishers, 2009; Trudi Hartzenberg. WTO Dispute Settlement:an African perspective[M]. London:Cameron May,2008.
[13]以2006年-2009年为例,以关税同盟作为专题研究的著作也呈一定规模。See Francesco Duina, The Social Construction of Free Trade:the European Union, NAFTA, and MERCOSUR[M]. Princeton:Princeton University Press,2006; Laurence W. Gormley. EU Law of Free Movement of Goods and Customs Union[M]. Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press, 2009; Eric M. Edi. Globalization and Politics in the Economic Community of West African States[M]. Durham, N.C.:Carolina Academic Press,2007; MERCOSUR Economic Integration: lessons for ASEAN[M]. Singapore:Institute of Southeast Asian Studies,2009. Mareike Meyn. The Impact of EU Free Trade Agreements on Economic Development and Regional Integration in Southern Africa:the example of EU-SACU trade relations[M]. Frankfurt am Main; New York:P. Lang,2006.
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[30]参见周尚文.关税同盟在德国经济--体化进程中的作用[J].世纪桥,2007,(05)：72-73；王峰.西方关税同盟贸易效应的理论与实证研究[J].经济经纬,2008,(02)：57-60；刘超.浅析关税同盟理论[J].时代经贸(下旬刊),2008,(04)：79+82；李林芹.1931年德奥关税同盟问题与英国外交[J].首都师范大学学报(社会科学版),2004,(04)：27-31；张小欣.西欧经济一 体化发展对关税同盟理论的影响[J].欧洲,2002,(02)：79-83+112；曹英,刘耀华.关税同盟与德国统一的“小德意志道路”[J].株洲师范高等专科学校学报,2002,(01)：66-68；曹英,赵士国.论德意志关税同盟在德国工业化中的作用[J].湖南师范大学社会科学学报,2001,(02)：121-125；陈凯杰.简评西方关税同盟理论的发展[J].欧洲,1997,(03)：12-16；徐健.关税同盟与德国的民族统一[J].世界历史,1998,(02)：54-61；裴武威.关税同盟理论述评[J].经济评论,1993,(03)：34-39.
[31]参见张南.关贸总协定关于关税同盟和自由贸易区条款评析[J].国际经贸探索,1994,(1)：76-80.
[32]参见张哲.从欧盟扩大看GATT/WTO关于关税同盟补偿谈判的规定与实践[J].现代法学,2004,26(4)：176-181.
[33]参见蒋成华.GATT第24条关于关税同盟和自由贸易区的实体内部标准研究[J].世界贸易组织动态与研究,2010,(04)：5-13+27.
[34]参见左永宁.南部非洲关税同盟法律制度研究[D].湘潭：湘潭大学硕士学位论文,2011.
[1]信息来源：http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/region_e.htm; http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicAIIRTAList.aspx.2012-01-05
[2]2007年9月在一次公开会议上作题为“引发关注的区域贸易协定扩增”报告,其间提出了“多边化的区域主义”概念,试图消解区域化趋势与多边体制之间的对立。See http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/spp167_e.htm.2010-10-25
[1]出现最早可以追述到1897年美国牧师查尔斯·泰兹·罗素(Charles Taze Russell),他被认为第一次使用了“全球化”来描述神职组织的庞大(corporate giants)。See Ramon Mullerat. International corporate Social Responsibility:the role of corporations in the economic order of the 21st century[M]. The Netherlands:Kluwer Law International,2010:120.
[2]UNCTAD. Globalization and Liberalization:Development in the Face of Two Powerful Cur-rents[M]. TD/366/Rev.1, March,1996:13.
[3]Malcolm Waters. Globalization[M]. London:New York Taylor & Francis Routledge,2001:8.
See Paul Hirst, Grahame Thompson. The Globalization in Question:the international economy and possibilities[M].2nd Edtion. Cambridge:Polity Press,1999:2.
[5]See Malcolm Waters. Globalization [M]. London:New York Taylor & Francis Routledge,2001: 212-222.
[6]See Corey L. Lofdahl. Environmental Impacts of Globalization and Trade:a systems study[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,2002:3.
[7]James Gustave Speth. World Apart:globalization and the environment[M]. Washington D.C. Island Press,2003:1.
[8]巴格瓦蒂以全球化卫士著称于学界,与杰克逊前后立场不一致相比,巴格瓦蒂对全球化的积极态度始终如一,在他的著作和论述中保持一如既往地连贯和统一,他反对将经济全球化与人的尊严对立起来。See Jagdish N. Bhagwati. In Defense of Globalization [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2007:51-134.
[9]Richard Langhorne. The Coming of Globalization:its evolution and contemporary conse-quences[M]. Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2000:2.
[10]Susan Strange. The Retreat of the State:the diffusion of power in the world economy[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,1996:5.
[11]Nina Bandelj, Elizabeth Sowers. Economy and State:a sociological perspective[M]. Maiden, MA:Polity,2010:187.
[12]Alfred Alman. The Globalization State:A Future-Oriented Perspective on the Public/Private Distinction, Federalism, Democracy [J]. Vand, J, TRansnat'l 1.,1998, Vol.31:780.
[13]Ted C. Lewellen. The Anthropology of Globalization:cultural anthropology enters the 21st century [M]. Westport:Greenwood Publishing Group,2002:7-8.
[14]Richard Baldwin, Patrick Low. Multilateralizing regionalism [M]. New York:Cambridge Uni-versity Press,2009:ⅹⅰ.
[15]我们为什么要花特别的精力去了解全球化?两个重要的原因：全球化的过程和结果正在改变我们个人生活的基础,他们正在改变我们过去集体性的组织机构,这些机构在经济、社会和政治关系上提供了形式和可预测性。第二个理由在于这个词使用得如此广泛以至于在所有层面上意义被混淆而不是明了,以至于限制了思维逻辑所带来的问题的难度比全球化本身更甚。Richard Langhorne. The Coming of Globalization:its evolution and contem-porary consequences[M]. Hampshire:Palgrave Macmillan,2000:1.
[16]鲁丹萍.国际贸易理论与实务[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：106.
[17]本表参考以下文献资料编制,严云鸿.国际贸易理论与实务[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2004：53-54；卓骏.国际贸易理论与实务[M].北京：机械工业出版社,2006：94；David A. Lynch. Trade and Globalization:an introduction to regional trade agreements[M]. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield,2010:21.
[18]See Arvind Panagariya. Regionalism in Trade Policy:essays on preferential trading[M]. Lon-don:World Scientific,1999:5.
[19]See Jagdish Bhagwati. Termites in the Trading System:how preferential agreements under-mine free trade[M]. Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press,2008:116.
[20]See David A. Lynch. Trade and Globalization:an introduction to regional trade agreements[M]. Lanham, Md.:Rowman & Littlefield,2010:1.
[21]Jagdish Bhagwati, Arvind Panagariya. The Economics of Preferential Trade Agreements[M] Washington, D.C.:The AEI Press,1996:4.
[22]http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/rta_pta_e.htm.2012-03-29.
[23]Philippe Sands, Pierre Klein. Bowett's Law of International Institutions[M]. London:Sweet & Maxwell,2009:473.
[24]佟家栋.欧盟经济一体化的发展道路论析[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版),2000,(2)：66.
[25]Dilip K. Das. Regionalism in Global Trade[M]. Northampton, MA:Edward Elgar,2004:9.
[26]周王失去政权控制最主要地表现于,王室控制地域极其狭小、财政收入微薄,军事控制和实力均名存实亡。诸侯对外战争以不再需要征得周天子的同意,哪怕是名义上的,正 所谓“礼乐征伐自天子出”不再被遵循,且以“礼乐征伐自诸侯出”取而代之。参见齐涛.简明中国通史[M].济南：泰山出版社,2000：70-72.
[27]周鲠生.国际法[M].上册.北京：商务印书馆,1981：41.
[28]王铁崖.国际法[M].北京：法律出版社,1981：10.
[29]杨德森在其《中国海关制度沿革》中指出,“我国古代国际贸易之设关征税,虽史无详确考证,而东西学者咸信其比在极早时期”。杨德森.中国海关制度沿革[M].北京：商务印书馆,1925：1.
[30]顾德融,朱顺龙.春秋史[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2003：460.
[31]《礼记·曲礼》
[32]赵德馨.中国经济通史[M].第一卷.长沙：湖南人民出版社,2002：1027.
[33]商这个词来自与周,当时周公允许原殷商的遗民从事贸易,周人向来重视农业,而商人则重视交易,周公就允许商的遗民经商。参见赵靖.中国经济思想通史[M].第一卷.北京：北京大学出版社出版,1991：43.
[34]《史记·货殖列传》
[35]《国语·齐语》
[36]春秋时期,王室衰微,霸主渐起,诸侯国通过结盟的方式组成政治军事集团,而处于礼制规范尚存的背景下,对于盟主不仅仅是国家实力上的臣服,而且在德行上需要得到承认。用孟子的话讲,“以力假仁者霸,霸必有大国。以德行仁者王,王不待大,汤以七十里,文王以百里。以力服人者,非心服也,力不赡也；以德服人者,中心悦而诚服也”,外在强势与内在认同的共同作用构成霸主地位的正当性。参见《孟子·公孙丑上》。
[37]徐传保.先秦国际法之遗迹[M].上海：上海书店,1991：218-219.
[38]《左传·襄公十一年》
[39]参见丁建弘.德国通史[M].上海：上海社会科学出版社,2002：129.
[40][德]京特.法比翁克,吴薇芳译.弗里德里希.李斯特[M].北京：商务印书馆,1983：10.
[41]参见卡尔.艾利希.博恩等,张载扬等译.德意志史：第三卷[M].下册.北京：商务印书馆,1991：528-550.
[42][英]C.W.克劳利.新编剑桥世界近代史：第9卷[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社,1999：73.
[43]See George Douglas Howard Cole, Raymond William Postgate. The Common People,1746-1938[M]. London:Taylor & Francis,1938:435.
[44]See John Holland Rose, Henry Dodwell. Cambridge History of the British Empire, Vol.4 [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,1959:402.
[45]See National Institute of Economic and Social Research. Trade Regulations and Commercial Policy of the United Kingdom[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,1943:22-25.
[46]See K. Krishna Reddy. General Studies History for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary Ex-amination[M]. New Delhi:Tata McGraw-Hill,2006:C.88.
[47]See Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official Year Book of the Common-wealth of Australia, No.47-1961 [R].1961:488-489.
[48]美国宪法第一条第八款。
[49]美国宪法第一条第十款。
[50][美]汉密尔顿,杰伊,麦迪逊,程逢如等译,联邦党人文集[M].北京：商务印书馆,1995：60-61.
[51]该表的整理参阅,Jacob Viner. The Customs Union Issue[M]. New York:Carnegie Endow-ment for International Peace,1950:157-169.
[52]曹亮.区域经济一体化的政治经济学分析[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2006：31.
[53]See Jacob Viner. The Customs Union Issue[M]. New York:Carnegie Endowment for Interna-tional Peace,1950:91-123.
