国家管辖范围以外的海洋公域管理
详细信息 查看官网全文
- 英文论文题名：Managing the Ocean Commons Beyond National Jurisdiction
- 论文作者：Theodore Okonkwo ; 谢红月
- 英文论文作者：Theodore Okonkwo ; Department of Public Law ; Faculty of Law ; University of Port-Harcourt
- 年：2016
- 作者机构：尼日利亚哈考特港大学法学院国际公法系;
- 论文关键词：海洋公域 ; 全球公域 ; 生物多样性 ; 国家管辖范围以外区域 ; 《联合国海洋法公约》 ; 可持续管理 ; 争端解决机制
- 英文论文关键词：Ocean commons ; Global commons ; Biodiversity ; Areas beyond national jurisdiction ; UNCLOS ; Sustainable management ; Dispute settlement mechanism
- 会议召开时间：2016-12-01
- 会议录名称：中国海洋法学评论（2016年卷第2期 总第24期）
- 英文会议录名称：China Oceans Law Review(Volume 2016 Number 2)
- 语种：中文
- 分类号：D993.5
- 学会代码：XMHY
- 学会名称：厦门大学海洋法与中国东南海疆研究中心
- 页数：46
- 文件大小：1377k
- 原文格式：D
摘要
迄今为止,国际社会获取周边海域的方式都带有殖民化的色彩,往往以国家利益的名义获取新领土。地球上大部分的海洋都位于特定国家和地区的海岸或边界之外,过去,人类对海洋的认识有限,各国之间也因此产生了各种冲突。在此背景下,各国有必要也有法定义务来制定国家管辖范围以外海洋公域的管理方式和方法。最近,世界各国政府齐聚纽约,召开了第一届联合国筹备委员会会议,讨论一项旨在保护国家管辖范围以外海洋生物多样性的新国际条约的主要内容,并将在2017年将相关内容报告给联合国大会。本文将讨论公海保护活动中的这一重要进展。此外,海洋公域治理中还存在一些关键问题,本文希望在提高公众对这些问题的意识的同时,填补海洋公域管理中的一些空白。1982年《联合国海洋法公约》是一部海洋宪章,本文将研究该公约中有关海洋管理的规定。此外,本文还将探讨海洋公域与全球公域的构成、涉及海洋公域的法律制度、《联合国海洋法公约》中规定的争端解决机制的作用,并讨论国家管辖范围以外区域海洋生物多样性的保护和可持续利用。
The approach of the international community to the surrounding waters has so far been inscribed in a logic of colonization and acquiring new territories in the name of national interest. The greater number of the earth's oceans are situated beyond the seashore or border of particular States and territories and the paucity of information concerning the oceans in the past has generated conflicts among States. In this context, there is a necessity and legal burden on States to fashion out ways and means of managing the ocean commons beyond national jurisdiction. Recently, world governments met in New York for the First Session of the United Nations Preparatory Committee to discuss the elements of a new international treaty to protect biodiversity in oceans beyond national jurisdiction and report back in 2017 to the United Nations General Assembly. Discussing this momentous process to protect the high seas, this article hopes to address some of the gaps in the management of the ocean commons and raise public awareness of some critical issues facing the ocean commons governance. Since the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS), 1982, is the constitution of the seas, this article examines the UNCLOS provisions related to ocean management. The focus also shifts to what constitutes ocean and global commons; the legal regime of ocean commons and the role of dispute settlement mechanisms articulated under UNCLOS, with a discussion on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in the areas beyond national jurisdiction(ABNJ).
The approach of the international community to the surrounding waters has so far been inscribed in a logic of colonization and acquiring new territories in the name of national interest. The greater number of the earth's oceans are situated beyond the seashore or border of particular States and territories and the paucity of information concerning the oceans in the past has generated conflicts among States. In this context, there is a necessity and legal burden on States to fashion out ways and means of managing the ocean commons beyond national jurisdiction. Recently, world governments met in New York for the First Session of the United Nations Preparatory Committee to discuss the elements of a new international treaty to protect biodiversity in oceans beyond national jurisdiction and report back in 2017 to the United Nations General Assembly. Discussing this momentous process to protect the high seas, this article hopes to address some of the gaps in the management of the ocean commons and raise public awareness of some critical issues facing the ocean commons governance. Since the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea(UNCLOS), 1982, is the constitution of the seas, this article examines the UNCLOS provisions related to ocean management. The focus also shifts to what constitutes ocean and global commons; the legal regime of ocean commons and the role of dispute settlement mechanisms articulated under UNCLOS, with a discussion on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in the areas beyond national jurisdiction(ABNJ).
