南海水下文化遗产保护的挑战
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- 英文论文题名：The Challenges of Underwater Cultural Heritage Protection in the South China Sea
- 论文作者：巫晓发 ; 赵菊芬
- 英文论文作者：Yodsapon Nitiruchirot ; Candidate at South China Sea Institute of Xiamen University ; Mae Fah Luang University
- 年：2016
- 作者机构：厦门大学南海研究院;泰国皇太后大学;
- 论文关键词：南海 ; 《联合国海洋法公约》 ; 《保护水下文化遗产公约》 ; 水下文化遗产
- 英文论文关键词：South China Sea ; United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 ; UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage 2001 ; Underwater Cultural Heritage
- 会议召开时间：2016-12-01
- 会议录名称：中国海洋法学评论（2016年卷第2期 总第24期）
- 英文会议录名称：China Oceans Law Review(Volume 2016 Number 2)
- 语种：中文
- 分类号：D993.5
- 学会代码：XMHY
- 学会名称：厦门大学海洋法与中国东南海疆研究中心
- 页数：42
- 文件大小：1533k
- 原文格式：D
摘要
不可否认,水下文化遗产对人类非常重要,例如,其可以作为研究历史和人类祖先文明的有力工具。有鉴于此,水下文化遗产应该得到有力保护。1982年《联合国海洋法公约》和2001年联合国教科文组织《保护水下文化遗产公约》(以下简称"《2001年公约》"),都对水下文化遗产的保护做出了相关规定,后者更是水下文化遗产保护方面的专门法。水下文化遗产存在许多有争议的问题,其中南海周边水域的水下文化遗产争端最富有争议。南海连接了安达曼海和太平洋,其间的历史航线在古代就被用作海运贸易路线。由此可以推测,南海水下肯定藏有丰富的考古文物。然而有时,南海水下文化遗产的保护似乎遭到了忽视,因此,这些遗产很容易出现丢失的风险。在此背景下,本文指出了南海水下文化遗产保护所面临的3个挑战。首先,可适用的《联合国海洋法公约》尚不足以保护南海水域的水下文化遗产,《2001年公约》虽较为全面,但是南海周边各国中只有柬埔寨一国批准了该公约;其次,南海海域存在主权和划界争端;最后,南海周边各国相关的国内法尚不一致。在此情况下,作者建议,为加强南海水下文化遗产的保护,南海周边各国应该批准《2001年公约》,缔结区域协定,并协调各自的国内法。
Underwater Cultural Heritage(hereinafter "UCH") is, undeniably, important for the humankind. For instance, it is a useful tool for the study of history and our ancestors' civilization. Because of such importance, UCH should be well protected. UCH protection has been provided in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982(LOSC) and the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage(hereinafter "2001 Convention") which is known as a specific law for protecting UCH. There are a number of controversial issues related to UCH. Among them, the disputes over the UCH in the South China Sea(SCS) are most debatable. Connecting the Andaman Sea and the Pacific Ocean, the SCS was historically used as a seaborne trade route. Therefore, it is predicted that the SCS may be rich in submerged archaeological objects. However, the protection of UCH in the SCS sometimes seems to be overlooked. Hence, the risk of the UCH in the SCS being lost is high. Against this backdrop, this article points out three challenges facing UCH protection in the SCS. First, the relevant provisions under LOSC are not sufficient to protect UCH in the SCS, and all the States surrounding the SCS, except Cambodia, have not ratified the 2001 Convention, which is a comprehensive treaty designed to preserve UCH. Second, the SCS involves complex sovereignty and delimitation disputes. Lastly, the domestic laws adopted by the States surrounding the SCS are not mutually compatible. Considering these challenges, the author suggests that, in order to enhance UCH protection in the SCS, these surrounding States should ratify the 2001 Convention, conclude regional agreements, and harmonize their nationallaws.
Underwater Cultural Heritage(hereinafter "UCH") is, undeniably, important for the humankind. For instance, it is a useful tool for the study of history and our ancestors' civilization. Because of such importance, UCH should be well protected. UCH protection has been provided in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982(LOSC) and the 2001 UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage(hereinafter "2001 Convention") which is known as a specific law for protecting UCH. There are a number of controversial issues related to UCH. Among them, the disputes over the UCH in the South China Sea(SCS) are most debatable. Connecting the Andaman Sea and the Pacific Ocean, the SCS was historically used as a seaborne trade route. Therefore, it is predicted that the SCS may be rich in submerged archaeological objects. However, the protection of UCH in the SCS sometimes seems to be overlooked. Hence, the risk of the UCH in the SCS being lost is high. Against this backdrop, this article points out three challenges facing UCH protection in the SCS. First, the relevant provisions under LOSC are not sufficient to protect UCH in the SCS, and all the States surrounding the SCS, except Cambodia, have not ratified the 2001 Convention, which is a comprehensive treaty designed to preserve UCH. Second, the SCS involves complex sovereignty and delimitation disputes. Lastly, the domestic laws adopted by the States surrounding the SCS are not mutually compatible. Considering these challenges, the author suggests that, in order to enhance UCH protection in the SCS, these surrounding States should ratify the 2001 Convention, conclude regional agreements, and harmonize their nationallaws.