[54]See Harry G. Johnson. The Economic Theory of Customs Union [A]. In:Jagdish Bhagwati, Pravin Krishna, and Arvind Panagariya. Trading Blocs:alternative approaches to analyzing prefe-rential trade agreements[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,1999:129-130.
[55]See Murray C. Kemp, Henry Y. Wan. An Elementary Proposition Concerning the Formantion of Customs Unions[J]. Journal of International Economics,1976, (6):95-97.
[56]参见[英]凯恩斯,何瑞英译.货币论[M].上卷.北京：商务印书馆,1986：60-64.
[57]Jagdish Bhagwati, Arvind Panagariya. Preferential Trading Areas and Multilateralism-Strangers, Friends, or Foes[A]. In:Jagdish N. Bhagwati. Trading Blocs:altenative approaches to analyzing preferential trade agreements[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,1999:55-56.
[58]张汉林等.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：69.
[59]See David Besanko, et al. Economics of Strategy[M]. Hoboken, NJ:Wiley,2010:43.
[60]See James E. Meade. The Theory of Customs Unions[M]. Amsterdanm:North-Holland Pub-lishing Company,1955:121.
[61]米德的另一个贡献是他发现了“间接贸易偏转”现象,如果经济一体化的成员国之间取消了内部关税但对外依旧保持各自的关税水平,当高关税成员国的需求弹性非常大,以至于其国内价格降低,需求量就会大增,从而造成供不应求的局面,低关税成员国就会用进口产品向高关税成员国出口。于是,原来要以较高进口关税才能进入高关税的非成员国产品,现在同过低关税国成员国的转手便可进入高关税成员国,因为存在这种现象,米德得出了自由贸易区不如关税同盟的结论,“间接贸易偏转”也为原产地规则在自由贸易区的适用提供了理论基础。
[62]See Warner Corden. Economies of Scale and Customs Union Theory[J]. Journal of Political Economy,1972, Vol.80:465-475.
[63]Jeffrey Frankel, Ernesto Stein, Shang-Jin Wei. Trading Blocs and the Americas:the natural and unnatural and the super-natural[M]. Journal of Development Economics,1995, Vol.47:61.
[64]Paul Krugman. Is Bilateralism Bad? Working Paper No.2972 [R]. National Bureau of Econom-ic Research, MA:Cambridge Press,1989.
[65]樊勇明.西方国际政治经济学[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：7.
[66]樊勇明.西方国际政治经济学[M].第二版.上海：上海人民出版社,2006：153.
[67][德]李斯特,陈万煦译.政治经济学的国民体系[M].北京：商务印书馆,1983：333.
[68]参见王逸舟.论综合安全[J].世界经济与政治,1998,(4)：8-9.
[69]Michael Schulz, Fredrik Soderbaum, Joakim Ojendal. Regionalization in a Globalizing World: a comparative perspective on forms, actors, and processes[M]. New York:Zed Books,2001:8.
[70]王逸舟.全球化时代的国际安全[M].上海：上海人民出版社,1999：128.
[71][美]罗伯特·吉尔平,杨宇光,杨炯译.全球政治经济学：解读国际经济秩序[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：391.
[72]Charles P. Kindelberger. International Public Goods without International Government[J]. The American Economic Review,1986, Vol.76(1):8.
[73]张建新.国际公共产品理论：地区一体化的新视角[A].见：国际公共产品与地区合作[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2009：49.
[74]何晓兵.关税理论政策与事务[M].北京：中国商务出版社,2007：163.
[75]Raj Bhala. Modern GATT Law:a treatise on the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade[M]. London:Sweet & Maxwell,2005:229.
[76]王仕英.欧洲一体化与美国战后多边自由贸易体系的兴衰[J].山东师范大学学报(人文社会科学版),2011,(5)：110.
[77][美]罗伯特·吉尔平,杨宇光,杨炯译.全球政治经济学：解读国际经济秩序[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：393.
1781 Raul Prebisch. The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems[J]. Economic Bulletin for Latin Amertca,1962,7(1):1.
[79]Raul Prebisch. Commercial Policy in the Underdeveloped Countries[J]. American Economic Review,1959,49(2):251.
[80]高铦.第三世界发展理论探讨[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,1992：34.
[81][巴]特奥托尼奥.多斯桑托斯,杨衍永等译.帝国主义与依附[M].北京：社会科学出版社,1999：302.
[82]不平等交换论由希腊经济学家伊曼纽尔(Arghiri Emmanuel)提出,他认为自由贸易中 一国的收益是通过牺牲他国的利益而取得的,而这种收益的基础是不平等的交换。参见[希]伊曼纽尔,文贯中译.不平等交换[M].北京：中国对外经济贸易出版社,1988：1.
[83]Olivier Dabene. The Politics of Regional Integration in Latin America:theoretical and com-parative explorations[M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:17.
[841陈玉刚.国家与超国家—欧洲一体化理论比较研究[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2001：149.
[85](原文)Union:a uniting; the state of being united; the state of wedlock; a united whole; combination; a growing together in healing; the incorporation of states in a federation or in a sin-gle state; general concord; the state; a single state(or sometimes a federation) formedin this way; an association or league. The Chambers Dictionary[M]. Edinburgh:Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd,1994:1909.
[86](原文)Union:any joining together of persons, organizations, or things for a particular pur-pose. Daniel Oran. Oran's Dictionary of the Law[M]. St. Paul, MN:West,2000:503.
[87](原文)Union:the action or fact of joining together or being joined together, especially in a political context; a state of harmony or agreement;a political unit consisting of a number of states or provinces with the same central government. The New Oxford Dictionary of English[M]. Ox-ford:Clarendon Press,1998:2022.
[88](原文)Union:the act or an instance of uniting or joining two or more things into one; a unified condition; combination or junction; a association of independent individuals or groups for some common purpose; the formation of such a political unit. The New Penguin English Dictio-nary[M]. London:Penguin Group,2000:1541.
[89]唐司空图：蒲帅燕国太夫人石氏墓志。参见陈文新.中国文学编年史：隋唐五代卷[M].长沙：湖南人民出版社,2006：303.
[90]明张居正：七贤咏。参见陈维昭,张兵.中国文学研究[M].第十一辑.北京：中国文联出版社,2008：152.
[91]辞海编辑委员会.辞海[M].上海：上海辞书出版社,2000：554.
[92]Article XXIV 8, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[93]Article l(k), International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonisation of Customs Procedures, (Kyoto Convention).
[94]朱秋沅.国际海关法研究[M].北京：法律出版社,2011：217.
[95]童蒙正.关税论[M].上海：商务印书馆,1934：82-83.
[96]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：72.
[97]See Armin von Bogdandy. Law and Politics in the WTO-Strategies to Cope with a Deficient Relationship [J]. Max Plank UNYB,2001, (9):609-674.
[98]Malcolm Shaw. International Law [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2008:9.
[1][美]沃伦·科恩.剑桥美国对外关系史[M].下册.北京：新华出版社,2004：221.
[2]林德(Peter H. Lindert)的研究表明,在二十世纪前50年,美国在钢铁、汽车、纺织服装、造船和飞机制造等基础产业领域保持统治或者领先地位,尽管有些优势在战争结束后 不久便开始受到挑战,然而,战争结束之初美国完整的经济体系是世界上仅有的。See Stanley L. Engerman, Robert E. Gallman. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000:408-448.
[3]See Robert A. Polland. Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War:1945-1950[M]. New York:Columbia University Press,1985:2.
[4]Kenneth W. Dam. The GATT:Law and International Economic Organization [M]. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1970:12.
[5]See Ernest F. Penrose. Economic Planning for the Peace[M]. Princeton, NJ:Princenton Univer-sity Press,1953:89-90.
[6]参见王绳祖.国际关系：1929-1939[M].第五卷.北京：世界知识出版社,1995：317-318.
[7]Douglas A. Irwin, Petros C. Mavroidis, Alan Sykes. The Genesis of the GATT[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2008:29.
[8]Randall B. Woods. A Changing of the Guard:Anglo-Amereican Relations,1941-1946[M]. London:The University of North Carolina Press,1990:18.
[9]当然,对参与自由贸易最强烈的反对来自于凯恩斯,他认为战后经济政策最优先考虑的应该是保持充分就业。凯恩斯将目光集中于金融体系,他认为多边贸易体制的建立应当更集中于多边支付与信用体系,以此替代双边协定的解决方式。See L. S. Pressnell. External Economic Policy Since the War:Volume I, The Post-War Financial Settlement[M]. London: HMSO,1986:104.
[10]See J. A. S. Grenville. A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Centurey[M]. London: New York Tayler&Francis Routledge,2005:332.
[11]Douglas A. Irwin, Petros C. Mavroidis, Alan Sykes. The Genesis of the GATT[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2008:16.
[12]澳大利亚、比利时-卢森堡同盟、巴西、加拿大、智利、中国、古巴、捷克斯洛伐克、法国、印度、黎巴嫩、荷兰、新西兰、挪威、南非联盟、美国和英国参加了伦敦筹备会议,而苏联始终保持沉默,没有派代表出席。See UN Economic and Social Council, Prepara-tory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, UNECOSOC, E/PC/T/INF/2,17 October 1946.
[13]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, pp.4-6.
[14]按照会议议程的程序,在美国代表发言结束后代表团按照英语国名的首字母顺序作各自表述,比利时和卢森堡早在1921年通过双边协定的方式组成了经济同盟,1944年比利时、荷兰与卢森堡三国流亡政府在伦敦签订了伦敦海关公约(London Customs Convention),依据该公约规定1948年正式启动关税同盟(Benelux customs union),在 这次伦敦会议上,比利时和卢森堡就是以经济同盟的身份共同参会的。
[15]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, pp.18-19.
[16]参见陈治世.国际法[M].台北：台湾商务印书馆,1990：91.
[17]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, p.37.
[18]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/3,17 October 1946, p.45.
[19]尽管1839年秘鲁-玻利维亚邦联解体,墨西哥、阿根廷、哥伦比亚和委内瑞拉依旧试图维护建立联邦的可能性；时隔十年,哥伦比亚、厄瓜多尔、玻利维亚、智利和秘鲁首脑举行峰会,研究邦联计划。See Olivier Dabene. The Politics of Regional Integration in Latin America:theoretical and comparative explorations [M]. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:14.
[20]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, p.23.
[21]UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/3,17 October 1946, p.32.
[22]对区域贸易安排可能损害多边贸易体制的说法,黎巴嫩的观点正相反,从长期看,区域贸易将会发展起来,与其他国家的贸易将有所增进。如果此制度理性操作,适用其的区域工业将得到发展,在该区域人民的生活水平提高,对其他区域产品需求更多,最终导致国际贸易增长。See UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the Interna-tional Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/3,17 October 1946, pp.43-44.
[23]See Douglas A. Irwin, Petros C. Mavroidis, Alan O. Sykes. The Genesis of the GATT [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2008:8.
