中介语化石化与中国英语教学
摘要
中介语指的是第二语言学习者建立的目的语知识系统的连续体。它介于学习者的母语和目的语之间，从理论上看，中介语应该随着目的语知识输入的增加而逐渐向目的语靠拢。然而大量研究表明，大多数学习者的中介语在达到一定的水平之后会停留在某个地方，而不是像过去那样继续稳步地朝目的语推进。一些非目的语形式永远不会消失。这就是中介语化石化现象。
自从Selinker在1972年正式提出化石化的概念之后，讨论化石化问题的大量著作陆续发表，旨在探寻解决问题的方法。这些讨论主要涉及到化石化的定义与解释、化石化产生的原因以及化石化的应对策略。这些研究主要限于语言结构方面，而包括语言使用在内的全面、系统的研究则较少见。此外，这些研究多数都是以狭义的第二语言为研究基础，也就是说，学习者是在目的语语言环境之内进行学习，从中我们几乎看不到关于在第二语言教学环境下和如中国英语教学这样的典型外语教学环境下产生的化石化现象的区别，也未发现关于中国英语学习者的中介语化石化现象的详细、系统的研究。因此，本文拟在这一领域进行尝试性的研究。
本文对中介语及中介语化石化的相关理论进行了回顾，并就中介语化石化现象在中国英语教学环境下的现状作了介绍。我们注意到中介语化石化现象在第二语言习得环境下和典型的外语学习环境下的不同之处，就中介语化石化现象的内涵和性质的分类提出了自己的观点。我们进行了两项调查，以考察化石化在语言结构和语言使用方面的具体表现。调查结果在很大程度上支持了我们的观点。我们还就对待
AbslraCt V
中国学习者的中介语化石化问题的态度及其应对策略进行了讨论，并提出了自己的
看法和主张。我们相信这些看法和主张会在一定程度上有助于开展相关的研究，有
助于进一步推动中国的英语教学。
本文由以下六章组成。
第一章简要介绍了文章的研究背景、目的及结构安排。
第二章就中介语和中介语化石化的定义和阐述以及中介语化石化现象的分类等
相关研究作了回顾，介绍了我们认为具有代表性的涉及化石化现象成因的四种模
式。从中可以看出，这些研究主要涉及语言结构的化石化，这些石化或稳定化了的
语言结构有一个主要的特点，那就是无论目的语对其影响如何，这些结构始终会在
中介语中出现。
第三章对中国英语学习者的中介语现状作了概略的介绍，并着重讨论了作为外
语教学的中国英语教学的特殊性以及由此特殊性而导致的一个现象：由于未能得到
学习者和教师的恰当处理，一些非目的语形式长期存在于学习者的中介语中，因而
有可能产生化石化的趋势。
第四章重点阐述了中国英语学习者的中介语化石化现象，涉及化石化现象的分
类、表现形式和原因。一方面，我们对中国英语教学与第二语言习得的相同之处进
行了分析，另一方面，鉴于中国英语教学的特殊性，我们通过在该章进行的实证研
究和讨论特别强调了自己的观点：涉及语言使用的非目的语形式也应纳入中介语化
石化研究之中；有些非目的语形式长期存在于中国学习者的中介语之中，其中许多
没有得到纠正的机会。我们建议用假拟化石化来标示这类非目的语形式。因为如果
不予以重视，这类非目的语形式则可能转变为真正的化石化。
第五章困绕对中国英语学习者中介语化石化问题的态度和应对策略展厂论述。
我们认为最根本的策略是提高学习者和教师的语言意识和跨文化意识。为此我们提
出了具体措施。
第六章总结了研究成果，及其对推动我国英语教学的启示。
Interlanguage refers to the continuum of a second language learner's systematic knowledge of the target language. It is between the learner's mother tongue and the target language, and is theoretically expected to move toward the target language with the target language input increasing. A lot of studies show, however, that most learners' interlanguage, having reached a certain level, will stay at a certain place without continuing progressing steadily as before toward the target language. Some non-target language forms will never disappear entirely. This is what is called fossilization in interlanguage.
