社会判断中样例激活效应的实验研究
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摘要
社会认知是一个宏大的研究领域。社会判断是社会认知的重要方面，它贯穿于社会认知(社会知觉、社会印象和社会思维)的全过程，主要包括对社会物、社会人和社会事件三类对象的判断加工。
样例是与当前要判断的靶子所属范畴相似的客体的一种认知表征。在社会认知中，人们会基于社会样例与靶子之间微小的相似之处(如名字、发型、嗜好、特长等)，而将样例的其它人格特征统统赋予靶子，并会以此为基础进行随后的认知加工。这种心理现象被称为样例激活效应。
本研究以目前国际心理学界方兴未艾的样例研究为切入点，通过社会判断中样例激活效应的深入研究，对该效应存在的广度、条件、作用强度、指向及与其它社会心理现象的关系等进行系统探讨，以期发现蕴藏其中的心理规律，为社会认知的理论研究和实践应用提供一定的参考。研究由5个系列实验组成，以大学生和研究生为被试，采用了自陈量表法、评定量表法、信号检测论法、投射测验法和情境测验等多种方法。研究结果表明：
(1)在社会判断的各对象领域(社会物、社会人和社会事件)中都存在强大的样例激活效应，无论强启动、还是弱启动条件下都表现出外显或内隐的存在，并且都表现为“同化效应”。
(2)样例激活效应的存在和产生作用有赖于一定的条件。首先，启动的有效性、强度，以及判断时机等影响着效应的产生和强度。其次，靶子效价、靶子所属范畴、消极词效应、他相关效应和刻板印象标签等在社会判断过程中会与样例激活效应发生方向不一的交互作用，并共同影响着社会判断加工。此外，刺激呈现时的关联效应、刺激与靶子间的联系密切程度也都对样例激活效应存在一定影响。
(3)以上结论可以对个人印象管理，以及教育教学、组织管理和政府行为中的评估督导、人格塑造及舆论宣传等具有一定的指导意义。我们可以运用这些基本规律，有效利用效应的有利方面，消除其不良影响，避免认知偏差，做到判断的相对客观与公正。
Social cognition is a great research area. As one of the basic forms of social thinking, social judgment is an important part of social cognition, and exists in all its three stages: social perception, social impression and social thinking. The targets of social judgment include social objects, social persons and social events.
A social exemplar is a cognitive representation of an individual of the same type as the current target of judgment. All the personalities of an exemplar may be attributed to a target only based on her/his resemblance with the exemplar, and it may affect subsequent processing. Researchers call this as exemplar-activation effect.
Through the investigation of the condition, function, intensity, direction and relations with other mental phenomena of the exemplar-activation effects in social judgment, the present serial experiments aim to find the law of exemplar-activation effects, and then to provide some references to the theoretical researches and appliance of social cognition. This systematic study consists of five experiments. Subjects are college students and postgraduates. Various study methods, such as self-report scale, assessment scale, SDT, projective technique and situational test, are employed in the experiments. The main results suggest that:
(1) The exemplar-activation effects exist explicitly or implicitly in both strong and weak priming conditions in all the areas of social judgment, and take the forms of assimilation effect.
(2) The existing and effecting of exemplar-activation effects need certain conditions. Firstly, the validity and intensity of priming and the timing of judgment affect the effecting and intensity of exemplar-activation effects. Secondly, in the process of social judgment, the valence and category of targets, negative-word effect, other-relevant effect and stereotype have interactions with the exemplar-activation effects in different directions, and all of these effects affect the processing of social judgment together. In addition, the target-showing relation effect and the level of the relation between stimuli and exemplars affect the existing of exemplar-activation effects.
(3) All the conclusions above have some guidable functions to individual impression management as well as the assessment, personality training, publicity work in school education, organizational management and government behaviors. These basic laws can be used to get benefits from taking advantages and eliminating disadvantages of exemplar-activation effects. In this way, some cognitive biases may be avoided effectively and the judgment will be more objective.