[24]See UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/30,24 November 1946, p.13; Draft Report of the Drafting Committee of the Preparatory Committee of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Em-ployment, E/PC/T/C.6/97,22 February 1947, p.127.
[25]UN Conference on Trade and Employment, General Commercial Policy Annotated Agenda for Chapter IV-Commercial Policy, E/CONF.2/C.3/1,2 December 1947, p.23.
[26]法兰西最高委员会代表黎巴嫩和叙利亚为国际法律行为,例如,1926年巴勒斯坦、叙利亚和黎巴嫩划定边界协议,缔约双方就是代表巴勒斯坦的英国政府和代表叙利亚和黎巴嫩的法国政府。See Official Documents:Palestine-Syria-Lebanon[J]. Am. J. Int'l L. Sup,1927, Vol.21(1):147.
[27]1919年之前,黎巴嫩不存在现代工业,仅有一些丝棉纺织的手工作坊。直到1926年至 1940年,工业投资开始出现,手工业者成为工人。由于缺乏原材料和重工业,黎巴嫩希望通过与工业化程度较高的叙利亚建立关税同盟实现工业化转型。See Joseph Donato Leba-non and Its Labour Legislation [J]. Int'l Lab. Rev.,1952:67.
[28]See Protocol, GATT/1/53/ADD.2,22 March 1948; General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, Consolidated Text, GATT/CP/2,14 October 1948.
[29]See Paul A. Samuelson. International Trade and the Equalisation of Factor Prices [J]. The Eco-nomic Journal,1948,230(58):183-184.
[30]See UN Economic and Social Council, Preparatory Committee of the International Conference on Trade and Employment, E/PC/T/PV/2,17 October 1946, pp.15-17.
[31]参见刘光溪.试析关税与贸易总协定中的“授权条款”[J].国际贸易问题,1989,(5)：27.
[32]肖枫.西方发展学与拉美的发展理论[M].北京：世界知识出版社,1990：133.
[33]Raul Prebisch. The Economic Development of Latin America and its Principal Problems[J]. Economic Bulletin for Latin Amertca,1962,7(1):18.
[34]See CEPAL. The Latin American Common Market [M]. Mexicl, D.F.:The United Nations, 1959:5.
[33][希]伊曼纽尔,文贯中译.不平等交换[M].北京：中国对外经济贸易出版社,1988：274.
[36]尽管,发展中闳家对于谈判结果形成的文本并不满意,特别是对“毕业条款”的怨言颇多,但是出于美国和欧盟的压力,不得不签署决议文件,因为美国和欧盟在谈判阶段声称,将在新起草的法典中拒绝施予那些未签字国家利益,迫使发展中国家接受了妥协文本。See Robert E. Hudec. GATT and Developing Counties[J]. Colum. Bus. L. Rev.,1992, Vol. 1992, Issue 1:73.
[37]Economic Commission for Africa. Assessing Regional Integration in Africa, Vol.1[M]. New York:United Nations Publications,2004:52.
[38]Economic Commission for Africa. Assessing Regional Integration in Africa, Vol.1[M]. New York:United Nations Publications,2004:53.
[39]希望临时协定获得展期的区域贸易协定应当提供具有说服力的理由。See Committee on Regional Trade Agreement, Background Survey by the Secretariat, WT/REG/W/46,5 April 2002, p.18.
[40]See Harry G. Johnson. The Economic Theory of Customs Union[A]. In:Jagdish Bhagwati, Pravin Krishna, and Arvind Panagariya. Trading Blocs:alternative approaches to analyzing prefe-rential trade agreements[M]. Cambridge:MIT Press,1999:129-130.
[41]Mohammad F. A. Nsour. Rethinking the World Trade Order:towards a better legal under-standing of the role of regionalism in the multilateral trade regime[M]. Leiden:Sidestone Press, 2000:114.
[42]如在满足GATT第二十四条第五款(a)项的要求时,一缔约方提议以与GATT第二条规定不一致的方式提高任何关税税率,则应适用GATT第二十八条所列程序,在提供补偿性调整时,应适当考虑同盟的其他成员削减相应关税而已经提供的补偿。See paragraph 6, article 24, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947.
[43]See Report of the Panel, European Communities-Conditions for the Granting of Tariff Prefe-rences to Developing Countries, WT/DS246/R,1 December 2003, para.9.2.
[44]Report of the Appellate Body, United States-Subsidies on Upland Cotton, WT/DS267/AB/R,3 March 2005, para.764.
[45]WTO Ministerial Conference, Ministerial Declaration Adopted on 14 November 2001, WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1,20 November 2001, para.44.
[46]Negotiating Group on Rules, Discussion Paper on Regional Trading Arrangements, Communi-cation from India, TN/RL/W/114,6 June 2003, para.8.
[47]Request by the United States for Notification under Article XXIV and for the Establishment of a Working Party, L/7029,5 June 1992.
[48]Committee on Trade and Development, Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) Agreement, Revision, WT/COMTD/1/Add.5/Rev.l,6 November 1996, p.l.
[49]See Report of the Committee on Regional Trade Agreements to the General Council, WT/REG/15,3 November 2005.
[50]See Mr. Jean-Marie Noirfalisse. Report of the Committee on Regional Trade Agreement to the General Council, WT/REG/7,30 November 1998.
[51]See Mr. Krirk-Krai Jirapaet. Report of the Committee on Regional Trade Agreement to the General Council, WT/REG/8,11 October 1998.
[52]See http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/trans_mecha_e.htm,2011-02-05
[53]James H. Mathis. Regional Trade Agreements in the GATT/WTO, Article XXIV and the In-ternal Trade Requirement[M]. The Hague:T.M.C. Asser Press,2002:100.
[54]General Council, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, Decision of 14 December 2006, WT/L/671,18 December 2006, para.8.
[55]WTO, Regional Trade Agreements Notified to the GATT/WTO and in Force Chart,15 De-cember 2008, http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/region_e/summary_e.xls,2011-08-22.
[56]General Council, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, Decision of 14 December 2006, WT/L/671,18 December 2006, para.10.
[57]Christoper Hermann. Regional Trade Agreements as a Challenge to the Multilateral Trading System [M]. EUI LAW Working Paper No.2008/2009,2008:16.
[58]孙南申.服务贸易总协定之法律分析[J].政治与法律,1994,(2)：28.
[59]参见任际.国际服务贸易法与《服务贸易总协定》：特质与宗旨[J].武汉大学学报(社会科学版),2002,(4)：472.
[60]Footnote 1, General Agreement on Trade in Service.
[61]Paragraph l(b), article V, General Agreement on Trade in Service.
[62]Paragraph 4, article V, General Agreement on Trade in Service.
[1]MiroslayN. Jovanovic. International Handbook on the Economis of Integration:general issues and regional groups[M]. Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing,2011:137.
[2]Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778,29 November 1957, para.30.
[3]Ibid,6S/100,para.34.
[4]World Trade Organization. Guide to GATT Law and Practice:analytical index, vol.2[M]. Lan- ham, MD:Bernan,1995:825-827.
[5]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on the Meetings of 16-18 and 20 Febru-ary 1998, WT/REG/M/16,18 March 1998, para.115.
[6]Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[7]Dencho Georgiev. The World Trade Organization and International Economic Integration:legal aspects[A]. In:Miroslav N. Jovanovic. International Handbook on the Economis of Integration: general issues and regional groups[M]. Cheltenham:Edward Elgar Publishing,2011:141.
[8]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on the Meetings of 16-18 and 20 Febru-ary 1998, WT/REG/M/16,18 March 1998, para.112.
[9]Appellate Body Report, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.48.
[10]Andrew D. Mitchell, Nicolas J.S. Lockhart. Legal Requiremnets for PTAs under the WTO[A]. In:Simon Lester, Bryan Mercurio Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements:commentary and analysis[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2009:96.
[11]Ibid, p.97.
[12]王传丽.补贴与反补贴措施协定条文释义[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社,2006：28.
[13]这些例外分别依据GATT1994第十一条、第十二条、第十三条、第十四条、第十五条和第二十条。
[14]该案全称为“土耳其纺织品与服装产品进口限制案”,See Report of the Appellate Body, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999.
[15]Appellate Body Report, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.3.
[16]Report of the Panel, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/R,31 May 1999, para.9.135.
[17]See Ibid, paras.9.135-9.139.
[18]Ibid,para.9.148.
[19]Ibid, para.6.89.
[20]Ibid, para.9.135.
[21]Ibid, para.9.151.
[22]See Appellate Body Report, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.50.
[23]James H. Mathis. Regional Trade Agreements and Domestic Regulation:What Reach for 'Other Restrictive Regulations of Commerce'? in Lorand Bartels, Federico Ortino, Regional Trade Agreements and the WTO Legal System[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006:82.
[24]See Andrew D. Mitchell, Nicolas J.S. Lockhart. Legal Requirements for PTAs under the WTO[A]. In:Simon Lester, Bryan Mercurio. Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements:Commen-tary and Analysis[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009:97.
[25]1957年3月25日,法国、西德、意大利,荷兰,比利时和卢森堡六国的政府首脑和外长在罗马签署《欧洲经济共同体条约》和《欧洲原子能共同体条约》。后来人们把这两个条约统称为《罗马条约》,GATT审查的内容主要集中于《欧洲经济共同体条约》。
[26]See Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778, Annex IV,29 November 1957, para.26.
[27]Paragraph 2, article 18, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[28]Kenneth W. Dam. The GATT:Law and International Economic Organization[M]. Chicago and London:University of Chicago Press,1970:226-227.
[29]See article 26 Protection of Infant Industries,2002 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement.
[30]See article 21 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[31]World Trade Organization. Guide to GATT Law and Practice:analytical index, vol.1 [M]. Lanham, MD:Bernan,1995:603.
[32]该表的编制参照以下文献资料,Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, European Communities, WT/TPR/S/214,2 March 2009, pp.38-48; GATT, Re-port Submitted by the Member States of the Andean Group, L/6737,12 October 1990, pp.24-27; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, General Treaty on Central American Economic Inte-gration, Biennial Report on the Operation of the Agreement, Communication from the Parties, WT/REG93/R/B/2,6 October 2004, pp.2-3; United Nations Economic Commission for Latin and the Caribbean, Trade Policy in CARICOM:overview of the main trade policy measures[R], LC/CAR/G.591,30 December 1999, pp.3-11; Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Gabon, WT/TPR/S/188,27 August 2007, pp.27-40; Committee on Trade and Development, East African Community, Communication from the Parties, Addendum, WT/COMTD/25/Add.1,1 November 2006; Working Party on the Accession of the Russian Fed-eration, Report of the Working Party on the Accession of the Russian Federation to the World Trade Organization, WT/ACC/RUS/70,17 November 2011; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Customs Union between the European Community and the Principality of Andorra, Communication from the European Community, WT/REG53/3,12 November 1998, pp.2-3; Committee on Trade and Development, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Revised Treaty, Communication from the Parties to the Agreement, WT/COMTD/54, 26 September 2005; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Customs Union between Turkey and the European Communities, Weighted Average Tariff Rates and Customs Duties Collected, Note by the Secretariat, WT/REG22/11,2 May 2006; Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L84/43,28 March 2002; The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC) Secretariat General, The Economic Agreement between the GCC States,31 December 2001; Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Se-cretariat, Brazil, WT/TPR/S/212/Rev.l,11 May 2009, pp.31-45; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Draft Factual Presentation, Southern African Customs Union (Goods), Report by the Secretariat, WT/REG231/2,3 October 2008, p.10; Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Re-view, Report by the Secretariat, Niger and Senegal, WT/TPR/S/223,7 October 2009.