引文
1 Bethan C.O’Leary,Marit Winther-Johnson,John M.Bainbridge,Jemma Aitken,Julie P.Hawkins and Callum M.Roberts,Effective Coverage Targets for Ocean Protection,Conservation Letters,2016,at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/conl.12247/pdf,12 July 2016.
2 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development(the Rio+20 Summit),2012.
3 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Rio+20,The Future We Want,June 2012,para.162.
4 Olivier Dubuquoy and Edouard Gaudot,The Ocean:From Colonized Territory to Global Nation,Green European Journal,Vol.12,2016,at http://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/7945-2/,24 October 2016.
5 Olivier Dubuquoy and Edouard Gaudot,The Ocean:From Colonized Territory to Global Nation,Green European Journal,Vol.12,2016,at http://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/7945-2/,24 October 2016.
6 Birdlife South Africa,Report Workshop on Seabed Bycatch Mitigation in China’s Tuna Longline Fisheries,Shanghai,China,17 April 2015,at http://www.commonoceans.org/fileadmin/user_upload/common_oceans/docs/BLI_China Workshop Report17Apr2015.pdf,12 July 2016;FAO,Report of the Second Project Steering Committee:Sustainable Management of Tuna Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation in ABNJ,Rome,Italy,28-30July 2015,at http://www.commonoceans.org/fileadmin/user_upload/common_oceans/docs/ABNJ-Tuna-2015-PSC.pdf,12 July 2016.
7 Boyce Thorne-Miller,The Living Ocean:Understanding and Protecting Marine Biodiversity,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1999;Cyrille de Klemm and Clare Shine,Biological Diversity Conservation and the Law:Legal Mechanism for Conserving Species and Ecosystems,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1993;Richard L.Wallace ed.,The Marine Mammal Commission Compendium of Selected Treaties,International Agreements and Other Relevant Documents on Marine Resources,Wildlife and Environment,Washington D.C.:Marine Mammal Commission,1997.
8 Charles S.Colgan,The Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics:An Introduction and Invitation,Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics,Vol.2014,Article 8,December 2014,at http://cbe.miis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=joce,12 July 2016.
9 Earth Negotiations Bulletin(ENB),Vol.25,No.106,11 April 2016,at http://www.iisd.ca/vol25/enb25106e.html,12 July 2016.
10 A.T.Mahan,The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783,reprint,London:Methuen&Co.Ltd.,1965.
11 James C.F.Wang,Handbook on Ocean Politics and Law,New York:Greenwood Press,1992,pp.107~142.
12 Garrett Hardin,The Tragedy of the Commons,Science,Vol.162,Issue 3859,1968,pp.1243~1248.
13管理海洋公域的主要公约、条约和协定包括:1982年《公约》、1992年《生物多样性公约》、1973年《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》、1946年《国际捕鲸公约》、1995年《执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉有关养护和管理跨界鱼类种群和高度洄游鱼类种群之规定的协定》、1980年《南极海洋生物资源养护公约》、1972年《防止倾倒废物和其他物质污染海洋的公约》、《国际防止船舶造成污染公约》、《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》和1995年《保护海洋环境免受陆源污染国家行动计划》。
14在2015年1月23日举行的第69届联合国大会上,不限成员名额非正式特设工作组重申了在《我们想要的未来》第162段所作出的承诺。该文件是2012年6月20-22日在巴西里约热内卢举行的联合国可持续发展大会成果文件。2012年7月27日,联合国大会第66/288号决议批准了该文件,各国元首和政府首脑在决议中承诺在不限成员名额非正式特设工作组工作的基础上,立刻解决保护和可持续利用国家管辖范围以外海洋生物多样性的问题,包括决定根据《公约》来制定一份国际文书。
15 Philip E.Steinberg,The Social Construction of the Ocean,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001,p.4.
16截至2016年10月26日,已有168个国家批准、加入或继承其前身加入《公约》。《公约》全文和状态,下载于http://www.un.org/depts/los/,2016年10月26日。
17 UNCLOS,Article 192.
18 Boyce Thorne-Miller,The Living Ocean:Understanding and Protecting Marine Biodiversity,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1999.
