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银行控制股东关联贷款法律规范的资本范式及利益冲突
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摘要
规范控制股东关联贷款、防止控制权滥用已成为银行法及公司法上的重要课题。现代银行法并非绝对禁止一切控制股东的关联贷款,法律只禁止那些非法的关联贷款。英美法上,这种非法的关联贷款被形象地称为“内部滥用”(insider abuse)。法律规范的目的就是有效地规制不当关联贷款、防范贷款过度集中及滥用风险。而要构建有效规制关联贷款的法律体系,需要有一个建构点,而产生控制股东关联贷款的原因即为此建构点。对此建构点解读的异同就形成了不同的范式,及基于不同范式的法律规范。经济学者以经济的话语构建了法律规范关联贷款的资本范式。资本范式即关于控制股东关联贷款的资本的观点、资本的研究途径和方法、以资本为理念构建的法律规范。资本范式主张通过控制资本来控制关联贷款风险,其潜在假设是资本因素是关联贷款产生的原因。资本范式的逻辑结构主要由资本性质、资本的数量及资本行业性质的维度构成。
    资本性质的维度的观点认为,由于私有产权更具有效率,并具有监督企业良性经营的激励,因而主张以股权性质规范控制股东关联贷款。但无论国有、私人银行股东都存在自身的利益,也都存在道德风险,股权的性质本身与关联贷款的滥用并非有绝对相关性;资本的数量的维度即通过资本数量的控制来控制关联贷款。在经济学者看来,资本比例多寡的调整,将使公司治理结构发生由量至质的神奇变化,成为规制控制股东关联贷款的具刃,由此可从股权比例解读出三种模式,第一种模式的观点认为,股权集中的股权结构下,大股东会自觉防范风险,可以有效减少关联贷款风险;第二种模式观点主张股权分散结构下,银行可以避免受股东控制;第三种模式的观点主张股权适度集中,认为股权过分分散或集中都不利于建立有效的公司治理结构,适度集中的结构可避免民营银行被操纵,减少风险。然而三种股
    
    
    权结构模式都无法避免“理性的冷漠”、“搭便车”和道德风险,都难以达到有效规制控制股东关联贷款的目标。因此股权比例与关联贷款并非简单的数量对应关系。资本行业性质的维度,即通过资本的行业性质的控制进行规制,也即银行与商业分离的法律规则,一般认为,银行与商业的资本紧密关系可能造成利益冲突,存在关联贷款滥用的风险。但也有学者认为,交叉持股等紧密关系降低了监督成本 ,可以防止风险。金融自由化及银行民营化趋势下的资本融合使该原则受到挑战。
    由此,诸如民营资本的介入、股权集中以及商业资本对银行资本的广泛介入等被认为是造成关联贷款的原因,实际上只是问题的症状,并非原因。资本制度(或股权制度)只是为不当关联贷款的发生提供制度基础,至于资本本身则与控制股东关联贷款无直接的关系,法律对资本(股权)的限制,并非能有效规制控制股东关联贷款。
    资本范式的解读已经苍白无力,而利益冲突的范式则提供了一套清晰明确的范式。从利益冲突关系来看,银行控制股东关联交易符合构成利益冲突关系的要件:控制股东与其他利害关系人类似于一种委托—代理关系;相对于其他股东、无生命力的银行以及存款人而言,控制股东具有支配地位;控制股东借助于其控制关系,可获得非对称的(asymmetric)优势资源与信息;控制股东对银行经营决策具有控制或施加重大影响的能力;而银行特有的易滥用性更易使控制股东发生利益冲突。因此,关联贷款滥用是股东控制关系下利益冲突的必然产物,利益冲突是控制股东关联贷款的深层原因。
    利益冲突范式的核心在于通过建立避免利益冲突的法律机制,最大程度上减少控制股东与银行、其他股东和存款人之间的利益冲突,以起到有效防范关联贷款滥用的风险,达到利益平衡的目的。这种范式包括规制控制股东关联授信的利益冲突规则、制度及法律理念。
    就控制股东关联贷款的法律规范而言,现有调整及规范关联贷款交易的规则集中反映了利益冲突的核心理念,是利益冲突范式的有机组成部分。第一,商业性规则。商业性规则利用交易条件阻隔关联贷款的不当利益输送机制。商业性规则包括公平性标准、常规则交易标
    