[33]See Petros C. Mavroidis, Patrick A. Messerlin, Jasper M. Wauters. The Law and Economics of Contingent Protection in the WTO, Northampton:Edward Elgar Publishing,2008:289.
[34]See Robert Hudec, James D. Southwick. Regionalism and WTO Rules, Problems in the Fine Art of Discriminating Fairly[A]. In:Miguel Rodriguez Mendoza, Patrick Low, Barbara Kotschwar. Trade Rules in the Making:Challenges in Regional and Multilateral Negotiations[M] Washington DC:OAS:Broolings,1999:67-71.
[35]Report of the Appellate Body, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Prod-ucts, WT/DS34/AB/R,22 October 1999, para.48.
[36]Ibid.
[37]Ibid.
[38]Report of the Appellate Body, Argentina-Safeguard Measures on Imports of Footwear, WT/DS121/AB/R,14 December 1999, para.8.96.
[39]See Negotiating Group on Rules, Compendium of Issues Related to Regional Trade Agree-ments-Background Note by the Secretariat, TN/RL/W/8/Rev.1,1 August 2002, para.73-75.
[40]尽管保护的程度降低是已经是明确的趋势,但是某些选择性的,单边的保护措施的使用例如反倾销和反补贴措施则上升明显。P. K. M. Tharakan. Political Economy and Contin-gent Protection[J]. The Economic Journal,1995, Vol.105:1550-1564. [41] Robert Teh, el et. Trade Remedy Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements[M]. In:Antoni Estevadeordal, el et. Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009:245.
[42]杰克逊认为贸易救济措施具有接合、缓冲和保障贸易流向合理调整的作用。参见[美]约翰H杰克逊,张乃根译.世界贸易体制：国际经济关系的法律与政策[M].上海：复旦大学 出版社,2001：303-305.
[63]该表依据Robert Teh等2009年公布的研究数据整理而成,See Table4.5,4.6,4.7,4.8,Robert Teh, el et. Trade Remedy Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements[M]. In:Antoni Este-vadeordal, el et. Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge Uni-versity Press,2009:195-241.
[44]See Sociaal Fonds v Brachfeld and Chougol Diamond Co, [1969] ECR 211.
[45]See article 3, Treaty of Asuncion Establishing the Common Market of the Southern Cone, 1991, and article 1, article 2, Annex IV.
[46]See article 1, Treaty of Asuncion Establishing the Common Market of the Southern Cone, 1991.
[47]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, East African Community, Report by the Secretariat, WT/TPR/S/171,20 September 2006, para.16.
[48]周林彬,郑远远.WTO规则例外和例外规则[M].广州：广东人民出版社,2000：8.
[49]胡加祥.国际贸易争端的解决与国家安全利益的保护一以GATT第二十一条为研究视角[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2008,(4)：16.
[50]GATT 第二十一条(c)项属于“履行联合国宪章下的义务,为维护世界和平与安全而采取的行动”,不允许成员方单方面擅自采取行动,因此不在本文讨论范围。
[51]例如,《罗马条约》规定,取消各成员国间的数量限制的各项规定不影响因公共道德、公共秩序或公共安全而采取的进出口或过境禁止或限制。See, Article 36, Treaty of Eu-ropean Community.再如,《欧亚共同体海关法典》第六条第七款规定,采取措施保护关税同盟成员在人类生命和健康,动植物和环境方面的成员国国家安全。See article 6, Customs Authorities and their Main Task, Decision of Interstate Council the Euroasian Economic Commu-nity, Customs Code of Customs Union,27 November 2009.
[521 See Notification Pursuant to Article XXI of the GATT 1994 and Article XIVbis of the GATS, 21 February 2000, S/C/N/115.
[53]See Nicaragua-Measures Affecting Imports from Honduras and Colombia, Request for the Es-tablishment of a Panel by Colombia, WT/DS188/2,28 March 2000.
[54]争端解决机构虽然接受了哥伦比亚的请求,但是建议由该机构主席出面与争议双方协商评审团的审查范围。然而,该争议的评审团至今仍未成立。参见胡加祥.国际贸易争端的解决与国家安全利益的保护——以GATT第二十一条为研究视角[J].上海交通大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2008,(4)：16.
[55]黄勇.国际竞争法研究[M].北京：中国友谊出版社,2002：1.
[56]Incidence与贸易关系有关的内涵至少包含：“某事件的发生几率、影响及其方式的范围和程度、税收规费的负担以及关联性等”。参见陆谷孙.英汉大词典[M].第二版.上海： 上海译文出版社,2007：956.
[57]Philippe Brusick et al. Competition Provisions in Regional Trade Agreements:How to Assure Development Gains[M]. New York:UNCTAD,2005:69.
[58]该表根据联合国贸易与发展会议报告整理而成,See Experiences Gained so Far on Inter-national Cooperation on Competition Policy Issues and the Mechanisms Used, UNCTAD, TD/RBP/CONF.6/12,14 September 2005.
[59]彭心倩.欧盟东扩过程中的制度因素—以竞争法为中心分析[J].暨南学报(哲学社会科学版),2011,33(4)：65.
[60]参见孙永福,刘有厚,马社.欧盟商务政策指南[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：81.
[61]See Chapter Eight, Competition Policy and Consumer Protection, Revised Treaty of Chagua-ramas Establishing the Caribbean Community Including the Caricom Single Market and Economy.
[62]See article 173, Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas Establishing the Caribbean Community In-cluding the Caricom Single Market and Economy.
1631 Rafael A. Porrata-Doria, Jr. MERCOSUR:the common market of the southern cone[M]. Dur-ham, N.C.:Carolina Academic Press,2005:102-103.
[64]See Ibidpp.106-108.
[65]Article 40,2002 South African Customs Union Agreement.
[66]See article 41,2002 South African Customs Union Agreement.
[67]中美洲共同体成员中哥斯达黎加和巴拿马较早制定了自己的内国竞争法,其他成员内国竞争法的制定和机构设置处于初创阶段,更有甚者,如危地马拉即便其已经制定并实施了内国竞争法,但是国内各方势力对此的分歧依旧对立；并且,即使制定内国竞争法的成员国,也尚未就共同体竞争规则取得实质性的共识。See Claudia Schatan, Eugenio Rivera. Competition Policies in Emerging Economies:Lessons and Challenges from Central America and Mexico[M]. Ottawa:Springer,2008:178西非国家经济共同体(ECOWAS)的部分成员同时建立了西非经货同盟(WAEMU或UEMOA),因此,ECOWAS部分实现了共同竞争法,但是属于其自身的共同竞争法尚在讨论之中,目前尚未制定出被成员各方接受的草案,同时,由于ECOWAS有些成员经济处于极不发达状态,制定内国竞争法也存在困难。See ECOWAS-Regional Competition Policy Framework, available at http://www.ecowas.int/publications/en/actes_add_commerce/1.Regional_Competition_Policy_Fra mework-final-P.pdf.2011-05-20.
[68]See Michael Emerson. Andorra and the European Union[M]. New York:CEPS,2007:1.
[69]根据2008年的统计数据,安道尔和圣马力诺与欧盟的贸易额分别占欧盟出口总量的0.09%和0.02%。Raymond J. Ahearn. Europe's Preferential Trade Agreements:Status, Content, and Implications[R]. CRS Report for Congress, Congressional Research Service, March 2010:20.
[70]See Maher M. Dabbah. International and Comparative Competition Law[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2010:377.
[71]该表内容参阅以下文献资料整理编制。Maher M. Dabbah. International and Comparative Competition Law[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010:366-418; Robert Teh. Com-petition Provisions in Regional Trade agreement[A]. In:Antoni Estevadeordal, el et. Regional Rules in the Global Trading System[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2009:418-491.
[72]同上注。
[73][美]保罗.克鲁格曼,茅瑞斯.奥伯斯法尔德,海闻等译.国际经济学：理论与政策[M].上册.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2010：123.
[74]World Bank. Trade Blocs [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2000:37.
[75]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：67.
[1]Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, WT/L/127,7 February 1996.
[2]Contracting Parties Twenty-Seventh Session, Summing up by chairman, L/3641,8 December 1971,para.4(c).
[3]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Standard Format for Information on Regional Trade Agreements, WT/REG/W/6,15 August 1996; Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Standard Format for Information on Economic Integration Agreements on Services, WT/REG/W/14,6 May 1997.
[4]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on Procedures to Facilitate and Improve the Examination Process, WT/REG/W/9,9 October 1996, para.l 1.
[5]Section A:1, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, WT/L/671, Decision of 14 December 2006.
[6]See section B:3, Transparency Mechanism for Regional Trade Agreements, WT/L/671, Deci-sion of 14 December 2006.
[7]Paragraph 2, Annex Submission of Data by RTA Parties, Transparency Mechanism for Region-al Trade Agreements, WT/L/671, Decision of 14 December 2006.
[8]《第二十四条谅解》第二款规定,根据第二十四条第五款(a)项评估一关税同盟形成前后适用的关税和其他贸易法规的总体影响范围,应根据加权平均关税税率和实征的关税全面评估关税和费用。该评估应根据关税同盟提供的前一代表期的进口统计数据,细分至税号,列出价值和数量,并按WTO的原产国别进行分类。
[9]See John Ravenhill. Global Political Economy [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2008: 104.
[10]这种比较以地理空间上距离接近或者接壤的成员间建立的自由贸易区,交通运输成本与关税同盟较为接近,不至于因其他成本的上升而改变关税对贸易流向的影响。
[11]Anne O. Krueger. Free Trade Agreements versus Customs Unions[M]. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working paper series 5084, Seminar papers,1995.
[12]Peter Robson. Economics of International Integration[M].4th Edition. New York:Taylor & Francis Routledge,1998:26.
[13]See paragraph 2, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[11]例如,增值税是由商人支付的,但是最终的部分负担落到了商人货物或服务的消费者身上。同样,公司支付公司税,但是如果公司提价或者减薪来抵充部分或者全部的税收,就可能出现所谓的负担转换(shifted the incidence). Dictionary of Finance and Banking[M]. 4th Ed. New York:Oxford University Press,2008:219.
[15]参见傅道忠,姚凤民.财政学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2004：37.
[16]除了三个基本要素外,关税法律关系还涉及到其他一些要素,它们包括：征税标准、税目、税率、税则、国别标准、纳税环节、纳税期限、关税减免、罚则和申诉。参见岑维廉等.关税理论与中国关税制度[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2006：152.