19 Cyrille de Klemm and Clare Shine,Biological Diversity,Conserving Species and Ecosystems,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1993.
20 Jeff Ardon,Elisabeth Druel,Kristina Gjerde,Katherine Houghton,Julien Rochette and Sebastian Unger,Advancing Governance of the High Seas,IASS Policy Brief 1/2013,May2013.
21 At http://en.unesco.org/events/towards-sustainable-development-goal-ocean-healthyproductive-and-resilient-ocean-people,11 October 2016.
22《公约》确实设立了强制且具有约束力的争端解决机制,但是争端解决机制与遵约是不同的。
23《公约》设立的这3个机构分别是国际海底管理局、国际海洋法法庭和大陆架界限委员会。每个机构都是独立的,各自肩负《公约》规定的特定与有限责任。
24 Global Ocean Commission,From Decline to Recovery:A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean,at http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/GOC_report_2015.July_2.pdf,12 July 2016.
25 Global Ocean Commission,From Decline to Recovery:A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean,http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/GOC_report_2015.July_2.pdf,12 July 2016.
26 Global Ocean Commission,From Decline to Recovery:A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean,at http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/GOC_report_2015.July_2.pdf,12 July 2016.
27 WBGU,World in Transition:Governing the Marine Heritage,p.253,at http://www.wbgu.de/fileadmin/templates/dateien/veroeffentlichungen/hauptgutachten/hg2013/wbgu_hg2013_en.pdf,24 October 2016.
28 Anshuman Chakraborty,Dispute Settlement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Its Role in Oceans Governance(LL.M Thesis),New Zealand:Victoria University of Wellington,2006.
29 Elinor Ostrom,Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action,New York:Cambridge University Press,1990,p.181.
30 European Commission,“What is Governance?”,at http://europa.eu.int/comm./governance/index_en.htm,9 September 2016.
31 Annex VII&VIII and Parts XI and XV,UNCLOS.
32 Annex VII&VIII and Parts XI and XV,UNCLOS.
33 Statute of the ITLOS,Article 21.
34 Statute of the ITLOS,Article 20.
35 UNCLOS,Article 279.
36 PCA Case No.2013-19:The Republic of Philippines v.The People’s Republic of China.
37 UNCLOS,Article 287.
38 ITLOS,Case Nos.7&23.
39 Statute of the ITLOS,Article 36.
40 UNCLOS,Article 191.
41 Rules of the ITLOS,Article 138.
42 L.B.Sohn,The Importance of the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,in Myron H.Nordquist and John Norton Moore eds.,Entry into Force of the Law of the Sea Convention,The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1995.
43 U.N.Document A/CONF.62/WP.9/ADD.1,Memorandum by the President of the Conference on document A/CONF.62/WP.9,31 March 1976,p.122.
44 Ivan A.Shearer,The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and Its Potential for Resolving Navigational Disputes,in Donald R.Rothwell and Sam Bateman eds.,Navigational Rights and Freedoms and the New Law of the Sea,The Hague:Kluwer Law International,2000.
45 Lawrence Juda,International Law and Ocean Use Management:The Evolution of Ocean Governance,London:Routledge,1996.
46截至目前,向海洋法法庭提交的案件共有25起,详情请参见https://www.itlos.org/en/cases/list-of-cases/。
47 Sue Nichols,David Monahan and Michael Sutherland,Good Governance of Canada’s Offshore and Coastal Zone:Towards an Understanding of the Marine Boundary Issues,Geomatica,Vol.54,No.4,2000,p.415.
48 At http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/oceancommission/publicomment/novgencomment/fry_comment.pdf,18 September 2016.
49 UNCLOS,Article 280.
50 Anshuman Chakraborty,Dispute Settlement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Its Role in Oceans Governance(LL.M Thesis),New Zealand:Victoria University of Wellington,2006,pp.46~73.
51 PCA Case No.2013-19:The Republic of Philippines v.The People’s Republic of China,an Arbitration before the Arbitral Tribunal Constituted under Annex VII to the 1982 United Nations Conventions on Law of the Sea between the Republic of Philippines and the People’s Republic of China.