Since the notion of fossilization was formally introduced by Selinker in 1972, a number of works have been published on this issue with the view to working out feasible solutions to the problem. They mainly discuss such topics as the definitions and interpretations of fossilization, the causes associated with fossilization and the possible strategies dealing with it. While most of these researches focus basically on the linguistic structure, the complete and systematic research on this issue including language use is rarely found. Moreover, most of them are actually carried out on the basis of the second language in a narrow sense, i.e. the language learners learn the target language within the target language community. We can hardly find out either the concern over the differentiation between the phenomena of fossilization appearing in the second language
teaching and learning environment and those appearing in the typical foreign language teaching and learning environment like ELT in China, or a detailed and systematic analysis of the phenomena of fossilization in the interlanguage of the Chinese learners of English. These are the areas that this dissertation attempts to explore.
On the basis of reviewing the literature of interlanguage and fossilization in interlanguage and presenting the status quo of ELT in China, we differentiate between the fossilization in interlanguage in the SLA environment and that in the typical foreign language learning environment, and put forth our own views on classification of fossilization concerning the content and nature. Two surveys have been conducted respectively to investigate the manifestations of fossilization in the aspects of linguistic structure and language use, and the findings of the investigations support our view on this issue to a great extent. And then we discuss the attitudes toward and strategies dealing with the fossilization in the Chinese learners' interlanguage and put forward our views on this matter, which, we believe, will be beneficial in some way to the related research and to the improvement of English language teaching and learning in China.
This dissertation consists of the following six chapters:
Chapter 1 is an introduction, giving a brief account of the research background, objectives and the layout of this dissertation.
Chapter 2 reviews the studies regarding the definition or interpretations of interlanguage and of fossilization in interlanguage, the classification of fossilization and the four models that account for the phenomena of fossilization. It can be seen that most researches focus mainly on the fossilization concerning linguistic structure and that the principal feature of those fossilized or stabilized linguistic items discussed in the researches is that they continue to appear in interlanguage regardless of further exposures to the target language.
Chapter 3 gives a general description of the status quo of interlanguage of the Chinese learners of English with the focus on the particularities of the ELT in China as foreign language teaching and learning and a phenomenon caused by these particularities among the Chinese learners: some non-target language forms, having been lasting for a relatively long period of time for lack of appropriate treatment from both the learners and teachers, are likely to be fossilized.
Chapter 4 focuses on the phenomena of fossilization in the interlanguage of the
Chinese learners of
自从Selinker在1972年正式提出化石化的概念之后，讨论化石化问题的大量著作陆续发表，旨在探寻解决问题的方法。这些讨论主要涉及到化石化的定义与解释、化石化产生的原因以及化石化的应对策略。这些研究主要限于语言结构方面，而包括语言使用在内的全面、系统的研究则较少见。此外，这些研究多数都是以狭义的第二语言为研究基础，也就是说，学习者是在目的语语言环境之内进行学习，从中我们几乎看不到关于在第二语言教学环境下和如中国英语教学这样的典型外语教学环境下产生的化石化现象的区别，也未发现关于中国英语学习者的中介语化石化现象的详细、系统的研究。因此，本文拟在这一领域进行尝试性的研究。
