美国媒介批评的历史变迁
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摘要
美国媒介批评经历了漫长的发展历程。早在17世纪它就伴随着近代报刊的诞生而诞生，但直至20世纪60年代才步入专业化。本文论述了18世纪80年代至20世纪60年代美国媒介批评的演变，通过对美国媒介批评进行梳理，分析其历史变迁过程，揭示了媒介批评促进新闻事业改革和发展的规律。
本文首先分析美国政党报刊论战年代的媒介批评，指出政党报刊之间的论战——报刊笔战、谩骂攻击、持械决斗——尽管不是现代意义上的媒介批评，但也属媒介批评范畴，是原始方式的媒介批评。它是历史的产物：既与当时社会环境密切相关，又是报刊发展的必然。这种媒介批评对新闻业的贡献不可小觑：产生了专业化编辑、定期性社论，激发了新闻界人士的参政意识，检验并深化了对新闻自由的认识。
真正的媒介批评出现在商业报刊时期，主要是对煽情报刊，黄色报刊的批评，针对的是报刊的社会文化价值。在对煽情报刊和黄色报刊的批评声中，新闻事业得到迅速发展：新闻院系相继成立，新闻伦理规范逐步确立，新闻客观理念开始萌芽，新闻事业朝着专业化方向迈进。
需要说明的是，“耙粪运动”时期的媒介批评，在摘要中包括在对商业报刊批评的范围内。
20世纪30年代，随着报刊竞争的加剧，出现了报刊垄断，导致报刊越来越集中在少数人手中；加之报刊的政治影响增大，报纸发行人滥用新闻和社论栏的问题，引起批评家的广泛关注，从而开始了对“报阀”的声讨。批评的焦点是报阀对报刊的控制导致了新闻自由受到威胁。在批评家们要求报刊自身进行改进、甚至要求政府对报刊进行管理和控制的呼声中，哈钦斯委员会报告应运而生，从而导致社会责任论的出台。社会责任论并不是对新闻自由的否定，而是把责任加入新闻自由概念之中，是对传统新闻自由概念的修补。
至此，新闻专业理念的核心——新闻自由、新闻道德规范、新闻客观理念、社会责任理论——在媒介批评声中先后得以诞生和发展。
媒介批评促进了新闻事业的改革，与此同时，媒介批评本身也逐步走向专业化。新闻评论刊物，媒体监察人，新闻评议会等媒介批评自律机制的建立，使媒
介批评定期化，职业化，标志着专业媒介批评的兴起。
本文特点:
1.政党论战时期的报刊被很多新闻史学家称为“新闻事业的黑暗时代’，。政
党报刊对新闻业的影响，也一直受到人们的批评和否定。笔者从另一角
度对此进行分析，认为政党报刊催生专业化编辑，产生定期性社论，检
验并深化了对新闻自由的认识，所以，政党报刊对新闻业的发展起着巨
大的推动作用。
2.本文通过对“耙粪运动”时期媒介批评的分析，得出结论:美国真正意
义上的媒介批评肇始于“耙粪运动”时期。在此时期媒介批评家们有意
识地在实践中应用客观理念，这是新闻史上的第一次。
3.本文在每个章节适当运用一些插图，展现媒介批评的历史变迁。
需要说明的是本文的媒介批评是从批判性思维出发，侧重的是媒介批评中
“求疵”的一面。
Press criticism has long existed in the history of American journalism, which can be traced to the time when the modern newspaper came into being in the 17th century. But it was not until 1960s when the press criticism mechanisms of the US media had been so established that it entered the stage of professional criticism. This thesis examines the evolvement of the American press criticism from 1880s to 1960s, during which it went through significant changes. The conclusion drawn in this thesis is that press criticism played a great role in promoting the development and reform of media.
This thesis starts with the Party Press which Started in the late 18th century, characterized by press conflicts among different partisan newspapers. Though the press conflicts in this period possessed no distinguishing characteristics of the press criticism of the modern sense , it can be defined as press criticism-the original form of the press criticism. Its emergence was not only the outcome of the then circumstances but also the result of the journalism development. The press conflicts in this period contributed a lot to American journalism in that it resulted in the emergence of the newspaper editor, the regular editorial as well as the deepening of cognition of the press freedom.
It was with the deterioration of the commercial newspapers in morality that press criticism of the modern sense came into existence, the
target of which was at the moral decadence-the typical feature of
sensational newspapers and yellow newspapers. The criticism against yellow newspaper resulted in the rapid development of the journalism in the following aspects: the founding of journalism schools, the establishment of journalism ethical standards, as well as the occurrence of objectivity ideals, all of which pushed journalism forward into its profession.
In this abstract, the criticism during Muckraking Movement, which
is a separate part in the thesis, is included in that of the commercial media.
In 1930s, with the increasingly violent competition among newspapers, more and more chains (two or more newspapers under one ownership) came into existence. The concentration of regional groups or national strings of newspapers under a powerful press baron with definite political views and ambitions had been the target of the critics, the focus of which was on the press freedom being in danger due to the control of the lords of the press. With the pressure of the critics, A Free And Responsible Press arose in which the social responsibility was greatly stressed.