52中菲南海仲裁案涉及中国在南海的“U形线”主张在《公约》下的合法性问题。2015年10月29日,仲裁庭作出裁决,认定其具有审理该案的管辖权。
53 Wu Shicun,The South China Sea Arbitration Case Could Exacerbate Disputes in the South China Sea,at http://nl.china-embassy.org/eng/hldt/t1374516.htm,18 September 2016.
54 Wu Shicun,The South China Sea Arbitration Case Could Exacerbate Disputes in the South China Sea,at http://nl.china-embassy.org/eng/hldt/t1374516.htm,18 September 2016.
55 Leaders,The Tragedy of the High Seas,The Economist,22 February 2014,pp.10~12.
56 Leaders,The Tragedy of the High Seas,The Economist,22 February 2014,pp.10~12.
57这一做法已经在沿海国和群岛国的专属经济区进行尝试,但却未在公海施行。根据国际法,公海鱼类是面向所有国家开放的,其中的矿物属于“人类共同继承财产”。
58旨在保护海洋环境的具有法律约束力的区域海洋公约框架。同时参见联合国环境规划署签署的区域海洋公约--1976年《保护地中海海洋环境和沿海地区公约》(《巴塞罗那公约》)。
59《防止船舶污染国际公约》,英文简称为“MARPOL 73/78”,全称为《关于1973年防止船舶污染国际公约之1978年议定书》。
60 1995年《联合国鱼类种群协定》于2001年生效,全称为1995年《执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉有关养护和管理跨界鱼类种群和高度洄游鱼类种群之规定的协定》。
61 Leaders,The Tragedy of the High Seas,The Economist,22 February 2014,pp.10~12.
62 Coral Triangle,Report:World’s Oceans Continue to Suffer from Overfishing’,at http://iwlearn.net/iw-projects/3591/news/cti-iw-learn/5d5b48d6fd6fe918c1a6108491089e98,24October 2016.
63 Humans Are Damaging the High Seas-Now the Oceans Are Doing Harm Back,at http://www.businessinsider.com/humans-are-damaging-the-high-seas--now-the-oceans-are-doingharm-back-2015-1,22 September 2016.
64第59届联合国大会:在其第59/24号决议中,联合国大会设立了一个不限成员名额非正式特设工作组,研究保护和可持续利用国家管辖范围以外海洋生物多样性的问题,并呼吁各国和国际组织立即采取行动,依据国际法,处理对海洋生物多样性和生态系统造成不利影响的破坏性做法。
65 UNCLOS,Article 86.
66 UNCLOS,Article 1.
67 At http://www.commonoceans.org/home/en/,1 November 2016.
68 Sharelle Hart,Element of a Possible Implementation Agreement to UNCLOS for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction,Gland,Switzerland:IUCN,2008,at https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_marine_paper_4.pdf,12 July 2016.
69 At https://globaloceanforum.com/areas-of-focus/areas-beyond-national-jurisdiction/,12July 2016.
70 Marjo Vierros,Governance of Marine Area Beyond National Jurisdictions,at http://ourworl d.unu.edu/en/governance-of-marine-areas-beyond-national-jurisdictions,12 July 2016.
71 Arlo H.Hemphill and George Shillinger,Casting the Net Broadly:Ecosystem-based Management Beyond National Jurisdiction,Sustainable Development Law&Policy,Vol.7,Issue 1,Fall 2006,pp.56~59.
72 Ransom A.Myers and Boris Worm,Rapid Worldwide Depletion of Predatory Fish Communities,Nature,Vol.423,No.6937,2003,pp.208~283;James R.Spotila,Richard D.Reina,Anthony C.Steyermark,Pamela T,Plotkin and Frank V.Paladino,Pacific Leatherback Turtles Face Extinction,Nature,Vol.405,No.6786,2000,pp.529~530.
73 Boris Worm,Marcel Sandow,Andreas Oschlies,Heike K.Lotze and Ransom A.Myers,Global Patterns of Predator Diversity in the Open Oceans,Science,Vol.309,Issue 5739,2005,pp.1365~1369.
74 Jennifer A.Devine,Krista D.Baker and Richard L.Haedrich,Fisheries:Deep-sea Fishes Quality as Endangered,Nature,Vol.439,No.7072,2006,p.29.