样例是与当前要判断的靶子所属范畴相似的客体的一种认知表征。在社会认知中，人们会基于社会样例与靶子之间微小的相似之处(如名字、发型、嗜好、特长等)，而将样例的其它人格特征统统赋予靶子，并会以此为基础进行随后的认知加工。这种心理现象被称为样例激活效应。
本研究以目前国际心理学界方兴未艾的样例研究为切入点，通过社会判断中样例激活效应的深入研究，对该效应存在的广度、条件、作用强度、指向及与其它社会心理现象的关系等进行系统探讨，以期发现蕴藏其中的心理规律，为社会认知的理论研究和实践应用提供一定的参考。研究由5个系列实验组成，以大学生和研究生为被试，采用了自陈量表法、评定量表法、信号检测论法、投射测验法和情境测验等多种方法。研究结果表明：
(1)在社会判断的各对象领域(社会物、社会人和社会事件)中都存在强大的样例激活效应，无论强启动、还是弱启动条件下都表现出外显或内隐的存在，并且都表现为“同化效应”。
(2)样例激活效应的存在和产生作用有赖于一定的条件。首先，启动的有效性、强度，以及判断时机等影响着效应的产生和强度。其次，靶子效价、靶子所属范畴、消极词效应、他相关效应和刻板印象标签等在社会判断过程中会与样例激活效应发生方向不一的交互作用，并共同影响着社会判断加工。此外，刺激呈现时的关联效应、刺激与靶子间的联系密切程度也都对样例激活效应存在一定影响。
(3)以上结论可以对个人印象管理，以及教育教学、组织管理和政府行为中的评估督导、人格塑造及舆论宣传等具有一定的指导意义。我们可以运用这些基本规律，有效利用效应的有利方面，消除其不良影响，避免认知偏差，做到判断的相对客观与公正。
Social cognition is a great research area. As one of the basic forms of social thinking, social judgment is an important part of social cognition, and exists in all its three stages: social perception, social impression and social thinking. The targets of social judgment include social objects, social persons and social events.
A social exemplar is a cognitive representation of an individual of the same type as the current target of judgment. All the personalities of an exemplar may be attributed to a target only based on her/his resemblance with the exemplar, and it may affect subsequent processing. Researchers call this as exemplar-activation effect.
Through the investigation of the condition, function, intensity, direction and relations with other mental phenomena of the exemplar-activation effects in social judgment, the present serial experiments aim to find the law of exemplar-activation effects, and then to provide some references to the theoretical researches and appliance of social cognition. This systematic study consists of five experiments. Subjects are college students and postgraduates. Various study methods, such as self-report scale, assessment scale, SDT, projective technique and situational test, are employed in the experiments. The main results suggest that:
(1) The exemplar-activation effects exist explicitly or implicitly in both strong and weak priming conditions in all the areas of social judgment, and take the forms of assimilation effect.
(2) The existing and effecting of exemplar-activation effects need certain conditions. Firstly, the validity and intensity of priming and the timing of judgment affect the effecting and intensity of exemplar-activation effects. Secondly, in the process of social judgment, the valence and category of targets, negative-word effect, other-relevant effect and stereotype have interactions with the exemplar-activation effects in different directions, and all of these effects affect the processing of social judgment together. In addition, the target-showing relation effect and the level of the relation between stimuli and exemplars affect the existing of exemplar-activation effects.
(3) All the conclusions above have some guidable functions to individual impression management as well as the assessment, personality training, publicity work in school education, organizational management and government behaviors. These basic laws can be used to get benefits from taking advantages and eliminating disadvantages of exemplar-activation effects. In this way, some cognitive biases may be avoided effectively and the judgment will be more objective.
引文
1．杜建政，杨治良．关于高级内隐认知研究方法的一点浅见．心理科学，2000，5：533-536
2．莫雷，陈战胜．规则策略和样例策略在归类过程中的运用．心理学报，2003，35(1)：29-36
3．王沛，林崇德．论社会认知及其发展研究(发表中)
4．王沛，林崇德．社会认知的理论模型综述．心理科学，2002，25(1)：73-75
5．王沛，王新波．社会判断中的样例激活效应．心理学报，2003，35(1)：112-119
6．邢强，莫雷，朱新明．样例学习研究的发展及问题．心理科学进展，2002，11(2)：165-170
7．禤宇明，傅小兰．样例理论的发展及其争议．心理学动态，2001，9(4)：295-301
8．朱新秤．社会认知心理学研究的新进展．心理学动态，2000，2：76-79
9．陈铁民．近代诗百首．北京：人民文学出版社，1985
10．董大年．现代汉语分类词典．上海：汉语大词典出版社，1998：362-461
11．高觉敷．西方社会心理学发展史．北京：人民教育出版社，1991．73-205
12．刘叔新．现代汉语同义词词典(增订版)．天津：天津人民出版社，1993
13．刘源．现代汉语常用词词频词典．北京：宇航出版社，1990
14．时蓉华．现代社会心理学．上海：华东师范大学出版社，1989．210-243
15．杨治良．实验心理学．杭州：浙江教育出版社，1998
16．王重鸣．心理学研究方法．北京：人民教育出版社，1990
17．王沛．实验社会心理学：理论方法与实践．兰州：甘肃教育出版社，2002
18．王沛．刻板印象的理论与研究．兰州：甘肃教育出版社，2002
19．王甦，汪安圣．认知心理学．北京：北京大学出版社，1992
20．周爱保．社会认知的理论和实验．兰州：甘肃教育出版社，2002
21．张春兴．张氏心理学辞典．上海：上海辞书出版社，1992．355
22．钟毅平．社会行为研究，长沙：湖南教育出版社，1999
23．朱智贤．心理学大词典．北京：北京师范大学出版社，1989．463
24．全国八院校编．社会心理学教程．兰州：兰州大学出版社，1986．156-159
25．中国革命史人名大辞典．海口：海南出版社，三环出版社，1991
1. Anderson S M, Cole S W."Do I know you?": The role of significant others in general social perception. Journal of Personality Social Psychology, 1990, 59:384-399
2. Brewer M B. A dual process model of impression formation. In Wyer R S, Srull T K (Eds), Advances in Social Bulletin, 1998, 86:307-323
3. Castelli L, Zogmaister C. The role of familiarity in implicit memory effects: The case of exemplar activation, European Journal of Social Psychology, 2000, 30: 223-234.