引文
1 Chistopher Linebaugh,Joint Development in a Semi-Enclosed Sea:China’s Duty to Cooperate in Developing the Natural Resources of the South China Sea,Columbia Journal of Transnational Law,Vol.52,No.2,2013-2014,p.548;Robert Beckman,The UNConvention on the Law of the Sea and the Maritime Disputes in the South China Sea,The American Journal of International Law,Vol.107,2013,p.143;Jeffrey Bader,Kenneth Lieberthal and Micheal Mc Devitt,Keeping the South China Sea in Perspective,p.4,at https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/south-china-sea-perspective-baderlieberthal-mcdevitt.pdf,17 October 2016.
2 Nengye Liu,Prevention of Vessel-Source Pollution in the South China Sea:What Role Can China Play?,Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law,Vol.15,2013,p.147;Liana Talaue-Mc Manus,Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea,at http://www.unepscs.org/components/com_remository_files/downloads/Transboundary_Diagnostic_Analysis_SCS.pdf,17 October 2016;Christopher C.Joyner,The Spratly Islands Dispute in the South China Sea:Problems,Policies,and Prospects for Diplomatic Accommodation,in John C.Baker and David G.Wiencek eds.,Cooperative Monitoring in the South China Sea,London:Praeger Publishers,2002,p.55;Mark J.Valencia,The South China Sea:Hydrocarbon Potential and Possibilities of Joint Development,Oxford:Pergamon Press,1980,p.1063.
3 Zou Keyuan,Joint Development in the South China Sea:A New Approach,The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,Vol.21,Issue 1,2006,p.83.
4全称为“文莱达鲁萨兰国”,在此均简称为“文莱”。
5 China Daily,2 July 2004.
6 Qu Jinliang,Protecting China’s Maritime Heritage:Current Conditions and National Policy,Journal of Marine and Island Cultures,Vol.1,Issue 1,2002,p.47,at http://ac.els-cdn.com/S2212682112000042/1-s2.0-S2212682112000042-main.pdf?_tid=f5e5dee2-94d1-11e6-b7f4-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1476754197_c51d0a2248dd24c24fb214a6902dedfb,10October 2016.
7 Liu Lina,A Chinese Perspective on the International Legal Scheme for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/7aa041be256dde0ecdb7d04bccec34a3.pdf,16 January 2016.
8 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.485.
9 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.484.
10 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.484.
11 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.485.
12 Nady Phann,History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/d77fe4436f35606533d74d9fe994f70a.pdf,4 April 2016.
13 At http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42636.html,4 April 2016.
14 At http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42636.html,4 April 2016.
15 At http://www.kaogu.cn/en/News/New_discoveries/2013/1026/43034.html,4 April 2016.
16具体投票情况,请参见Bernard H.Oxman,The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,in RenéJean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes eds.,A Handbook on the New Law of the Sea,Leiden/Boston:Brill Nijhoff,1991,p.243.一些文件记载有17个国家投了弃权票。然而,实际情况似乎是利比里亚的弃权票最初并没有被记录下来,所以没有算在弃权票数内,如果加上利比里亚,就是18票弃权。截至2014年10月10日,已有166个国家批准了《公约》。
17《公约》第1条第1款规定,“区域”是指国家管辖范围以外的海床和洋底及其底土。
18 Lucius Calfishch,Submarine Antiquities and the International Law of the Sea,Netherlands Year Book of International Law,Vol.13,1982,p.16.
19 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,p.287.
20文莱在1996年11月5日,中国在1996年6月7日,印度尼西亚在1986年2月3日,马来西亚在1996年10月14日,菲律宾在1984年5月8日,泰国在2011年5月15日,越南在1994年7月25日批准了《公约》,下载于http://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm#The United Nations,2016年3月17日。
21 Kuen-chen Fu,Essays on International Law of the Sea,Xiamen:Xiamen University Press,2004,p.47.
22 UNESCO,List Name of Deposit of Instrument on Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage,at http://www.unesco.org/eri/la/convention.asp?KO=13520&order=alpha,25 October 2015.
23《公约》第2条第3款。
24“人类”指的是世界上所有的人。
25《2001年公约》前言第10条,正文第2条第2款、第19条和第21条。
26《2001年公约》前言第5条,正文第2条第5款,以及附件第2条。
27《2001年公约》第2条第5款,附件第1条。
28《2001年公约》第4条。
29 Kuen-chen Fu,Essays on International Law of the Sea,Xiamen:Xiamen University Press,2004,p.48.
30《2001年公约》第7条第1款。
31《2001年公约》第7条第3款。
32《2001年公约》第8条。
33 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,p.290.