75 Jean-Jacques Maguire,Michael Sissenwine,Jorge Csirke and Richard Grainger,The State of the World Highly Migratory,Straddling and Other High Seas Fishery Fish Stocks and Associated Species,FAO Fisheries Technical Paper,No.495,2006,at http://www.fao.org/newsroom/common/ecg/1000302/en/paper.pdf,12 July 2016.
76 Henry Nicholls,Marine Conservation:Sink or Swim,Nature,Vol.432,No.7013,2004,pp.12~14.
77 Pew Oceans Commission,America’s Living Oceans:Charting a Course for Sea Change,at http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2003/06/02/americas-livingoceans-charting-a-course-for-sea-change,12 July 2016.
78 U.S.Commission on Ocean Policy,An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century,at http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/oceancommission/documents/full_color_rpt/000_ocean_full_report.pdf,12 July 2016.
79 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution,Turning the Tide:Addressing the Impact of Fisheries on the Marine Environment,at http://www.rcep.org.uk/fisheries/Turningthetide.pdf,12 July 2016.
80 Linda Glover and Sylvia Earle eds.,Defying Ocean’End:An Agenda for Action,Washington D.C.:Island Press,2004.
81 Rosemary Rayfuse and Robin M.Warner,Securing a Sustainable Future for the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction:The Legal Basis for an Integrated Cross-sectoral Regime for High Seas Governance for the 21st Century,International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,Vol.23,No.3,2008,pp.399~421.
82 Rosemary Rayfuse and Robin M.Warner,Securing a Sustainable Future for the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction:The Legal Basis for an Integrated Cross-sectoral Regime for High Seas Governance for the 21st Century,International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,Vol.23,No.3,2008,pp.399~421.
83 Charles S.Colgan,The Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics:An Introduction and Invitation,Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics,Vol.2014,Article 8,December 2014,p.3,at http://cbe.miis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=joce,12 July 2016.
13 These conventions,treaties and agreements governing the ocean commons mainly include:UNCLOS,1982;Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD),1992;Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES),1973;International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling,1946;Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea of December 1982,Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks,1995;Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR),1980;Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter(London Convention 1972 or LC’72);International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships(MARPOL);International Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants;Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities,1995.
14 In its sixty-ninth session of the General Assembly held on 23 January 2015,the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal Working Group re-affirmed the commitment in paragraph 162 of the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development,held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil,from 20 to 22 June 2012,entitled“The Future We Want”,as endorsed by the General Assembly in its resolution 66/288 of 27 July 2012.In the document,the heads of State and Government committed to address,on an urgent basis,building on the work of the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal Working Group,the issue of the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of ABNJ,including by taking a decision on the development of an international instrument under the UNCLOS.
16 As of 26 October 2016,168 States have ratified,acceded to,or succeeded to,UNCLOS.For the full text and status of UNCLOS,at http://www.un.org/depts/los/,26 October 2016.
22 UNCLOS did establish mechanisms for compulsory and binding settlement of disputes,but that is to be distinguished from compliance.
23 The three institutions created by UNCLOS are the International Seabed Authority,the ITLOS and the Commission for the Limits of Continental Shelf.Each of these organizations is autonomous and has specific,limited responsibilities established by UNCLOS.
46 To date,25 cases have been submitted to the ITLOS,see https://www.itlos.org/en/cases/listof-cases/for details.
52 The Republic of Philippines v.The People’s Republic of China is a arbitration case concerning the legality of China’s“U-shaped line”claim over the South China Sea under UNCLOS.On October 29,2015,the Arbitral Tribunal ruled that it has jurisdiction over the case.
57 This is being tried in coastal and archipelagic States’EEZs,but it does not apply on the high seas.Under international law,fishing there is open to all and minerals count as“the common heritage of mankind.”
58 Framework of a legally binding Regional Seas Conventions that aim to protect the marine environment.Also note the UNEP Regional Seas Convention-The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean(Barcelona Convention)1976.
59 MARPOL 73/78 is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships,1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978.MARPOL is short for marine pollution and 73/78short for the years 1973 and 1978.
60 United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement,1995,came into force in 2001.Its full title is Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks,1995.
64 59th Session of the General Assembly:In resolution 59/24,the General Assembly established an ad hoc open-ended informal working group to study issues relating to ABNJconservation and sustainable use,and called upon States and international organizations to take action urgently to address,in accordance with international law,destructive practices that have adverse impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystems.