Since then, the essence of the journalism ideals-the freedom of the press, the journalism ethical codes, the objectivity ideal, the social responsibility-had been given birth with the pressure of critics.
While press criticism promoted the reform of the press , the criticism itself entered its professional stage. The establishment of the self-regulation of the media( such as press councils, internal ombudsman, journalism review etc) marked the occurrence of professional criticism. This thesis has three features.
1. It focuses on examining closely the positive role of the Party Press which gave impetus to the development of journalism.
2. Based on the analysis of the criticism, a conclusion is drawn that it was during the Muckraking Movement that the occurrence of the American journalism in a real sense came into existence.
3. A series of pictures are involved in the thesis to illustrate the evolvement of the press criticism.
本文首先分析美国政党报刊论战年代的媒介批评，指出政党报刊之间的论战——报刊笔战、谩骂攻击、持械决斗——尽管不是现代意义上的媒介批评，但也属媒介批评范畴，是原始方式的媒介批评。它是历史的产物：既与当时社会环境密切相关，又是报刊发展的必然。这种媒介批评对新闻业的贡献不可小觑：产生了专业化编辑、定期性社论，激发了新闻界人士的参政意识，检验并深化了对新闻自由的认识。
真正的媒介批评出现在商业报刊时期，主要是对煽情报刊，黄色报刊的批评，针对的是报刊的社会文化价值。在对煽情报刊和黄色报刊的批评声中，新闻事业得到迅速发展：新闻院系相继成立，新闻伦理规范逐步确立，新闻客观理念开始萌芽，新闻事业朝着专业化方向迈进。
需要说明的是，“耙粪运动”时期的媒介批评，在摘要中包括在对商业报刊批评的范围内。
20世纪30年代，随着报刊竞争的加剧，出现了报刊垄断，导致报刊越来越集中在少数人手中；加之报刊的政治影响增大，报纸发行人滥用新闻和社论栏的问题，引起批评家的广泛关注，从而开始了对“报阀”的声讨。批评的焦点是报阀对报刊的控制导致了新闻自由受到威胁。在批评家们要求报刊自身进行改进、甚至要求政府对报刊进行管理和控制的呼声中，哈钦斯委员会报告应运而生，从而导致社会责任论的出台。社会责任论并不是对新闻自由的否定，而是把责任加入新闻自由概念之中，是对传统新闻自由概念的修补。
至此，新闻专业理念的核心——新闻自由、新闻道德规范、新闻客观理念、社会责任理论——在媒介批评声中先后得以诞生和发展。
媒介批评促进了新闻事业的改革，与此同时，媒介批评本身也逐步走向专业化。新闻评论刊物，媒体监察人，新闻评议会等媒介批评自律机制的建立，使媒
介批评定期化，职业化，标志着专业媒介批评的兴起。
本文特点:
1.政党论战时期的报刊被很多新闻史学家称为“新闻事业的黑暗时代’，。政
党报刊对新闻业的影响，也一直受到人们的批评和否定。笔者从另一角
度对此进行分析，认为政党报刊催生专业化编辑，产生定期性社论，检
验并深化了对新闻自由的认识，所以，政党报刊对新闻业的发展起着巨
大的推动作用。
2.本文通过对“耙粪运动”时期媒介批评的分析，得出结论:美国真正意
义上的媒介批评肇始于“耙粪运动”时期。在此时期媒介批评家们有意
识地在实践中应用客观理念，这是新闻史上的第一次。
3.本文在每个章节适当运用一些插图，展现媒介批评的历史变迁。
需要说明的是本文的媒介批评是从批判性思维出发，侧重的是媒介批评中
“求疵”的一面。
Press criticism has long existed in the history of American journalism, which can be traced to the time when the modern newspaper came into being in the 17th century. But it was not until 1960s when the press criticism mechanisms of the US media had been so established that it entered the stage of professional criticism. This thesis examines the evolvement of the American press criticism from 1880s to 1960s, during which it went through significant changes. The conclusion drawn in this thesis is that press criticism played a great role in promoting the development and reform of media.
This thesis starts with the Party Press which Started in the late 18th century, characterized by press conflicts among different partisan newspapers. Though the press conflicts in this period possessed no distinguishing characteristics of the press criticism of the modern sense , it can be defined as press criticism-the original form of the press criticism. Its emergence was not only the outcome of the then circumstances but also the result of the journalism development. The press conflicts in this period contributed a lot to American journalism in that it resulted in the emergence of the newspaper editor, the regular editorial as well as the deepening of cognition of the press freedom.
It was with the deterioration of the commercial newspapers in morality that press criticism of the modern sense came into existence, the
target of which was at the moral decadence-the typical feature of
sensational newspapers and yellow newspapers. The criticism against yellow newspaper resulted in the rapid development of the journalism in the following aspects: the founding of journalism schools, the establishment of journalism ethical standards, as well as the occurrence of objectivity ideals, all of which pushed journalism forward into its profession.
In this abstract, the criticism during Muckraking Movement, which
is a separate part in the thesis, is included in that of the commercial media.