34《公约》第55、57条。
35《公约》第56条第1款。
36《2001年公约》第10条第3款和第9条第5款。
37《2001年公约》第10条第3款第b项。
38《2001年公约》第10条第5款。
39《2001年公约》第10条第6款。
40《2001年公约》第10条第4款。
41《2001年公约》第11条第1款。
42《2001年公约》第11条第2款。
43《2001年公约》第11条第3款。
44《2001年公约》第11条第4款。
45 Nady Phann,History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/d77fe4436f35606533d74d9fe994f70a.pdf,28 January 2016.
46东沙群岛和中沙群岛不在本文的讨论范围内。
47 Robert Beckman,China,UNCLOS and the South China Sea,at http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wpcontent/uploads/2009/09/Asian SIL-Beckman-China-UNCLOS-and-the-South-China-Sea-26-July-2011.pdf,18 October 2016.
48 Marwyn S.Samuels,Contest for the South China Sea,Virginia:Routledge,1982,p.183.
49 Bob Catley and Makmur Keliat,Spratlys:The Dispute in the South China Sea,Farnham:Ashgate Publishing,1997,p.3.
50 Robert Beckman,China,UNCLOS and the South China Sea,p.3,at http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Asian SIL-Beckman-China-UNCLOS-and-the-SouthChina-Sea-26-July-2011.pdf,18 October 2016.
51 Robert Beckman,China,UNCLOS and the South China Sea,p.3,at http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Asian SIL-Beckman-China-UNCLOS-and-the-SouthChina-Sea-26-July-2011.pdf,18 October 2016.
52 Orlando M.Hernando,The Philippine Claim to North Borneo(Master of Arts Thesis),Kansas:Kansas State University,1966,p.7.
53马泰两国一直在努力解决两国重叠区的问题。1979年2月21日,两国签署了《泰王国与马来西亚关于为开发在泰国湾两国大陆架划定区域海床资源而建立联合管理署的谅解备忘录》。该谅解备忘录规定了马泰联合开发区域,且联合管理署应根据第3条成立。双方应在50年内完成大陆架划界谈判。如果无法按期达成划界协定,谅解备忘录将在上述期限届满后继续生效。
54柬埔寨和越南于1982年7月7日签订了《历史性水域协定》,其第2条规定,两国将在合适的时间进行谈判,划定第1条中两国历史性水域的海洋边界。
55马越两国在1992年6月5日签署的《马来西亚和越南社会主义共和国关于在涉及两国大陆架的指定区域勘探和开发石油的谅解备忘录》中适用了共同开发的概念,为泰国湾的“指定区域”建立了一项共同开发制度。
56 1999年,越、泰、马三国达成了在一小块重叠区域内进行共同开发的共识。该项共识涉及近256平方海里的马泰共同开发区。然而,相关国家仍未就其他大部分重叠海域达成类似共识。
57柬泰两国于2001年6月18日签署了《柬埔寨王国政府和泰国皇室政府关于两国大陆架重叠海域主张区域的谅解备忘录》。该谅解备忘录旨在将重叠区域一分为二,并试图通过进一步协商划定南部一区的海洋边界,以及就南部二区达成共同开发油气资源的协定。
58中、菲、越三国于2005年3月14日签署了南海《三方联合海洋地震工作协议》(现已失效)。该协议涵盖了南海14.3万多平方公里的区域,距离存在争议的南沙群岛很近。其作为“勘探之前的研究,仅用于收集、处理和分析地震数据,并不涉及钻井和开发”。然而,该协议的文案并没有公开。
59 Emma Kingdon,A Case for Arbitration:The Philippines’Solution for the South China Sea Dispute,Boston College International and Comparative law Review,Vol.38,Issue 1,2015,p.129.
60 At http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/PH-CN%20-%2020160712%20-%20Award.pdf,17October 2016.
61国家海洋局政策法规和规划司编:《中华人民共和国海洋法规选编》,北京:海洋出版社1998年版,第461~465页。
62 Kuen-chen Fu,Essays on International Law of the Sea,Xiamen:Xiamen University Press,2004,p.22.
63 Wendy Zeldin,Taiwan:Law on Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Adopted,at http://loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/taiwan-law-on-protection-of-underwater-culturalheritage-adopted/,4 April 2016;下载于http://www.moc.gov.tw/information_250_40686.html,2016年4月4日。
64 Nady Phann,History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/d77fe4436f35606533d74d9fe994f70a.pdf,4 April 2016.
65不包括大陆架。
66 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,pp.65~66.
67 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,pp.90~91.
68《管理条例》第2条第2款。
69柬埔寨《文化遗产保护法》第2条第4款。
70柬埔寨《2002年子法令》第2条第4款。
71台湾《水下文化资产保存法》第3条第1款规定:“水下文化资产:指以全部或一部且周期性或连续性位于水下……”。
72 Zhao Yajuan,On the Legal Basis of the UCH Protection on the Two Sides of Taiwan StraitA Comparative Study of the Current Mainland UCH Law and the Related Taiwanese Draft Law,China Oceans Law Review,No.2,2010,p.114.