[17]吴国新.国际贸易：理论·政策·实务[M].上海：上海交通大学出版社,2004：147.
[18]See David N. Hyman. Public Finance:A contemporary Application of Theory to Policy[M].9th Edition. Mason, Ohio:Thomson South-Western,2008:447.
[19]要理解税负转嫁,必须把握几点：(1)税负转嫁是和价格的升降直接联系的,而且价格的升降幅度会影响税负转嫁的程度。(2)税负转嫁是各经济主体之间税收负担的再分配,其结果必然导致纳税人与负税人的不一致。(3)税负转嫁是纳税人主动的行为倾向。因为课税是纳税人自身经济利益的损失,纳税人为减少自身经济利益的损失,必须千方百计地将税负转嫁给他人。傅道忠,姚凤民.财政学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2004：310.
[20]傅道忠,姚凤民.财政学[M].北京：中国财政经济出版社,2004：311.
[21]参见伟卜.国际贸易[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：181-182.
[22]Article ⅩⅩⅣ of GATT, Drafting history of the paragraphs relating to customs unions and free-trade areas, Notes Prepared by the Secretariat, W.12/18,7 November 1957, p.5.
[23]关税同盟并非对内完全取消成员间的关税壁垒,对于一些具有敏感性和特殊用途的货物依旧保持一定的关税,有的出于对各自环境、安全等因素的考虑,有的则是对经济欠发达成员的一种额外优惠或者出于产业扶持等目的。
[24]WTO在对关税同盟“总体影响范围”进行评估的过程中,加权平均关税的变化是通过同盟成员国别比较的方法确定的,例如,在CRTA在针对南非关税同盟关税约束水平进行前后比较时,分别对博茨瓦纳、莱索托、纳米比亚、南非和斯威士兰在2004年实施CET之前和嗣后的加权平均关税税率逐一对比。See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Southern African Customs Union, Weighted Average Tariff Rates and Customs Duties Collected, WT/REG231/1,3 October 2008, p.3.
[25]Article 23, The Treaty Establishing the European Community(1957).
[26]See article 26, The Treaty Establishing the European Community(1957).
[27]See article 24, The Treaty Establishing the European Community(1957).
[28]清单G所列按布鲁塞尔税则编号共计包括70大类商品,其中包括了作为日常生活必需品的鱼类及其制品、乳酪、面粉、食用油脂、可可制品、咖啡和茶及其制品、酒精饮料、各类盐及其原材料等；包括了铅锌、铁、铝镁在内的所有天然金属、石油及其制品、木材及其制品等；同时,还将汽车、飞行器和轮船及其配件也纳入此清单中。See List G, Annex I-List referred to in Article 32 of the Treaty, The Treaty Establishing the European Communi-ty(1957).
[29]1957年GATT专门成立的罗马条约委员会审查《欧洲经济共同体条约》(罗马条约)并起草报告,委员会讨论的议题包括：关税、数量限制的使用、农产品贸易、计划和时间表及海外国家及领土与欧洲共同市场的联系,分别由4个分委员会(sub-group)审议。
[30]Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778,29 November 1957, para.8.
[31]Ibid. para.9.
[32]Ibid.para.10.
[33]See Ibid, para.11.
[34]“罗马条约”第十三条至第二十七条均未被1997年《阿姆斯特丹条约》所继受。
[35]1992年6月为了达到亚松森条约所确立的目标,MERCOSUR四国首脑峰会在阿根廷的拉斯莱尼亚斯召开,会议作出了十项决定促进向共同市场过渡,并对1995年后的共同市场作了规划,上述决定和计划于同年11月的蒙特维地欧峰会获得通过。See Gary Clyde Huf-bauer, Jeffrey J. Schott. Western Hemisphere Economic Integration[M]. Washington, DC:Peter-son Institute,1994:106.
[36]Paragraph 6, Las Lenas Timetable was adopted by Communique of the Third Summit of the MERCOSUR's Heads of State in July 1992, CCM Dec. No 1/92.
[37]See Summary Fact Sheet, MERCOSUR (GOODS), Updated with information submitted up to the conclusion of the examination in April-May 2006, available at http://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowRTAIDCard.aspx?rtaid=130.2010-06-06.
[38]See article 1, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (1910), available at http://www.sacu.int/main.php?include=docs/legislation/1910-agreement.html.2011-06-10.
[39]See paragraph 2, article 1, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (1910).
[40]See article 6, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (1969), available at http://www.sacu.int/main.php?id=467.2011-06-10.
[41]SACUA(2002)继受了SACUA(1969)有关同盟内欠发达国家通过进口附加税保护幼稚工业的基本规定,SACUA(2002)第二十六条有关幼稚工业的关税保护与SACUA(1969)第六条新兴工业的关税保护基本一致。
[42]See Soamiely Andriamananjara. Customs Unions[M]. In:Jean-Pierre Chauffour, Jean-Christophe Maur. Preferential Trade Agreement Policies for Development:A Handbook[M]. Washington, D.C.:World Bank,2011:117.
[43]Gerard McLinden, Enrique Fanta, David Widdowson, Tom Doyle. Border Management Mod-ernization[M]. Washington D. C.:World Bank Publications,2010:231.
[44]Massimo Fabio. Customs Law of the European Union[M].2nd Edition. Austin:Wolters Kluwer, 2010:1-17
[45]See article 48, Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)1993 Revised Treaty.
[46]南非关税同盟共同关税分配的法律依据可参见,Part 6, Part 7,2002 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement,及其Annex A.
[47]See article XXIV (5), General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[48]See article II, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[49]张哲.从欧盟扩大看GATT/WTO关于关税同盟补偿谈判的规定与实践[J].世界贸易组织动态与研究,2004,(11)：177.
[50]Paragraph 6, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[51]Paragraph 1, article XXVIII, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[52]Paragraph 2, article XXVIII, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[53]See paragraph 6, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[54]Paragraph 4, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[55]See note 4 to paragraph 1, Ad Article XXVIII, Annex 1, Notes And Supplementary Provisions, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[56]See note 5 to paragraph 1, Ad Article XXVIII, Annex 1, Notes And Supplementary Provisions, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[57]Note 7 to paragraph 1, Ad Article XXVIII, Annex 1, Notes And Supplementary Provisions, General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[58]张哲.从欧盟扩大看GATT/WTO关于关税同盟补偿谈判的规定与实践[J].世界贸易组织动态与研究,2004,(11)：179.
[59]Procedures for Negotiations under Article XXVIII, Guidelines Proposed by the Committee on Tariff Concessions, C/113,5 November 1980.
[60]See Procedures for Negotiations under Article XXVIII, Guidelines Proposed by the Committee on Tariff Concessions, C/113,5 November 1980, para.2.
[61]See Procedures for Negotiations under Article XXVIII, Guidelines Proposed by the Committee on Tariff Concessions, C/113,5 November 1980, para.4.
[62]Ibid
[63]Ibid. para.5-6.
[64]Paragraph 5, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[65]See European Economic Community, Transmission of the Customs Tariff of the Community, L/1153,25 February 1960.
[66]EEC代表在缔约国全体会议上就所提供的数据内容进行了说明。See European Economic Community, Statement by the Representative of the Commission of the EEC at the Plenary Meet-ing, L/1372,18 November 1960.
[67]See Examination of the Common Tariff of the European Economic Community under Article XXIV:5(a), Note by the Chairman of the Contracting Parties, L/1377,18 November 1960.
[68]尽管同美国等主要贸易伙伴达成了补偿性调整的双边协议,但并没有满足所有缔约方的要求,例如,EEC没能与巴西和尼日利亚达成协议。奥地利、捷克斯洛伐克、瑞典和瑞士对补偿表示不完全满意,并保留根据第二十八条第三款实施报复性撤回减让的权利。EEC对此却认为补偿是充分的,如果对方一定要撤回那EEC成员也将保留对等的撤回权利。See Anwarul Hoda. Tariff Negotiations and Renegotiations Under the GATT and the WTO: procedures and practices [M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2002:101.
[69]See Report Submitted by the Committee on the Rome Treaty to the Contracting Parties, L/778, 29 November 1957.
[70]See GATT, Negotiations Under the Provisions of Article XXIV:6:Communication from the Commission of the European Communities, document TAR/16 dated 20 May 1981.
[71]Schedule XLV-Spain, Invocation of Paragraph 5 of Article XXVIII, L/4775,8 February 1979.
1721 See Fourth Certification of Changes to Schedules, Schedule XLV-Spain, L/4697,13 Septem-ber 1978; Fifth Certification of Changes to Schedules, Schedule XLV-Spain [Addendum], L/4697/Add.1,4 February 1980.
[73]See Enlargement of the European Economic Community, Accession of Portugal and Spain, Submission of Documentation [Addendum], L/5936/Add.4,8 July 1986.
[74]See Accession of Portugal and Spain to the European Communities, Communication from the Delegation of the United States, L/6172,25 May 1987.
[75]Accession of Portugal and Spain to the European Communities, Questions and Replies, L/5984, 18 June 1986, p.8.
[76]See paragraph 4, Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXVIII of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994.
[77]See Report of the Panel, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/R,31 May 1999, para.9.148.
[78]Report of the Panel, Turkey-Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products, WT/DS34/R,31 May 1999, para.9.151.
[79]Ibid
[80]Ibid
[81]See Andrew D. Mitchell, Nicolas J.S. Lockhart. Legal Requiremnets for PTAs under the WTO[A]. In:Simon Lester, Bryan Mercurio, Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements:commen-tary and analysis[M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2009:103-104.
[82]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Systemic Issues Related to "Other Regulations of Commerce":Background Note by the Secretariat (Revision), WT/REG/W/17/Rev.l,5 February 1998, para.10.
[83]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Systemic Issues Related to "Other Regulations of Commerce":Background Note by the Secretariat (Revision), WT/REG/W/17/Rev.l,5 February 1998,para.11.
[84]See List of annex 1 A, Multilateral Agreements on Trade in Goods, available at http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm.2011-06-25.
[85]“《补贴与反补贴措施协定》是乌拉圭回合达成的多边贸易协定,它总体上取代了关贸总协定第六条和第十六条的规则。”赵维田.世贸组织(WTO)的法律制度[M].长春：吉林人民出版社,2000：321.
[86]此处仅讨论贸易救济措施的经济意义,理论上,实施贸易救济措施有经济和政治两种主要的出发点。参见[美]约翰·H·杰克逊,张乃根译.世界贸易体制：国际经济关系的法律与政策[M].上海：复旦大学出版社,2001：196-199.
[87]Vivian C. Jones. Trade Remedies and the WTO Rules Negotiations[R]. Congressional Re-search Service, CRS Report for Congress, June 7,2010:9, available at www.crs.gov.
[88]邵景春.欧洲联盟的法律与制度[M].北京：人民法院出版社,1999：56.
[89]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, European Com-munities, WT/TPR/S/214,2 March 2009, p.51.
[90]See article 7, The Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Principali-ty of Andorra, OJ N° L 374 of 31.12.1990.