4. Castelli L, Zofmaister C, Arcuri L. Exemplar activation and interpersonal behavior. Crisp Vol6 No 3.htm, 2001
5. Dijksterhuis A R, Spears T, Postmes D A, et al. Seeing one thing and doing another: Contrast effects
in automatic behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998, 75: 862-871
6． Eliot R S, Michael A Z. Exemplar-based model of social Judgment. Psychological Review, 1992, 99: 3-21
7． Fiske S T, Neuberg S L. A continuum model of impression formation: From category-based to individuating processes as a function of information, motivation, and attention. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1998, 23: 1-74
8． Hintzman D L,"Schema abstraction" in a multiple-race model. Psychological Review, 1986, 93: 411-428
9． Lamberts K.Categorization under time pressure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1995, 124:161-180
10． Lewicki P. Nonconscious biasing effects of single instances of subsequent judgments, Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 1985, 48: 563-574
11． Macrae C N. On activating exemplars. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1998; 34: 330-354
12． Mckinkey S C, Nosofsky R M. Investigations of exemplar and decision bound models in large, ill-defined category structures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human, Perception and Performance, 1995,21(1) : 128-148
13． Mruphy K R, Balzer W K. Systematic distortions in memory-based behavior ratings and performance evaluations: consequences for rating accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986, 71: 39-44
14． Murphy S T, Zakpnc R B. Cognition and awareness: Affective priming with optiomal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1993, 29: 1049-1071
15． Palmeri T J, Nosofsky R M. Central tendencies, extreme points, and prototype enhancement effects in ill-defined perceptual categorization. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2001, 54A (1) : 197-235
16． Rosenthal R. Critiquing Pygmalion: A 25-year-perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1995,4: 171-172
17． Schocider D. Social cognition. Annual review of psychology, 1991,42: 533
18． Tetlock P E. Social functionalist frameworks for judgment and choice: intuitive politicians, theologians, and prosecutors. Psychological review, 2002, 109(3) : 451-47
19． Wentura D, Rothermund K, Bak P. Automatic Vigilance: The Attention-Grabbing Power of Approach-and Avoidance-Related Social Information, 2000, 78: 1024-1037
20． Fiske S T, Taylor S E. Social cognition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesly, 1984
21． Fiske S T, Taylor S E. Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991
22． Gilovich T, Medvec V H, Savitsky K. Inferences, Heuristics and biases: New directions in judgment under uncertainty. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002
23． Prtto F. Consciousness and automatic evaluation. In Niedenthal P M, S. Kitayama (Eds.), The heart's eye. New York: Academic Press, 1994
24． Simon, Schuster. Webster's New World Dictionary (third colledge edition). New York: Webster's New World, 1988
2．莫雷，陈战胜．规则策略和样例策略在归类过程中的运用．心理学报，2003，35(1)：29-36
3．王沛，林崇德．论社会认知及其发展研究(发表中)
4．王沛，林崇德．社会认知的理论模型综述．心理科学，2002，25(1)：73-75
5．王沛，王新波．社会判断中的样例激活效应．心理学报，2003，35(1)：112-119
6．邢强，莫雷，朱新明．样例学习研究的发展及问题．心理科学进展，2002，11(2)：165-170
7．禤宇明，傅小兰．样例理论的发展及其争议．心理学动态，2001，9(4)：295-301
8．朱新秤．社会认知心理学研究的新进展．心理学动态，2000，2：76-79
9．陈铁民．近代诗百首．北京：人民文学出版社，1985
10．董大年．现代汉语分类词典．上海：汉语大词典出版社，1998：362-461
11．高觉敷．西方社会心理学发展史．北京：人民教育出版社，1991．73-205
12．刘叔新．现代汉语同义词词典(增订版)．天津：天津人民出版社，1993
13．刘源．现代汉语常用词词频词典．北京：宇航出版社，1990
14．时蓉华．现代社会心理学．上海：华东师范大学出版社，1989．210-243
15．杨治良．实验心理学．杭州：浙江教育出版社，1998
16．王重鸣．心理学研究方法．北京：人民教育出版社，1990
17．王沛．实验社会心理学：理论方法与实践．兰州：甘肃教育出版社，2002
18．王沛．刻板印象的理论与研究．兰州：甘肃教育出版社，2002
19．王甦，汪安圣．认知心理学．北京：北京大学出版社，1992
20．周爱保．社会认知的理论和实验．兰州：甘肃教育出版社，2002