73马来西亚《国家遗产法令》第66条第1款。
74马来西亚《国家遗产法令》第66条第2款。
75马来西亚《国家遗产法令》第66条第5款。
76 Malcolm N.Shaw,International Law(Sixed Edition),Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2008,p.645.
77 Anthony Aust,Handbook of International Law(Second Edition),Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010,p.42.
78 Anthony Aust,Handbook of International Law(Second Edition),Cambridge:Cam-bridge University Press,pp.43~44.
79 UNESCO,at http://www.unesco.org/eri/la/convention.asp?KO=13520&language=E&order=alpha#1,9 April 2016.
80《公约》第303条第4款规定,“本条不妨害关于保护考古和历史性文物的其他国际协议和国际法则。”
81《2001年公约》第6条第1款规定,“鼓励缔约国为保护水下文化遗产,签订双边、地区或其他多边协定,或对现有的协定加以补充”。
82 R.Garabello and T.Scovazzi,The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage:Before and After the 2001 UNESCO Convention,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2003,pp.274~275.
83 At http://www.nba.fi/en/File/701/copuch-ohjeistus.pdf,18 October 2016.
84 S.Tikkanen,MOSS:Common European Underwater Cultural Heritage-Challenges for Cultural Resource Management,in Jerzy Litwin ed.,Baltic Sea Identity:Common SeaCommon Culture?,Gdańsk:Ministry of Culture of Poland,2003,p.188.
85 P.Lejoneke and B.Varenius,The BUCH Programme and the Rutius Project,in Jerzy Litwin ed.,Baltic Sea Identity:Common Sea-Common Culture?,Gdańsk:the Ministry of Culture of Poland,2003,p.188.4“Brunei”is used here for convenience instead of the formal name Negara Brunei Darussalam.5 China Daily,2 July 2004.
16 For the distribution of the votes,see Bernard H.Oxman,The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,in RenéJean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes eds.,AHandbook on the New Law of the Sea,Leiden/Boston:Brill Nijhoff,1991,p.243.Some documents recorded that seventeen States abstained.However,it would seem that an abstention by Liberia,which was initially unrecorded,was not counted in the abstention number.By including Liberia’s abstention,that number should be eighteen.As of 10October 2014,166 States have ratified the LOSC.
17 The LOSC,Article 1(1):“The Area means the sea-bed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof,beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.”
20 Brunei ratified on 5 November 1996,China ratified on 7 June 1996,Indonesia ratified on 3 February 1986,Malaysia ratified on 14 October 1996,the Philippines ratified on 8 May 1984,Thailand ratified on 15 May 2011,Vietnam ratified on 25 July 1994,at http://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm#The United Nations,17 March 2016.
23 The LOSC,Article 2(3).
24“Humanity”and“Mankind”mean all the people in the world
25 The 2001 Convention,preamble cl.10,Articles 2(2),19 and 21.
26 The 2001 Convention,preamble cl.5,Article 2(5)and Rule 2 of the Annex.
27 The 2001 Convention,Article 2(5)and Rule 1 of the Annex.
28 The 2001 Convention,Article 4.
30 The 2001 Convention,Article 7(1).
31 The 2001 Convention,Article 7(3).
32 The 2001 Convention,Article 8.
33 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,p.290.
34 The LOSC,Articles 55,57.
35 The LOSC,Article 56(1).
36 The 2001 Convention,Articles 10(3)and 9(5).
37 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(3)(b).
38 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(5).
39 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(6).
40 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(4).
41 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(1).
42 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(2).
43 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(3).
44 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(4).
46 Pratas Islands and Macclesfield Bank were excluded in this article.
53 The two States have long been trying to solve the problem regarding the overlapping area.On 21 February 1979,Thailand and Malaysia signed the Memorandum of Understanding between the Kingdom of Thailand and Malaysia on the Establishment of a Joint Authority for Exploitation of Resources of the Seabed in a Defined Area of the Continental Shelf for the Two Countries in the Gulf of Thailand(hereinafter“MOU 1979”).The MOU1979 provides for the joint developing area,and also prescribes that the Joint Authority of Malaysia-Thailand shall be established under Article III.Both parties shall negotiate to delimit the boundary of the continental shelf within the fifty-year period.If this cannot be achieved,the MOU 1979 shall continue after the expiry of the said period.
54 Article 2 of the Agreement on Historic Waters of Vietnam and Kampuchea,7 July 1982,provides that the two countries will hold at a suitable time negotiations in order to delimit the maritime frontier between the two countries in the historical waters which is defined in Article 1 of the Agreement.
55 The two States applied the concept of joint development to the Memorandum of Understanding between Malaysia and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam for the Exploration and Exploitation of Petroleum in a Defined Area of the Continental Shelf Involving the Two Countries,which was signed on 5 June 1992,instituting a joint exploitation regime for the“Defined Area”in the Gulf of Thailand.