[91]See article 10, The Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Principal-ity of Andorra, OJ N° L 374 of 31.12.1990.
[92]See article 7, Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 84/45,28 March 2002.
[93]See article 12, Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Econom-ic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 84/45,28 March 2002.
[94]See article 3, Acts Adopted By Bodies Created By International Agreements, Omnibus Deci-sion No 1/2010 of the Eu-San Marino Cooperation Committee of 29 March 2010, Official Journal of the European Union L 156/13,23 June 2010.
[95]David A. Gantz. Regional Trade Agreements:law, policy and practice[M]. Durham, N.C.:Carolina Academic Press,2009:372.
[96]Thomas Andrew O'Keefe. Latin American and Caribbean Trade Agreements:keys to a pros-perous community of the Americas[M]. Leiden:Brill,2009:191.
[97]See WTO Trade Policy Review Division, Mercosur:Objectives and Achievements, Staff Working Paper TPRD9702.WPF,23 June 1997, pp.16-17.
[98]《关于针对南方共同市场非成员国的进口保障措施适用共同条例》(Common Regula-tion on the Application of Safeguard Measures to Imports From Non-MERCOSUR, CMC/Dec.no.017/1996)在成员签署生效之后,正值阿根廷面临国内经济困难,为此阿根廷想南方市场理事会提出申请,要求延长其过渡期至1999年12月并被获准。See WTO, Dis-pute Settlement Reports 2000:Volume 2, Pages 573-1185[M]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2002:620-621.
[99]See Thomas Andrew O'Keefe. Latin American and Caribbean Trade Agreements:keys to a prosperous community of the Americas[M]. Leiden:Brill,2009:185-189.
[100]Trade policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Brazil, WT/TPR/S/212,2 February 2009, p.22.
[101]See article 24(1), Protocol on the Establishment of the East African Customs Union (2004).
[102]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, East African Community, WT/TPR/S/171,20 September 2006, pp.23-24.
[103]Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Southern African Customs Union,30 September 2009, WT/TPR/S/222, p.27.
[104]WTO, Notification of Laws and Regulations Under articles 18.5 and 32.6 of the Agreements G/ADP/N/1/ZAF/2, G/SCM/N/1/ZAF/2,20 January 2004, pp.46-48.
[105]See article 11, South African Customs Union Agreement (2002).
[106]Trade policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, Southern African Customs Union,30 September 2009, WT/TPR/S/222, p.viii.
[107]张庆麟.世界贸易组织原产地规则协定详解[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社,2006：7.
[108]Paragraph 1, article 1, Agreement on Rules of Origin.
[109]Article 2, Annex II:Common Declaration with Regard to Preferential Rules of Origin, Agreement on Rules of Origin.
[110]参见张庆麟.世界贸易组织原产地规则协定详解[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社, 2006：9.
[111]Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Rules of Origin Regimes in Regional Trade Agreements:Background survey by the Secretariat, WT/REG/W/45,5 April 2002, para.A.3.
[112]WTO, Compendium of Issues Related to Regional Trade Agreement, TN/RL/W/8/Rev.1,1 August 2002, para.78.
[113]Kala Krishna, Anne Krueger. Implementing Free Trade Areas:Rules of Origin and Hidden Protection[M]. NBER Working Paper No.4983,14 January 2000:1.
[114]See Patricia Augier, el et. The Impact of Rules of Origin on Trade Flows[J]. Economic Policy, 2005, Vol.20(Issue 43):576.
[115]厉力,刘平,郑冬阳.原产地规则研究：原理与实践[M].北京：法律出版社,2011：10.
[116]参见孟国碧.论优惠性货物原产地规则的双刃剑效应——兼及中国的实践[J].河北法学,2009,(4)：105.
[117]同上注
[118]本表数据参阅以下文献,Massimo Fabio. Customs Law of the European Union[M]. New York:Wolters Kluwer.2010, Chapter 3:1-27; Antoni Estevadeordal, Kati Suominen. Mapping and Measuring Rules of Origin around the world[M]. In:Olivier Cadot, et al. The Origin of Goods: rules of origin in regional trade agreements [M]. New York:Oxford University Press,2006:88.
[119]欧盟一贯重视对制度型原产地规则的使用,早在1992年《共同体海关法典》生效之前,已经累计制定了将近十数种制度型原产地规则。See Edwin Vermulst, Paul Waer. Euro-pean Community Rules of Origin as Commercial Policy Instruments [J]. Journal of World Trade, 1990,24(3):55-99.
[120]WTO所规制的关税同盟中,目前只有欧盟对成员间“实质上所有贸易”取消关税和其他限制性贸易法规,而其余关税同盟则将“实质上所有贸易”限定于原产于同盟成员的范围内,因此,欧盟对斜边积累的宽容度要远高于其他关税同盟,适用范围也在不断扩大。See Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Report by the Secretariat, European Union, Revision, WT/TPR/S/248/Rev.1,1 August 2011, p.33.
[121]参见南方共同市场汽车关税新动向[J].世界机电经贸信息,1999,(6).
[122]张庆麟.世界贸易组织原产地规则协定详解[M].长沙：湖南科学技术出版社,2006：197.
[1]J. G. Merrills. International Disputes Settlement[M].4th Ed. New York:Cambridge University Press,2005:279.
[2]该表的制作参考了以下法律文件,其中法语版本通过电子翻译软件转换为英语后参阅,The Treaty on European Union (1992); Charter of The Organization Central States (1962); Proto-col of Tegucigalpa to the Charter of the Organization of States Central America (2002); Treaty Creating the Court of Justice of the Cartagena Agreement (1996); Revised Treaty of Chaguarmas Establishing the Caribbean Community Including the Caricom Single Market and Economy (2001); Traite Instituant La Communaute Economique Et Monetaire De L'afrique Centrale (1991); Treaty of Establishing the West African Economic and Monetary Union (2004); Economic Com-munity of West African States (Ecowas) Revised Treaty (1993); The Treaty for Establishment of the East African Community (2007); The Treaty on the Establishment of Eurasian Economic Community (2000); Protocol of Ouro Preto Regarding the Institutional Structure Of Mercosur (1994); Olivos Protocol for the Solution of Controversies (2007); The Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Principality of Andorra (1990); Agreement on Coopera-tion and Customs Union between the European Economic Community and The Republic of San Marino (2002); Decision No 1/95 Of the EC-Turkey Association Council Of 22 December 1995 On Implementing The Final Phase Of The Customs Union(1995); Southern African Customs Un-ion (SACU) Agreement (2002); The Treaty establishing Common Market of East and Southern Africa (1993).
[3]1907年,在华盛顿召开的中美洲和平会议上,哥斯达黎加、萨尔瓦多、危地马拉、洪都拉斯和尼加拉瓜签署议定书,这不仅符合邻国间很为互助的时代大潮流,也是一项政策的直接结果,这项政策不断导致类似的会议召开,增进了中美洲国家更完全的合作。James Brown Scott. The Central American Peace Conference of 1907 The American Journal of Interna-tional Law,1908, Vol.2(1):121-143.“中美洲国家把维护和平作为国家间相互关系的第一要务。缔约国将尽最大努力进行协调,并通过有本次大会为解决争端而即日创设的中美洲法院,来解决缔约国之间可能出现的任何性质的争论和困难。" Article 1, General Treaty of Peace and Amity(1907).
[4]See article 253, Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.
[5]See Ali El-Agraa, Brian Ardy. The European Union:Economics and Policies[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,2011:59.
[6]参见刘世元.欧洲法院的管辖权及其在欧洲一体化进程中的作用[J].法学评论,1999,(4)： 25-27.
[7]See Gaston Schul Douane Expediteur BV v.Inspecteur der Invoerrechten en Accijnzen, Roo-sendaal, Case 15/81, [1982] ECR 1409, para.26.
[8]共同市场集团(CMG)由四名各个成员国指派的代表组成,这些代表来自经济、外交或金融管理部门,负责监督《亚松森条约》的执行,对理事会提出建议和确保理事会决定的,同时,负责对共同市场其他机构的提议给予分析并作出建议。See, article 14, Protocol of Puro Preto Regarding the Institutional Structure of MERCUSUR, December 17,1994.
[9]See article 7-9, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No.01/91.
[101 Article 25, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No. 01/91.
[11]Article 27-28, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No.01/91.
[12]Article 32, Protocol of Brasilia for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/DecNo. 01/91.
[13]Colonia Protocol for the Reciprocal Promotion and Protection of Investments in MERCOSUR, MERCOSUR/CMC/Dec No.11/93.
[14]Customs Code of MERCOSUR, Dec.16,2004, Council dec.25/94.
[15]Protocol for the Defense of Competition in MERCOSUR, MERCOSUR/CMC/Dec No.18/96.
[16]Montevideo Protocol regarding the Trade in Services, MERCOSUR/CMC/Dec No.13/97.
[17]See article 23, article 26, article 29, Olivos Protocol for the Solution of Controversies, MERCOSUR/CMD/Dec No.18/02.
[18]Opinion Consultiva N°01/2009:Court of First Instance in the 2d Civil Turn-Autos:Frigorifi-co Centenario S.A. v. Ministry of Economy and Finance and others. Monies owed., IUE:2-43923/2007, available in Spanish at http://www.tprmercosur.org/es/docum/opin/OpinCon01_2009_es.pdf (last visited July 10,2010)(注：西班牙语文本通过电子翻译工具转换成英文文本引用)
[19]Article 13,2002 Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement
[20]See article 13.2, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[21]See article 13.4, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[22]Panel report, European Community-Tariff Treatment on Imports of Citrus Products from Cer-tain Countries in the Mediterranean Region,7 February 1985, L/5776, para.4.15.
[23]David A. Gantz. Regional Trade Agreements:law, policy and practice[M]. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press,2009:45.
[24]Understanding on the Interpretation of Article XXIV of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994, para.12.
[25]Paragraph 1, article 23, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dis-putes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[26]See paragraph 2, article 1, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[27]根据该条款规定的内容,成员方在对违反、取消或损害各有关协议所规定利益的行为或对实现各有关协议的任何目标设置障碍的行为作出补偿时,诉诸于DSB程序,也就意味着除非发生争端并提交DSB启动争端解决程序,否则在协定实施过程中的解释问题并不在DSB所辖范围内。See Paragraph 1, article 23, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Govern-ing the Settlement of Disputes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[28]Paragraph 1, article 133, Consolideted Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Com-munity, Official Journal of the European Communities, C 325/33,24 December 2002.
[29]Article.42(1), Treaty Creating the Court of Justice of the Andean Community.
[30]See article 22, Convention on the Statute of the Central American Court of Justice.
[31]Article XXI, Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice (2001).
[32]See article 24, Agreement Establishing the Caribbean Court of Justice.
[33]加勒比法院经过审理认为,尽管加勒比法院是圭亚那的最终上诉法院,上诉人有权将涉及宪法事务的事项向加勒比法院提起上诉,但是由于上诉人已经超过上诉时限,因此不能得到法院的支持。See Brent Griffith v. Guyana Revenue Authority, Attorney General of Guyana, Judegment of the Caribbean Court of Justice, No.1,2006, para.11.