21．张春兴．张氏心理学辞典．上海：上海辞书出版社，1992．355
22．钟毅平．社会行为研究，长沙：湖南教育出版社，1999
23．朱智贤．心理学大词典．北京：北京师范大学出版社，1989．463
24．全国八院校编．社会心理学教程．兰州：兰州大学出版社，1986．156-159
25．中国革命史人名大辞典．海口：海南出版社，三环出版社，1991
1. Anderson S M, Cole S W."Do I know you?": The role of significant others in general social perception. Journal of Personality Social Psychology, 1990, 59:384-399
2. Brewer M B. A dual process model of impression formation. In Wyer R S, Srull T K (Eds), Advances in Social Bulletin, 1998, 86:307-323
3. Castelli L, Zogmaister C. The role of familiarity in implicit memory effects: The case of exemplar activation, European Journal of Social Psychology, 2000, 30: 223-234.
4. Castelli L, Zofmaister C, Arcuri L. Exemplar activation and interpersonal behavior. Crisp Vol6 No 3.htm, 2001
5. Dijksterhuis A R, Spears T, Postmes D A, et al. Seeing one thing and doing another: Contrast effects
in automatic behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1998, 75: 862-871
6． Eliot R S, Michael A Z. Exemplar-based model of social Judgment. Psychological Review, 1992, 99: 3-21
7． Fiske S T, Neuberg S L. A continuum model of impression formation: From category-based to individuating processes as a function of information, motivation, and attention. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1998, 23: 1-74
8． Hintzman D L,"Schema abstraction" in a multiple-race model. Psychological Review, 1986, 93: 411-428
9． Lamberts K.Categorization under time pressure. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 1995, 124:161-180
10． Lewicki P. Nonconscious biasing effects of single instances of subsequent judgments, Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 1985, 48: 563-574
11． Macrae C N. On activating exemplars. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 1998; 34: 330-354
12． Mckinkey S C, Nosofsky R M. Investigations of exemplar and decision bound models in large, ill-defined category structures. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human, Perception and Performance, 1995,21(1) : 128-148
13． Mruphy K R, Balzer W K. Systematic distortions in memory-based behavior ratings and performance evaluations: consequences for rating accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 1986, 71: 39-44
14． Murphy S T, Zakpnc R B. Cognition and awareness: Affective priming with optiomal and suboptimal stimulus exposures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1993, 29: 1049-1071
15． Palmeri T J, Nosofsky R M. Central tendencies, extreme points, and prototype enhancement effects in ill-defined perceptual categorization. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2001, 54A (1) : 197-235
16． Rosenthal R. Critiquing Pygmalion: A 25-year-perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1995,4: 171-172
17． Schocider D. Social cognition. Annual review of psychology, 1991,42: 533
18． Tetlock P E. Social functionalist frameworks for judgment and choice: intuitive politicians, theologians, and prosecutors. Psychological review, 2002, 109(3) : 451-47
19． Wentura D, Rothermund K, Bak P. Automatic Vigilance: The Attention-Grabbing Power of Approach-and Avoidance-Related Social Information, 2000, 78: 1024-1037
20． Fiske S T, Taylor S E. Social cognition. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesly, 1984
21． Fiske S T, Taylor S E. Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991
22． Gilovich T, Medvec V H, Savitsky K. Inferences, Heuristics and biases: New directions in judgment under uncertainty. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002
23． Prtto F. Consciousness and automatic evaluation. In Niedenthal P M, S. Kitayama (Eds.), The heart's eye. New York: Academic Press, 1994
24． Simon, Schuster. Webster's New World Dictionary (third colledge edition). New York: Webster's New World, 1988
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