56 In 1999,Vietnam,Thailand and Malaysia agreed on the principle of joint development for a small overlapping area.The arrangement covers an area of approximately 256 sq nm of the Malaysia-Thailand Joint Development Zone.Nevertheless,no agreements have been made on most of the remaining overlapping maritime zones.
57 The two countries concluded Memorandum of Understanding between the Royal Government of Cambodia and the Royal Thai Government Regarding the Area of Their Overlapping Maritime Claims to the Continental Shelf,on 18 June 2001.The MOU 2001 aims to divide the overlapping area into two areas,and to attempt,through further negotiations,to define maritime border for the northern Area I as well as to agree upon a treaty for joint development of the hydrocarbon resources in the southern Area II.
58 The three States signed the 2005 China-Philippines-Vietnam Provisional Arrangement,Joint Marine Seismic Surveys(South China Sea),on 14 March 2005(no longer in force).The arrangement covers the areas over 143,000 sq km in the South China Sea,near the disputed Spratly Islands.It was framed as a“pre-exploration study solely to collect,to process and to analyze seismic data and no drilling and development involved”.However,the text of the agreement was not made public.
61 Office of Policy,Law and Regulation,State Oceanic Administration ed.,Collection of the Sea Laws and Regulations of the People’s Republic of China,2nd edition,Beijing:China Ocean Press,1998,pp.461~465.
65 Not include continental shelf.
68 The Regulations,Article 2(2).
69 The original word“lull”is believed to be a typo of“hull”by the author.
70 The 1996 Cambodian Law on Cultural Heritage Protection,Article 2(4).
71 The 2002 Cambodian Sub-decree,Article 2(4).
72 The 2015 Taiwan Law,Article 3(1)states,“underwater cultural heritage refers to…that have been wholly or partially submerged underwater periodically or continuously.”
74 2005 Malaysian National Heritage Bill,Section 66(1).
75 2005 Malaysian National Heritage Bill,Section 66(2).
76 2005 Malaysian National Heritage Bill,Section 66(5).
81 The LOSC Article 303(4)stipulates“[t]his article is without prejudice to other international agreements and rules of international law regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature”.
82 The 2001 Convention,Article 6(1)states“States Parties are encouraged to enter into bilateral,regional or other multilateral agreements or develop existing agreements,for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage”.
86 P.Lejoneke and B.Varenius,The BUCH Programme and the Rutius Project,in Jerzy Litwin ed.,Baltic Sea Identity:Common Sea-Common Culture?,Gdańsk:the Ministry of Culture of Poland,2003,p.188.
2 Nengye Liu,Prevention of Vessel-Source Pollution in the South China Sea:What Role Can China Play?,Asia Pacific Journal of Environmental Law,Vol.15,2013,p.147;Liana Talaue-Mc Manus,Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis for the South China Sea,at http://www.unepscs.org/components/com_remository_files/downloads/Transboundary_Diagnostic_Analysis_SCS.pdf,17 October 2016;Christopher C.Joyner,The Spratly Islands Dispute in the South China Sea:Problems,Policies,and Prospects for Diplomatic Accommodation,in John C.Baker and David G.Wiencek eds.,Cooperative Monitoring in the South China Sea,London:Praeger Publishers,2002,p.55;Mark J.Valencia,The South China Sea:Hydrocarbon Potential and Possibilities of Joint Development,Oxford:Pergamon Press,1980,p.1063.
3 Zou Keyuan,Joint Development in the South China Sea:A New Approach,The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,Vol.21,Issue 1,2006,p.83.
4全称为“文莱达鲁萨兰国”,在此均简称为“文莱”。
5 China Daily,2 July 2004.
6 Qu Jinliang,Protecting China’s Maritime Heritage:Current Conditions and National Policy,Journal of Marine and Island Cultures,Vol.1,Issue 1,2002,p.47,at http://ac.els-cdn.com/S2212682112000042/1-s2.0-S2212682112000042-main.pdf?_tid=f5e5dee2-94d1-11e6-b7f4-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1476754197_c51d0a2248dd24c24fb214a6902dedfb,10October 2016.
7 Liu Lina,A Chinese Perspective on the International Legal Scheme for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/7aa041be256dde0ecdb7d04bccec34a3.pdf,16 January 2016.
8 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.485.
9 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.484.
10 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.484.
11 Zhu Huayou and Ren Huaifeng,Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in the South China Sea and Regional Cooperation,in Myron H.Nordquist,John Norton Moore and Kuen-chen Fu eds.,Recent Developments in the Law of the Sea and China,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2006,p.485.
12 Nady Phann,History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/d77fe4436f35606533d74d9fe994f70a.pdf,4 April 2016.