[34]See aticle 23, Treaty for the Establishment of the East African Community as amended on 14th December,2006 and 20th August,2007.
[35]参见张文显.法律文化的释义[J].法学研究,1992,(5)：10.
[36]See article 24, Agreement on Cooperation and Customs Union between the European Econom-ic Community and the Republic of San Marino, Official Journal of the European Communities, L 84/45,28 March 2002.
[37]欧共体-安道尔关税同盟的争端解决机制和欧盟-圣马力诺关税同盟的内容几乎完全一致,唯一的差别在于行政机构的名称不同,欧共体-安道尔关税同盟的行政机构为联合委员会(the Joint Committee). See article 18, Agreement between the European Economic Com-munity and the Principality of Andorra.
[38]欧共体-土耳其关税同盟争端解决以关税同盟联合理事会磋商作为前置程序(the Asso-ciation Council). See article 61, Decision No 1/95 of the EC-Turkey Association Council of 22 December 1995 on implementing the final phase of the Customs Union (96/142/EC).
[39]See article 62.3, Decision No 1/95 of the EC-Turkey Association Council of 22 December 1995 on implementing the final phase of the Customs Union (96/142/EC).
[40]See article 13.1, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[41]See article 8, Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement (2002).
[42]See article 27, The Economic Agreement Between the GCC States(2001).
[43]谷口安平,胡加祥,尹楠楠.从程序角度看WTO的争端解决[J].比较法研究,2011,(1)：153.
[441 Paragraph 6, aritle 8, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dis-putes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[45]杨国华,李泳箑,纪文华,于宁,蒋成华.WTO争端解决机制中的专家组程序研究(上)[J].法学评论,2004,(3)：81.
[46]Paragraph 7, aritle 8, Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Dis-putes, Annex 2 of the WTO Agreement.
[47]Appellate Body, Annual report for 2010, WT/AB/15,18 July 2011, p.5.
[48]See article 7, Brasilia Protocol of Settlement of Disputes, Decisions of the Common Market Council Mercosur/CMD/DEC No.01/91.
[49]See Ricardo Olivera Garcia. Dispute Resolution Regulation and Experiences in MERCOSUR: The Recent Olivos Protocol[J]. Law and Business Review of the Americas,2002, Vol.8(4):544-545.
[50]See article 17, Olivos Protocol for the Settlement of Disputes in the Mercosur.
[51]Article 22, Olivos Protocol for the Settlement of Disputes in the Mercosur.
[52]肖建华,乔欣.仲裁法学[M].北京：人民出版社,2004：201.
[53]Paragraph 2, article 1, Olivos Protocol for the Settlement of Disputes in the Mercosur.
[54]该表参阅以下文献资料和来源整理制作。Amelia Porges. Dispute Settlement[A]. In:Jean-Pierre Chauffour, Jean-Christophe Maur. Preferential Trade Agreement Policies for Development: A Handbook[M]. Washington, D.C.:World Bank,2011:495-496; Welber Barral. The Brazilian Experience in Dispute Settlement[J]. New York:United Nations,2007; http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_by_country_e.htm,2011-11-30.
[1]张茂明.欧盟共同体外交与安全政策与中国—欧盟关系[M].北京：法律出版社,2002：34.
[2]田烨.欧洲一体化：区域民族主义与国家民族主义的交织[J].世界民族,2011,(2)：8.
[3][法]让·莫内.欧洲第一公民——让·莫内回忆录[M].成都：成都出版社,1993：467.
[4]龙远明.欧盟东扩的“贸易创造”和“贸易转移”效应[J].江苏商论,2005,(7)：84.
[5]伍贻康.理想、现实与前景：欧洲经济共同体三十年[M].上海：复旦大学出版社,1988：72.
[6]李世安.欧洲一体化史[M].石家庄：河北人民出版社,2003：83.
[7]宋新宁.国际政治学概论[M].北京：中国人民大学出版社,2001：109.
[8]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：67.
[9]钱运春.论欧洲一体化过程中的公平与效率[J].欧洲研究,2005,(4)：71.
[10]参见刘颖,邓瑞平.国际经济法[M].北京：中信出版社,2003：86.
[11]程琥.全球化与国家主权：比较分析[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2003：248.
[12]第一类,对软小麦、大麦、黑麦、玉米、大米、糖、奶制品、肉类、部分水果和蔬 菜、部分酒类等实行全面的价格支持和市场干预,并进行外贸保护,这类农产品约占所有农产品的70%；第二类,对不在第一类组织中的水果和蔬菜,另外一些酒类以及花卉、鸡蛋和家禽等非大宗食品,共同市场组织为防止外来产品的冲击,实行税收保护,这些产品在共同体内部的价格,允许自由浮动,这类农产品约占所有农产品的21%—25%；第三类,对硬小麦、橄榄油、油菜籽、葵花籽、烟草、棉花等共同体需要大宗进口的产品,为了鼓励共同体农民的生产,共同市场组织对这些产品提供直接补助,这类农产品约占所有农产品的2.5%；第四类,对棉籽、亚麻、大麻、啤酒花、蚕、种子以及脱水粗饲料等,为了支持这些产品的生产,共同市场组织根据统一标准,按照种植面积和产量给予援助和补贴。参见高铁生,张旭宏.欧洲统一市场建设经验及启示[J].中国商贸,1997,(1)：28.
[13]徐盛华,章征文.新编国际贸易学[M].北京：清华大学出版社,2006：113.
[14]参见苑倚曼.共同农业政策的演进[A].见：苏宏达.欧洲联盟的历史发展与理论辩论[M].台北：国立台湾大学出版中心,2011：382-384.
[15]See Huib Silvis, Roel Jongeneel. The Reforms of the Common Agricultural Policy [A]. In: Miroslav N. Jovanovic. International Handbook on the Economics of Integration, Volume III: Factor Mobility, Agriculture, Environment and Quantitative Studies [M]. Northampton:Edward Elgar Publishing,2011:209.
[16]从财政支出比例可以看出欧共体对农业产业的支持程度：1970年代,农业基金占共同体预算总开支的比例高达70%以上；1980年代平均占66%；1990年代虽有所下降,但仍占57%。参见伍贻康.三足鼎立?全球竞争体系中的欧美亚太经济区[M].北京：高等教育出版社,2001：33.
[17]朱贵昌,胡瑾.欧洲一体化与国家主权转让[J].山东大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2001,(2)：94.
[18]法国的戴高乐政府对欧洲一体化的蓝图另有一番认识,法国主张一个基于民族国家主体地位和民族身份意识的国家问联合的欧洲,有别于建立超国家的联邦或邦联的理想目标。参见胡谨,宋全成.欧洲早期一体化思想与实践研究[M].济南：山东人民出版社,2001：216.
[19]“辅从性原则”由《马斯特里赫特条约》创设,旨在修改《罗马条约》第三条,对共同体和成员国的权力进行划分,规定共同体在非专属的管辖问题上,应当根据辅从性原则采取行动,只有并在拟采取行动的目标范围内,成员国无力充分实现,以拟采取行动的适度或效果为由,由共同体行使效果更好的情况下,才能由共同体来实施。See article G, Provisions Amending the Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community with a View to Establishing the European Community, Official Journal C/191,29 July 1992.
[20]戴炳然.欧洲一体化中的国家主权问题——对一个特例的思索[J].复旦学报(社会科学版),1998,(1)：40.
[21]易善武.欧洲一体化中国家主权让渡现象和特征研究[J].甘肃农业,2006,(3)：175.
[22]张海冰.欧洲一体化制度研究[M].上海：上海社会科学院出版社,2005：78.
[23]参见李道刚.论欧共体法在成员国中的直接适用[J].山东社会科学,2002,(2)：96-98.
[24]欧洲议会的重要职责之一就是掌管欧盟的钱袋子,欧洲议会设有专门的预算委员会和预算监督机构委员会,对成员国财政预算政策的制定、协调、监督和惩罚做出了规定,加强了对于财政权的协同监控,形成了欧盟财政预算政策的总体构架。参见周长鲜.欧洲议会财政预算决定权的跨机构合作机制及其启示[J].新视野,2011,(4)：94-96.
[25]郇庆治.多重管治视角下的欧洲联盟政治[M].济南：山东人民出版社,2002：206.
[26]周弘,沈雁南.欧洲蓝皮书：2000-2001年欧洲发展报告[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2002：36.
[27]方岩.欧洲一体化背景下的法律统一之路[J].前沿,2011,(22)：81.
[28]先予裁决制度法律渊源是欧洲共同体的三个基础条约,即《欧洲煤钢共同体条约》《欧洲原子能共同体条约》及《欧洲共同体条约》,除《欧洲共同体条约》第一百七十七条外,《欧洲原子能共同体条约》第一百五十条及《欧洲煤钢共同体条约》第四十一条也对先予裁决制度作了规定。由以上这些条款可以看出,先予裁决中的“先予”,是相对于成员国法院对案件最后作出的判决而言的,同时它也表明,在提请先予裁决案件中,成员国法院对案件的判决是以欧洲法院的裁决为先决条件的。这里的“裁决”也不是司法判决,而是欧洲法院以裁决形式作出的法律解释。参见韩燕煦.欧洲联盟先予裁决制度初探[J].法学家,2000,(5)：123-124.
[29][英]弗兰西斯·斯奈德,宋英编译.欧洲联盟法概论[M].北京：北京大学出版社,1996：4.
[30]See Council regulation (EEC) No 459/68, Official Journal L93/1,5 April 1968.
[31]See paragraphl, article 21, Council Regulation (EC) No 1225/2009 on protection against dumped imports from counties not members of the European Community (condified version), L343/51,30 November 2009.
[32]参见罗英杰.利益与矛盾—冷战后俄罗斯与欧盟关系研究[M].北京：世界知识出版社,2009：92-94.
[33]参见张业亮.论欧盟东扩及其对欧洲一体化的影响[J].世界经济与政治论坛,1998,(4)：17-22.
[34]See Elspeth Guild. The European Agreements:The Right to establishment in the Central and Eastern European Agreements [A]. In:Elspeth Guild. The Legal Framework and Social Conse-quences of Free Movement of Persons in the European Union [M]. The Hague, the Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1999:127.
[35]See David Phinnemore. Association, Stepping-stone or Alternative to EU Membership? [M]. Sheffield:Continuum International Publishing Group,1999:57.
[36]张业亮.论欧盟东扩及其对欧洲一体化的影响[J].世界经济与政治论坛,1998,(4)：18.
[37]See paragraph 1, article 6, Act Concerning the Conditions of Accession of the Czech Republic, the Republic of Estonia, the Republic of Cyprus, the Republic of Latvia, the Republic of Lithuania, the Republic of Hungary, the Republic of Malta, the Republic of Poland, the Republic of Slovenia and the Slovak Republic and The Adjustments to the Treaties on which the European Union is Founded, AA2003/ACT/en.