本文对中介语及中介语化石化的相关理论进行了回顾，并就中介语化石化现象在中国英语教学环境下的现状作了介绍。我们注意到中介语化石化现象在第二语言习得环境下和典型的外语学习环境下的不同之处，就中介语化石化现象的内涵和性质的分类提出了自己的观点。我们进行了两项调查，以考察化石化在语言结构和语言使用方面的具体表现。调查结果在很大程度上支持了我们的观点。我们还就对待
AbslraCt V
中国学习者的中介语化石化问题的态度及其应对策略进行了讨论，并提出了自己的
看法和主张。我们相信这些看法和主张会在一定程度上有助于开展相关的研究，有
助于进一步推动中国的英语教学。
本文由以下六章组成。
第一章简要介绍了文章的研究背景、目的及结构安排。
第二章就中介语和中介语化石化的定义和阐述以及中介语化石化现象的分类等
相关研究作了回顾，介绍了我们认为具有代表性的涉及化石化现象成因的四种模
式。从中可以看出，这些研究主要涉及语言结构的化石化，这些石化或稳定化了的
语言结构有一个主要的特点，那就是无论目的语对其影响如何，这些结构始终会在
中介语中出现。
第三章对中国英语学习者的中介语现状作了概略的介绍，并着重讨论了作为外
语教学的中国英语教学的特殊性以及由此特殊性而导致的一个现象：由于未能得到
学习者和教师的恰当处理，一些非目的语形式长期存在于学习者的中介语中，因而
有可能产生化石化的趋势。
第四章重点阐述了中国英语学习者的中介语化石化现象，涉及化石化现象的分
类、表现形式和原因。一方面，我们对中国英语教学与第二语言习得的相同之处进
行了分析，另一方面，鉴于中国英语教学的特殊性，我们通过在该章进行的实证研
究和讨论特别强调了自己的观点：涉及语言使用的非目的语形式也应纳入中介语化
石化研究之中；有些非目的语形式长期存在于中国学习者的中介语之中，其中许多
没有得到纠正的机会。我们建议用假拟化石化来标示这类非目的语形式。因为如果
不予以重视，这类非目的语形式则可能转变为真正的化石化。
第五章困绕对中国英语学习者中介语化石化问题的态度和应对策略展厂论述。
我们认为最根本的策略是提高学习者和教师的语言意识和跨文化意识。为此我们提
出了具体措施。
第六章总结了研究成果，及其对推动我国英语教学的启示。
Interlanguage refers to the continuum of a second language learner's systematic knowledge of the target language. It is between the learner's mother tongue and the target language, and is theoretically expected to move toward the target language with the target language input increasing. A lot of studies show, however, that most learners' interlanguage, having reached a certain level, will stay at a certain place without continuing progressing steadily as before toward the target language. Some non-target language forms will never disappear entirely. This is what is called fossilization in interlanguage.
Since the notion of fossilization was formally introduced by Selinker in 1972, a number of works have been published on this issue with the view to working out feasible solutions to the problem. They mainly discuss such topics as the definitions and interpretations of fossilization, the causes associated with fossilization and the possible strategies dealing with it. While most of these researches focus basically on the linguistic structure, the complete and systematic research on this issue including language use is rarely found. Moreover, most of them are actually carried out on the basis of the second language in a narrow sense, i.e. the language learners learn the target language within the target language community. We can hardly find out either the concern over the differentiation between the phenomena of fossilization appearing in the second language
teaching and learning environment and those appearing in the typical foreign language teaching and learning environment like ELT in China, or a detailed and systematic analysis of the phenomena of fossilization in the interlanguage of the Chinese learners of English. These are the areas that this dissertation attempts to explore.
On the basis of reviewing the literature of interlanguage and fossilization in interlanguage and presenting the status quo of ELT in China, we differentiate between the fossilization in interlanguage in the SLA environment and that in the typical foreign language learning environment, and put forth our own views on classification of fossilization concerning the content and nature. Two surveys have been conducted respectively to investigate the manifestations of fossilization in the aspects of linguistic structure and language use, and the findings of the investigations support our view on this issue to a great extent. And then we discuss the attitudes toward and strategies dealing with the fossilization in the Chinese learners' interlanguage and put forward our views on this matter, which, we believe, will be beneficial in some way to the related research and to the improvement of English language teaching and learning in China.
This dissertation consists of the following six chapters:
Chapter 1 is an introduction, giving a brief account of the research background, objectives and the layout of this dissertation.