13 At http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42636.html,4 April 2016.
14 At http://www.kaogu.cn/en/backup_new/new/2013/1026/42636.html,4 April 2016.
15 At http://www.kaogu.cn/en/News/New_discoveries/2013/1026/43034.html,4 April 2016.
16具体投票情况,请参见Bernard H.Oxman,The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,in RenéJean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes eds.,A Handbook on the New Law of the Sea,Leiden/Boston:Brill Nijhoff,1991,p.243.一些文件记载有17个国家投了弃权票。然而,实际情况似乎是利比里亚的弃权票最初并没有被记录下来,所以没有算在弃权票数内,如果加上利比里亚,就是18票弃权。截至2014年10月10日,已有166个国家批准了《公约》。
17《公约》第1条第1款规定,“区域”是指国家管辖范围以外的海床和洋底及其底土。
18 Lucius Calfishch,Submarine Antiquities and the International Law of the Sea,Netherlands Year Book of International Law,Vol.13,1982,p.16.
19 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,p.287.
20文莱在1996年11月5日,中国在1996年6月7日,印度尼西亚在1986年2月3日,马来西亚在1996年10月14日,菲律宾在1984年5月8日,泰国在2011年5月15日,越南在1994年7月25日批准了《公约》,下载于http://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm#The United Nations,2016年3月17日。
21 Kuen-chen Fu,Essays on International Law of the Sea,Xiamen:Xiamen University Press,2004,p.47.
22 UNESCO,List Name of Deposit of Instrument on Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage,at http://www.unesco.org/eri/la/convention.asp?KO=13520&order=alpha,25 October 2015.
23《公约》第2条第3款。
24“人类”指的是世界上所有的人。
25《2001年公约》前言第10条,正文第2条第2款、第19条和第21条。
26《2001年公约》前言第5条,正文第2条第5款,以及附件第2条。
27《2001年公约》第2条第5款,附件第1条。
28《2001年公约》第4条。
29 Kuen-chen Fu,Essays on International Law of the Sea,Xiamen:Xiamen University Press,2004,p.48.
30《2001年公约》第7条第1款。
31《2001年公约》第7条第3款。
32《2001年公约》第8条。
33 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,p.290.
34《公约》第55、57条。
35《公约》第56条第1款。
36《2001年公约》第10条第3款和第9条第5款。
37《2001年公约》第10条第3款第b项。
38《2001年公约》第10条第5款。
39《2001年公约》第10条第6款。
40《2001年公约》第10条第4款。
41《2001年公约》第11条第1款。
42《2001年公约》第11条第2款。
43《2001年公约》第11条第3款。
44《2001年公约》第11条第4款。
45 Nady Phann,History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/d77fe4436f35606533d74d9fe994f70a.pdf,28 January 2016.
46东沙群岛和中沙群岛不在本文的讨论范围内。
47 Robert Beckman,China,UNCLOS and the South China Sea,at http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wpcontent/uploads/2009/09/Asian SIL-Beckman-China-UNCLOS-and-the-South-China-Sea-26-July-2011.pdf,18 October 2016.
48 Marwyn S.Samuels,Contest for the South China Sea,Virginia:Routledge,1982,p.183.
49 Bob Catley and Makmur Keliat,Spratlys:The Dispute in the South China Sea,Farnham:Ashgate Publishing,1997,p.3.
50 Robert Beckman,China,UNCLOS and the South China Sea,p.3,at http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Asian SIL-Beckman-China-UNCLOS-and-the-SouthChina-Sea-26-July-2011.pdf,18 October 2016.
51 Robert Beckman,China,UNCLOS and the South China Sea,p.3,at http://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp/wp-content/uploads/2009/09/Asian SIL-Beckman-China-UNCLOS-and-the-SouthChina-Sea-26-July-2011.pdf,18 October 2016.
52 Orlando M.Hernando,The Philippine Claim to North Borneo(Master of Arts Thesis),Kansas:Kansas State University,1966,p.7.
53马泰两国一直在努力解决两国重叠区的问题。1979年2月21日,两国签署了《泰王国与马来西亚关于为开发在泰国湾两国大陆架划定区域海床资源而建立联合管理署的谅解备忘录》。该谅解备忘录规定了马泰联合开发区域,且联合管理署应根据第3条成立。双方应在50年内完成大陆架划界谈判。如果无法按期达成划界协定,谅解备忘录将在上述期限届满后继续生效。
54柬埔寨和越南于1982年7月7日签订了《历史性水域协定》,其第2条规定,两国将在合适的时间进行谈判,划定第1条中两国历史性水域的海洋边界。
55马越两国在1992年6月5日签署的《马来西亚和越南社会主义共和国关于在涉及两国大陆架的指定区域勘探和开发石油的谅解备忘录》中适用了共同开发的概念,为泰国湾的“指定区域”建立了一项共同开发制度。
56 1999年,越、泰、马三国达成了在一小块重叠区域内进行共同开发的共识。该项共识涉及近256平方海里的马泰共同开发区。然而,相关国家仍未就其他大部分重叠海域达成类似共识。
57柬泰两国于2001年6月18日签署了《柬埔寨王国政府和泰国皇室政府关于两国大陆架重叠海域主张区域的谅解备忘录》。该谅解备忘录旨在将重叠区域一分为二,并试图通过进一步协商划定南部一区的海洋边界,以及就南部二区达成共同开发油气资源的协定。
58中、菲、越三国于2005年3月14日签署了南海《三方联合海洋地震工作协议》(现已失效)。该协议涵盖了南海14.3万多平方公里的区域,距离存在争议的南沙群岛很近。其作为“勘探之前的研究,仅用于收集、处理和分析地震数据,并不涉及钻井和开发”。然而,该协议的文案并没有公开。
59 Emma Kingdon,A Case for Arbitration:The Philippines’Solution for the South China Sea Dispute,Boston College International and Comparative law Review,Vol.38,Issue 1,2015,p.129.