[38]See paragraph 10, article 6, Act Concerning the Conditions of Accession, AA2003/ACT/en.
[37]张淑静.东扩对欧盟外贸的影响[J].国际经济合作,2005,(11)：61.
[40]参见肖海峰.欧盟东扩对欧盟农业的影响[J].世界农业,2001,(12)：7.
[41]See Robert Ackrill. The Common Agricultural Policy[M]. Sheffield:Continnuum International Publishing Group,2000:132.
[42]Pierre Bascou. Policy Reform and Adjustment in the European Union:Changes in the Com-mon Agricultural Policy and Enlargement [A]. In:David Blandford, Berkeley Hill. Policy Reform and Adjustment in the Agricultural Sectors of Developed Countries [M]. Oxfordshire:CAB Inter-national,2006:56.
[43]Supawat Rungsuriyawiboon, Alexej Lissitsa. Agricultural Producitivity Growth in the Euro-pean Union and Transition Countries [A]. In:Frank Fuller, John Christopher Beghin. European Agriculture:Enlargement, Structural Change, CAP Reform, and Trade Liberalization [M]. New York:Nova Publishers,2007:19.
[44][德]格雷贝道尔夫,齐楚译.拉丁美洲向何处去[M].北京：时事出版社,1985：137.
[45]乌拉圭和巴拉圭对巴西、阿根廷的不满甚至导致1994年乌拉圭一度退出南方共同市场关税谈判。参见方幼封.论南方共同市场的成就和问题[J].拉丁美洲研究,1995,(1)：40.
[46]See Alejandra Ruiz-Dana, Peter Goldschagg, Edmundo Claro, Hernan Blanco. Regional Inte-gration, Trade and Conflict in Latin America[A]. Shaheen Rafi Khan. Regional Trade Integration and Conflict Resolution [M]. New York:Taylor & Francis,2009:15-41.
[47]恩里克·伊格莱西亚斯,高静.拉丁美洲从金融危机中吸取的惨痛教训[J].拉丁美洲研究,2005,(3)：3.
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[50]1998年,拉美7个地区大国的资金流入突然中断,与国内债务杠杆作用的减弱和信贷的急剧减少同时发生。同时还造成经常账户的赤字相应减少和货币相应的实际贬值。其结 果是,它们的年均GDP增长率从危机前的7%下降到危机后的负2%。恩里克·伊格莱西亚斯,高静.拉丁美洲从金融危机中吸取的惨痛教训[J].拉丁美洲研究,2005,(3)：3.
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[73]Adama Bah, S. Jules-Armand Tapsoba. Civil Conflicts and Regional Economic Integration Outcomes in Africa, Document de travail de la serie, CERDI, Etudes et Documents, E 2010.09:3.
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[76]非洲国家在历史上曾经通过国有贸易企业控制对外贸易,在大部分外贸领域政府控制的国有贸易企业,有时这种经济模式可以更有效地履行经济一体化承诺,但有时却会造成市场竞争的扭曲。See Dharam P. Ghai, State Trading and Regional Economic Integration:The East African Experience[R], Discussion Paper No.145, presented at the 1972 Study Seminar held at Kampala,1972:9.
[77]马国强.税收学原理[M].北京：中国财经经济出版社,1991：32-37.
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[80]UNCTAD. Economic Development in Africa Report 2009:Strengthening Regional Economic Intergration for Africa's Development[M]. New York and Geneva,2009:21. available at www.unctad.org/en/docs/aldcafrica2009_en.pdf.2011-10-30.
[81]See Report by the Secretariat, Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Benin, Burki-na Faso and Mali, WT/TPR/S/236/Rev.1,22 November 2010, para.3.
[82]例如,咖啡(1%-12%),椰子(10%-30%),面粉 (1%-5%),食用油脂(1%-15%),茶叶(1%-12%),see, Report by the Secretariat, Trade Policy Review Body, Trade Policy Review, Benin, Burkina Faso and Mali, WT/TPR/S/236/Rev.l,22 November 2010, para.76.
[83]UNECA. Assessing Regional Integration in Africa III:Towards Monetary and Financial Inte-gration in Africa[M]. Addis Ababa:ECA,2008:32.
[84]Soumana Sako. Chanlleges Facing Africa's Regional Economic Communities in Capacity Building[M]. Harare:The African Capacity Building Foundation,2006:4.
[85]在取消了贸易壁垒和放松人员流动的限制之后,由于弱小国家在政治、社会和经济等方面的管理能力的局限性,导致投资和人才向强国流动的趋势,整体上未必能从一体化中获益。See Paul Collier. The Bottom Billion:Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done About It[M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2007:64-69.
[86]See article 4, Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community.
[87]UNCTAD. Economic Development in Africa Report 2009:Strengthening Regional Economic Intergration for Africa's Development[M]. New York and Geneva,2009:11. available at www.unctad.org/en/docs/aldcafrica2009_en.pdf.2011-10-30.
[88]UNECA. Assessing Regional Integration in Africa I[M]. Addis Ababa:ECA,2004:41.
[89]http://www.agoa.gov/.2012-01-29.
[90]冷战结束后,处于历史上日本与非洲较少的联系,通过发起TICAD加强同非洲的对话与合作,TICAD具有双重目标,即促进非洲领导人及其伙伴国的政治对话,及动员对非洲自身发展计划的支持。See http://www.ticad.net/about.shtml.2011-08-09
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[101]Ibid p.122.
[102][英]詹宁斯,瓦茨,王铁崖等译.奥本海国际法[M].第一卷第一分册.北京：中国大百科全书出版社,1995：6.
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[104]2008年8月,根据国际法院2002年的裁决,尼日利亚正式将领土争议持续达15年之久的Bakassi半岛移交给喀麦隆,该岛蕴藏着丰富的油气资源和渔业资源。尼日利亚对国际法院裁决的尊重表现出来其作为西非区域性大国正在走向成熟,给该区域内存在的资源领土争端的解决提供了示范作用。2011年11月,联合国秘书长潘基文祝贺喀麦隆和尼日利亚在实施国际法院裁决中取得的进展,认为该进程成功维护了民主。See http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=40486&Cr=cameroon&Crl=.2012-02-02.
[105]Robert E. Hudec. Developing Countries in the GATT Legal System[M]. Aldershot, Hampsire: Gower Publishing Company Limited,1987:13.
[106]张汉林.WTO主要成员贸易政策体系与对策研究[M].北京：经济科学出版社,2009：65-81.
[107]See, Thomas O'Keefe. The Chile-MERCOSUR Free Trade Agreement-Effects on Foreign Direct Investment in the Southern Cone[J] Latin American Law & Business Report,1996, (8):4.
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[109]据南非商业日报报道,在上周举行的南非—巴西商务论坛上,巴西外贸工业发展部副部长Ivan Ramalho敦促南非尽快签署协议加入南非共同市场(Mercosur).信息来自商务部,http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/k/201007/20100707020544.html. 2012-01-12.
[110]See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Accession of the Kyrgyz Republic to the Cus-toms Union between the Russian Federation, Belarus and Kazakhstan, Notification from the Kyr-gyz Republic, WT/REG71/N/1,21 April 1999.
See Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Customs Union between the Kyrgyz Republic, the Russian Federation, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan, WT/REG71/7,23 February 2001.
[112]俄罗斯联邦驻WTO谈判代表在2009年作为观察员的发言,WT/MIN(09)/ST/128
[113]http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2011-10/19/c_122177303.htm.2012-02-03
[114]曾宪植.国际贸易与国际金融[M].北京：经济科学出版社,1997：105.
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[116]Beatriz Garcia. The Amazon from an International Law Perspective[M]. Cambridge:Cam- bridge University Press,2011:71.
[117]Ibid p.129.
[118][美]约翰·J.怀尔德,肯尼思·L.怀尔德,韩委瀛译.国际商务[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2009：252.
[119]http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2004-12/09/content_2312751.htm.2012-02-30.
[120]Article 8, Abuja Treaty, http://www.uneca.org/itca/ariportal/abuja.htm#4,2011-12-11.
[121]参见中华人民共和国商务部,国际贸易经济合作研究院.中国对外经济贸易白皮书[M].北京：中信出版社,2003：215-216.
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[123]World Trade Organization. Regionalism and the World Trading System[M]. Bethesda, Mary-land:Congressional Information Service,1997:22.
[124]See article Ⅱ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
[125]See WTO, Committee on Regional Trade Agreements, Note on the Meetings of 29-30 April and 3 May 1999, WT/REG/M/22,4 June 1999, para.18, para.20.
[126]See paragraph 4, article Ⅴ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
[127]参见张南.论服务贸易壁垒的形式和特点[J].国际经济合作,1996,(2)：31-33.
[128]See paragraph 7 article Ⅴ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
See paragraph 5 article Ⅴ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
[130]See article Ⅳ, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
[131]See paragraph 1(d), article I, General Agreement on Trade in Services.
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[135][日]小岛清.对外贸易论[M].天津：南开大学出版社.1987：345-351.
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[139]See OECD, Working Party of the Trade Committee, The Relationship between Regional Trade Agreemen and Multilateral Trading System, Intellectual Property Rights, TD/TC/WP 2002, p.4.
[140]欧盟与中国2010年双边商品贸易额为3950亿欧元,2011年为4283亿欧元。信息来自商务部网站,http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/m/201202/20120207971917.html. 2012-03-30.
[141]http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/k/201111/20111107835566.html.2012-03-30.
[142]http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/aarticle/i/jyjl/l/201107/20110707649780.html.2012-03-30.
[143]参见傅林涌.欧盟东扩中欧补偿谈判的法律依据[J].对外经贸实务,2004,(9)：8-10.
[144]参见新华网,http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2012-03/30/c_11720956.htm.2012-03-30.
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[1]商务部http://www.mofcom.gov.cn/
[2]海关总署http://www.customs.gov.cn/
[3]国家统计局http://www.stats.gov.cn/
[4]上海WTO事务咨询中心http://www.sccwto.net/
[1]世界贸易组织http://www.wto.org/
[2]联合国贸易与发展会议http://www.unctad.org/
[3]世界海关组织http://www.wco.org/
[4]欧洲联盟http://europa.eu/
[5]非洲联盟http://www.au.int/
[6]联合国拉丁美洲/加勒比海经济委员会http://www.eclac.cl/
[1]安第斯共同体http://www.comunidadandina.org/endex.htm
[2]西非经货联盟http://www.uemoa.int/index.htm
[3]海湾国家合作组织http://www.gcc-sg.org/eng/
[4]西非国家经济共同体http://www.ecowas.int/
[5]东非共同体http://www.eac.int/
[6]南方共同市场http://www.mercosur.int/
[7]加勒比共同体http://www.caricom.org/
[8]中非经货共同体http://www.cemac.int/
[9]南非关税同盟http://www.sacu.int/
[10]欧亚共同体http://www.eurasian-ec.com/
[11]东南非共同市场http://www.comesa.int/
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