    
    准。公平标准要求关联贷款应采用与非关联贷款“一致的条件”或“不优于”的标准;“常规交易标准(arm’s length)则要求控制股东在涉及关联交易时须保持避免利益冲突的合理距离,这种合理距离就以常规交易为依准。第二,法人分离原则(corporate separateness)。法人分离要求在关联企业之间设立了防火墙,从法律上将风险活动与银行实体隔离开来,有助于隔离股东与受其控制的公司之间的利益冲突。第三、金融与商业分离原则。金融与商业分离原则的主要目的在于防止金融机构利用其经济力介入非金融机构之公司经营,避免利用其力量造成利益冲突及不公平竞争之可能。第四,实质性标准原则。“实质重于形式”的实质性标准广泛适用于关联贷款主体、客体及交易条件的认定等方面。关联贷款法律规范的实质性倾向于法律的适用,不仅基于程序性,更多地还体现了维护金融安全、保护存款人利益、实现市场公平竞争性等价值目标。实质性标准实际上是以监管目标的价值判断以弥补规则的不清晰或滞后性。关联贷款法律规范的实质性标准来源于其作为经济法的实质理性特征
Related lending by controlling shareholder has become an important subject in the field of banking and corporate law. The thesis aims at studying legal foundation of insider lending, on basis of which effective legal institutions can be built up to curb related abuse.
    A capital paradigm has been built up by economists in the words of economics, which argues to control the insider lending by controlling shareholder through regulating capital of bank. The paradigm suggests that it is the capital that causes the related lending. The logical structure of the capital paradigm consists of three perspectives, including capital ownership, capital ratio and trade nature of the capital.
    The perspective of capital ownership argues that to control the insider lending by the way of controlling capital ownership on the basis that the private ownership will be more efficient than the public ownership and private ownership is able to offer enough incentive to carry out business legally. However, no matter what ownership it is, private or public, the shareholders have their own private interests and evitable moral hazard. The second perspective, which is called capital ratio, argues to control the risk of insider lending of shareholders by regulating the capital ratio of a bank. There are three views as to this perspective, the first is the view of concentrated ownership which maintains that the major shareholders will be to control the risk of lending voluntarily due to their majority shares in the bank; the second is called that of dispersed ownership, which argues that the structure of dispersed ownership can be used to prevent bank from being manipulated by shareholder; the third view argues that the ownerships above may not be helpful to build up effective corporate governance while a moderately concentrated ownership may ensure that the private bank will not be
    
    
    manipulated by the controlling shareholders so as to reduce the risk of abuse. However, none of the three ownerships able to avoid the problem of rational apathy, free-rider and moral hazard, and they can’t achieve the goal of regulating shareholder’s insider abuse effectively as well. Thus, the incidence of undue related lending doesn’t equal the proportion of ownership. They are not the simple quantity corresponding relation inter se. The third perspective argues that the insider lending can be regulated by controlling the trade nature of the capital, which is also called the rule of segregation banking from the commerce.
    It is generally accepted that the close ties between bank and business may cause conflict of interests and incur the abuse of insider lending while proponents argue that the close ties such as mutual ownership will be efficient because it can reduce both the cost of supervision and the risk. However, this principle has to face the challenge raised by capital merging with the trend of financial liberalization and bank privatization.
    Therefore, the issues such as private ownership, concentrated ownership and the commercial ownership, which once were referred to reasons of related lending, in fact, are just symptoms, not reasons.Though they offered a foundation for insider’s abusing. Capital itself has no direct relations with the insider lending of controlling shareholder.Obviously, related abuse couldn’t be explained via capital paradigm while the paradigm of conflict of interest can offer systematic and clear explanations.
    The relations between controlling shareholder and other stakeholders may be the same as the agent relation. As controlling shareholders has predominating status to the bank, other shareholders and depositors, they will have the abilities of acquiring asymmetrical insider resources and information, thus they have the ability to manipulate or exert great influence to business decision in the bank. So the legal relation of related lending by controlling shareholder is accord
    
    
    with Conditio iuris of conflict of interests. Also insider lending by shareholders occurs frequently in the occasions of abusiveness of
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