60 At http://www.pcacases.com/pcadocs/PH-CN%20-%2020160712%20-%20Award.pdf,17October 2016.
61国家海洋局政策法规和规划司编:《中华人民共和国海洋法规选编》,北京:海洋出版社1998年版,第461~465页。
62 Kuen-chen Fu,Essays on International Law of the Sea,Xiamen:Xiamen University Press,2004,p.22.
63 Wendy Zeldin,Taiwan:Law on Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage Adopted,at http://loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/taiwan-law-on-protection-of-underwater-culturalheritage-adopted/,4 April 2016;下载于http://www.moc.gov.tw/information_250_40686.html,2016年4月4日。
64 Nady Phann,History and Current Status of Underwater Cultural Heritage in Cambodia,at http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/d77fe4436f35606533d74d9fe994f70a.pdf,4 April 2016.
65不包括大陆架。
66 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,pp.65~66.
67 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,pp.90~91.
68《管理条例》第2条第2款。
69柬埔寨《文化遗产保护法》第2条第4款。
70柬埔寨《2002年子法令》第2条第4款。
71台湾《水下文化资产保存法》第3条第1款规定:“水下文化资产:指以全部或一部且周期性或连续性位于水下……”。
72 Zhao Yajuan,On the Legal Basis of the UCH Protection on the Two Sides of Taiwan StraitA Comparative Study of the Current Mainland UCH Law and the Related Taiwanese Draft Law,China Oceans Law Review,No.2,2010,p.114.
73马来西亚《国家遗产法令》第66条第1款。
74马来西亚《国家遗产法令》第66条第2款。
75马来西亚《国家遗产法令》第66条第5款。
76 Malcolm N.Shaw,International Law(Sixed Edition),Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2008,p.645.
77 Anthony Aust,Handbook of International Law(Second Edition),Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2010,p.42.
78 Anthony Aust,Handbook of International Law(Second Edition),Cambridge:Cam-bridge University Press,pp.43~44.
79 UNESCO,at http://www.unesco.org/eri/la/convention.asp?KO=13520&language=E&order=alpha#1,9 April 2016.
80《公约》第303条第4款规定,“本条不妨害关于保护考古和历史性文物的其他国际协议和国际法则。”
81《2001年公约》第6条第1款规定,“鼓励缔约国为保护水下文化遗产,签订双边、地区或其他多边协定,或对现有的协定加以补充”。
82 R.Garabello and T.Scovazzi,The Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage:Before and After the 2001 UNESCO Convention,Leiden/Boston:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,2003,pp.274~275.
83 At http://www.nba.fi/en/File/701/copuch-ohjeistus.pdf,18 October 2016.
84 S.Tikkanen,MOSS:Common European Underwater Cultural Heritage-Challenges for Cultural Resource Management,in Jerzy Litwin ed.,Baltic Sea Identity:Common SeaCommon Culture?,Gdańsk:Ministry of Culture of Poland,2003,p.188.
85 P.Lejoneke and B.Varenius,The BUCH Programme and the Rutius Project,in Jerzy Litwin ed.,Baltic Sea Identity:Common Sea-Common Culture?,Gdańsk:the Ministry of Culture of Poland,2003,p.188.4“Brunei”is used here for convenience instead of the formal name Negara Brunei Darussalam.5 China Daily,2 July 2004.
16 For the distribution of the votes,see Bernard H.Oxman,The Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea,in RenéJean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes eds.,AHandbook on the New Law of the Sea,Leiden/Boston:Brill Nijhoff,1991,p.243.Some documents recorded that seventeen States abstained.However,it would seem that an abstention by Liberia,which was initially unrecorded,was not counted in the abstention number.By including Liberia’s abstention,that number should be eighteen.As of 10October 2014,166 States have ratified the LOSC.
17 The LOSC,Article 1(1):“The Area means the sea-bed and ocean floor and subsoil thereof,beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.”
20 Brunei ratified on 5 November 1996,China ratified on 7 June 1996,Indonesia ratified on 3 February 1986,Malaysia ratified on 14 October 1996,the Philippines ratified on 8 May 1984,Thailand ratified on 15 May 2011,Vietnam ratified on 25 July 1994,at http://www.un.org/depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htm#The United Nations,17 March 2016.