Chapter 2 reviews the studies regarding the definition or interpretations of interlanguage and of fossilization in interlanguage, the classification of fossilization and the four models that account for the phenomena of fossilization. It can be seen that most researches focus mainly on the fossilization concerning linguistic structure and that the principal feature of those fossilized or stabilized linguistic items discussed in the researches is that they continue to appear in interlanguage regardless of further exposures to the target language.
Chapter 3 gives a general description of the status quo of interlanguage of the Chinese learners of English with the focus on the particularities of the ELT in China as foreign language teaching and learning and a phenomenon caused by these particularities among the Chinese learners: some non-target language forms, having been lasting for a relatively long period of time for lack of appropriate treatment from both the learners and teachers, are likely to be fossilized.
Chapter 4 focuses on the phenomena of fossilization in the interlanguage of the
Chinese learners of
引文
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Corder, S. P. 1971. Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. IRAL 9, 147-159.
Corder, S. P. 1981. Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Eubank, L., Selinker, L. & Sharwood Smith, M. 1995. The current state of interlanguage. http://www. bbk.ac.uk/llc/al/Larry, html
Flexner S. B. 1987. The Random House Dictonary of the English Language. 2nd Ed. Unabridged. Random House, Incorporated.
Gass, L. & Lakshmanan, U. 1991. Accounting for interlanguage subject pronouns. Second Language Research 7, 181-203.
Gass, S. & Varonis, E. 1994. Input, interaction, and second language production. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 16, 283-302.
Halliday, M. A. K. 1977. Exploration in the Functions of Language. New York.
Han, Z-H. & Selinker, L. 1996. Multiple effects and error resistance: A longitudinal case study, http://www.tc.columbia.edu/tesol/faculty/han.htm
Hu Wenzhong & Cornelius L. Grove. 1991. Engcountering the Chinese—A Guide fro Americans. Intercultural Press, Inc.
Hu Zhuanglin et al. 1988. Linguistics: ,4 Course Book. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
Lamendella, J. T. 1977. General principles of neurofunctional organization and their manifestations in primary and non-primary language acquisition. Language Learning 27, 155-196
Larsen Freeman, D. & Long, M. 1991. An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition
Research. Longman Group UK Limited.
Leech, G. N. 1983. Principles of Pragmatics. Longman: London and New York
Li Li & Chen Zhi'an. 1997. Language, Culture & TEFL. South-western Normal University Press
Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. 1993. How Languages Are Learned Oxford: Oxford University Press
Littlewood, W. T. 1984. Foreign and Second Language Learning. Cambridge University Press
McLaughlin, B. 1987. Theories of Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold
Nemser, W. 1971. Approximative systems of foreign language learners. International Review of Applied Linguistics Ⅸ. 115-123.
O'Grady, W., Dobrovolsky, M. & Katamba, F. 1987. Contemporary linguistics—an introduction. United Kingdom: Copp Clark Pitman Ltd.
Pan Neng. 1994. A Course of English Oral Translation: Theory, Skills and Practice. Xi'an: Xi'an Jiaotong University Press
Pugh, A. et al. 1980. Language and Language Use. The Open University
Richards, J. C. et al. 2000. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics. Beijing: Foreign Language University Press.
Robinett, B. W. 1978. Teaching English to Speakers of Other Language: Substance and Technique. University of Minnesota Press and McGraw-Hill International Book Co.
Selinker, L. & Han, Z-H. 1997. Fossilization: status of the concept. http://www. bbk.ac.uk/llc/al/Larry. html
Selinker, L. & Lakshmanan, U. 1992. Language transfer and fossilization: The multiple effects principle. In S. Gass and L. Selinker (eds) Language Transfer in Language Learning. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Selinker, L. & Lamandella, J. 1978. Two perspectives on fossilization in interlanguage learning. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin 3, 143-191.
Selinker, L. & Lamandella, J. 1979. The role of extrinsic feedback in interlanguage fossilization: A discussion of "Role fossilization: Atentative model". Language Learning 29, 363-375.
Selinker, L. 1969. Language transfer. General Linguistics 9, 67-92
Selinker, L. 1972. Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistic 10, 215
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