In 1930s, with the increasingly violent competition among newspapers, more and more chains (two or more newspapers under one ownership) came into existence. The concentration of regional groups or national strings of newspapers under a powerful press baron with definite political views and ambitions had been the target of the critics, the focus of which was on the press freedom being in danger due to the control of the lords of the press. With the pressure of the critics, A Free And Responsible Press arose in which the social responsibility was greatly stressed.
Since then, the essence of the journalism ideals-the freedom of the press, the journalism ethical codes, the objectivity ideal, the social responsibility-had been given birth with the pressure of critics.
While press criticism promoted the reform of the press , the criticism itself entered its professional stage. The establishment of the self-regulation of the media( such as press councils, internal ombudsman, journalism review etc) marked the occurrence of professional criticism. This thesis has three features.
1. It focuses on examining closely the positive role of the Party Press which gave impetus to the development of journalism.
2. Based on the analysis of the criticism, a conclusion is drawn that it was during the Muckraking Movement that the occurrence of the American journalism in a real sense came into existence.
3. A series of pictures are involved in the thesis to illustrate the evolvement of the press criticism.
引文
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2. Frank Luther Mott(2000), American Journalism, London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press.
3. Marion Tuttle Marzolf(1991), Civilizing Voices: American press criticism. New York: Longrnan.
4. Louis Filler(1993), The Muckrakers, California: Stanford University Press.
5. Robert Miraldi(1990), Muckraking and Objectivity, New York: Greenwood Press.
6. Tom Goldstein(1989), Killing The Messenger, New York: Columbia University Press.
7. Ben H. Bagdikian(1997), The Media Monopoly, Boston: Beacon Press.
8. Brown. Lee(1974),Reluctant Reformation: on criticizing the press in America. New York: David Makay Company, Inc.
9. Atthur A.Ekirch, Jr.(1963)Progressivism in America: A Study of the Era from Theodore Roosevelt to Wood Row Wilson. New York.
10. David Mark Chalmers(1964),The Social and Political Ideas of the Muckralers, New York.
11. Louis Filler(1996),Muckraking and Progressivism in the American Tradition, New Brunswick.
12. Fredric Hudson(1873), Journalism in the United States: From 1690-1872. New York, Harper & Brothers.
13. Willard Grosvennor Bleyer(1927), Main Currents in The History of American Journalism. Boston: Houghton Miffin Company.
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23. David Hall, American Journalism Review. CJR March/April,2000.
24. David Shaw, How I Got That Story: Full Disclosure. CJR March/Apil,2000.
25. Tom Goldstein, Wanted: more Outspoken View. CJR November/December,2001.
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2. Frank Luther Mott(2000), American Journalism, London: Routledge/Thoemmes Press.
3. Marion Tuttle Marzolf(1991), Civilizing Voices: American press criticism. New York: Longrnan.
4. Louis Filler(1993), The Muckrakers, California: Stanford University Press.
5. Robert Miraldi(1990), Muckraking and Objectivity, New York: Greenwood Press.
6. Tom Goldstein(1989), Killing The Messenger, New York: Columbia University Press.
7. Ben H. Bagdikian(1997), The Media Monopoly, Boston: Beacon Press.
8. Brown. Lee(1974),Reluctant Reformation: on criticizing the press in America. New York: David Makay Company, Inc.
9. Atthur A.Ekirch, Jr.(1963)Progressivism in America: A Study of the Era from Theodore Roosevelt to Wood Row Wilson. New York.
10. David Mark Chalmers(1964),The Social and Political Ideas of the Muckralers, New York.
11. Louis Filler(1996),Muckraking and Progressivism in the American Tradition, New Brunswick.
12. Fredric Hudson(1873), Journalism in the United States: From 1690-1872. New York, Harper & Brothers.
13. Willard Grosvennor Bleyer(1927), Main Currents in The History of American Journalism. Boston: Houghton Miffin Company.
14. Wm.David Slon(1991), Perspective on Mass Communication History. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Inc, Publishers.
15. Frank Luther Mott (1957), History of American Magazines(1885-1905),Massachusetts.
16. Merrill D.Peterson(1975), Thomas Jefferson and The New Nation. New York, Oxford University Press.
17. Robert Jack Huckshorn(1984), Political Parties in America. California, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
18. John.H.Aldrich(1995), Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.
19. James Risser, Lessons From L.A.: The Wall Is Heading Back. CJR January/February, 2000.
20. Thomas Leonard, The Wall: A Long History. CJR January/February, 2000.
21. James Boylan, A Thousand Voices Bloom. CJR March/April, 2000.
22. Josh Getlin, Ombudaman, CJR March/April, 2000.
23. David Hall, American Journalism Review. CJR March/April,2000.
24. David Shaw, How I Got That Story: Full Disclosure. CJR March/Apil,2000.
25. Tom Goldstein, Wanted: more Outspoken View. CJR November/December,2001.
26. James Boylan, 40 Years of C JR. C JR November/December, 2001.
27. Geneva Overholser, Front-page Ads and Other Supposed Threats to Credibility. CJR September/October,2000.
28. James B. Kekkeher, Alternative Papers, CJR March/April,2000.
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31. Roy Peter Clark, Academia, CJR March/April, 2000.
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