23 The LOSC,Article 2(3).
24“Humanity”and“Mankind”mean all the people in the world
25 The 2001 Convention,preamble cl.10,Articles 2(2),19 and 21.
26 The 2001 Convention,preamble cl.5,Article 2(5)and Rule 2 of the Annex.
27 The 2001 Convention,Article 2(5)and Rule 1 of the Annex.
28 The 2001 Convention,Article 4.
30 The 2001 Convention,Article 7(1).
31 The 2001 Convention,Article 7(3).
32 The 2001 Convention,Article 8.
33 Sarah Dromgoole,Underwater Cultural Heritage and International Law,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2013,p.290.
34 The LOSC,Articles 55,57.
35 The LOSC,Article 56(1).
36 The 2001 Convention,Articles 10(3)and 9(5).
37 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(3)(b).
38 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(5).
39 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(6).
40 The 2001 Convention,Article 10(4).
41 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(1).
42 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(2).
43 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(3).
44 The 2001 Convention,Article 11(4).
46 Pratas Islands and Macclesfield Bank were excluded in this article.
53 The two States have long been trying to solve the problem regarding the overlapping area.On 21 February 1979,Thailand and Malaysia signed the Memorandum of Understanding between the Kingdom of Thailand and Malaysia on the Establishment of a Joint Authority for Exploitation of Resources of the Seabed in a Defined Area of the Continental Shelf for the Two Countries in the Gulf of Thailand(hereinafter“MOU 1979”).The MOU1979 provides for the joint developing area,and also prescribes that the Joint Authority of Malaysia-Thailand shall be established under Article III.Both parties shall negotiate to delimit the boundary of the continental shelf within the fifty-year period.If this cannot be achieved,the MOU 1979 shall continue after the expiry of the said period.
54 Article 2 of the Agreement on Historic Waters of Vietnam and Kampuchea,7 July 1982,provides that the two countries will hold at a suitable time negotiations in order to delimit the maritime frontier between the two countries in the historical waters which is defined in Article 1 of the Agreement.
55 The two States applied the concept of joint development to the Memorandum of Understanding between Malaysia and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam for the Exploration and Exploitation of Petroleum in a Defined Area of the Continental Shelf Involving the Two Countries,which was signed on 5 June 1992,instituting a joint exploitation regime for the“Defined Area”in the Gulf of Thailand.
56 In 1999,Vietnam,Thailand and Malaysia agreed on the principle of joint development for a small overlapping area.The arrangement covers an area of approximately 256 sq nm of the Malaysia-Thailand Joint Development Zone.Nevertheless,no agreements have been made on most of the remaining overlapping maritime zones.
57 The two countries concluded Memorandum of Understanding between the Royal Government of Cambodia and the Royal Thai Government Regarding the Area of Their Overlapping Maritime Claims to the Continental Shelf,on 18 June 2001.The MOU 2001 aims to divide the overlapping area into two areas,and to attempt,through further negotiations,to define maritime border for the northern Area I as well as to agree upon a treaty for joint development of the hydrocarbon resources in the southern Area II.
58 The three States signed the 2005 China-Philippines-Vietnam Provisional Arrangement,Joint Marine Seismic Surveys(South China Sea),on 14 March 2005(no longer in force).The arrangement covers the areas over 143,000 sq km in the South China Sea,near the disputed Spratly Islands.It was framed as a“pre-exploration study solely to collect,to process and to analyze seismic data and no drilling and development involved”.However,the text of the agreement was not made public.
61 Office of Policy,Law and Regulation,State Oceanic Administration ed.,Collection of the Sea Laws and Regulations of the People’s Republic of China,2nd edition,Beijing:China Ocean Press,1998,pp.461~465.
65 Not include continental shelf.
68 The Regulations,Article 2(2).
69 The original word“lull”is believed to be a typo of“hull”by the author.
70 The 1996 Cambodian Law on Cultural Heritage Protection,Article 2(4).
71 The 2002 Cambodian Sub-decree,Article 2(4).
72 The 2015 Taiwan Law,Article 3(1)states,“underwater cultural heritage refers to…that have been wholly or partially submerged underwater periodically or continuously.”
74 2005 Malaysian National Heritage Bill,Section 66(1).
75 2005 Malaysian National Heritage Bill,Section 66(2).
76 2005 Malaysian National Heritage Bill,Section 66(5).
81 The LOSC Article 303(4)stipulates“[t]his article is without prejudice to other international agreements and rules of international law regarding the protection of objects of an archaeological and historical nature”.
82 The 2001 Convention,Article 6(1)states“States Parties are encouraged to enter into bilateral,regional or other multilateral agreements or develop existing agreements,for the preservation of underwater cultural heritage”.
86 P.Lejoneke and B.Varenius,The BUCH Programme and the Rutius Project,in Jerzy Litwin ed.,Baltic Sea Identity:Common Sea-Common Culture?,Gdańsk:the Ministry of Culture of Poland,2003,p.188.
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