2 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development(the Rio+20 Summit),2012.
3 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Rio+20,The Future We Want,June 2012,para.162.
4 Olivier Dubuquoy and Edouard Gaudot,The Ocean:From Colonized Territory to Global Nation,Green European Journal,Vol.12,2016,at http://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/7945-2/,24 October 2016.
5 Olivier Dubuquoy and Edouard Gaudot,The Ocean:From Colonized Territory to Global Nation,Green European Journal,Vol.12,2016,at http://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/7945-2/,24 October 2016.
6 Birdlife South Africa,Report Workshop on Seabed Bycatch Mitigation in China’s Tuna Longline Fisheries,Shanghai,China,17 April 2015,at http://www.commonoceans.org/fileadmin/user_upload/common_oceans/docs/BLI_China Workshop Report17Apr2015.pdf,12 July 2016;FAO,Report of the Second Project Steering Committee:Sustainable Management of Tuna Fisheries and Biodiversity Conservation in ABNJ,Rome,Italy,28-30July 2015,at http://www.commonoceans.org/fileadmin/user_upload/common_oceans/docs/ABNJ-Tuna-2015-PSC.pdf,12 July 2016.
7 Boyce Thorne-Miller,The Living Ocean:Understanding and Protecting Marine Biodiversity,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1999;Cyrille de Klemm and Clare Shine,Biological Diversity Conservation and the Law:Legal Mechanism for Conserving Species and Ecosystems,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1993;Richard L.Wallace ed.,The Marine Mammal Commission Compendium of Selected Treaties,International Agreements and Other Relevant Documents on Marine Resources,Wildlife and Environment,Washington D.C.:Marine Mammal Commission,1997.
8 Charles S.Colgan,The Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics:An Introduction and Invitation,Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics,Vol.2014,Article 8,December 2014,at http://cbe.miis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=joce,12 July 2016.
9 Earth Negotiations Bulletin(ENB),Vol.25,No.106,11 April 2016,at http://www.iisd.ca/vol25/enb25106e.html,12 July 2016.
10 A.T.Mahan,The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783,reprint,London:Methuen&Co.Ltd.,1965.
11 James C.F.Wang,Handbook on Ocean Politics and Law,New York:Greenwood Press,1992,pp.107~142.
12 Garrett Hardin,The Tragedy of the Commons,Science,Vol.162,Issue 3859,1968,pp.1243~1248.
13管理海洋公域的主要公约、条约和协定包括:1982年《公约》、1992年《生物多样性公约》、1973年《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》、1946年《国际捕鲸公约》、1995年《执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉有关养护和管理跨界鱼类种群和高度洄游鱼类种群之规定的协定》、1980年《南极海洋生物资源养护公约》、1972年《防止倾倒废物和其他物质污染海洋的公约》、《国际防止船舶造成污染公约》、《关于持久性有机污染物的斯德哥尔摩公约》和1995年《保护海洋环境免受陆源污染国家行动计划》。
14在2015年1月23日举行的第69届联合国大会上,不限成员名额非正式特设工作组重申了在《我们想要的未来》第162段所作出的承诺。该文件是2012年6月20-22日在巴西里约热内卢举行的联合国可持续发展大会成果文件。2012年7月27日,联合国大会第66/288号决议批准了该文件,各国元首和政府首脑在决议中承诺在不限成员名额非正式特设工作组工作的基础上,立刻解决保护和可持续利用国家管辖范围以外海洋生物多样性的问题,包括决定根据《公约》来制定一份国际文书。
15 Philip E.Steinberg,The Social Construction of the Ocean,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2001,p.4.
16截至2016年10月26日,已有168个国家批准、加入或继承其前身加入《公约》。《公约》全文和状态,下载于http://www.un.org/depts/los/,2016年10月26日。
17 UNCLOS,Article 192.
18 Boyce Thorne-Miller,The Living Ocean:Understanding and Protecting Marine Biodiversity,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1999.
19 Cyrille de Klemm and Clare Shine,Biological Diversity,Conserving Species and Ecosystems,Washington D.C.:Island Press,1993.
20 Jeff Ardon,Elisabeth Druel,Kristina Gjerde,Katherine Houghton,Julien Rochette and Sebastian Unger,Advancing Governance of the High Seas,IASS Policy Brief 1/2013,May2013.
21 At http://en.unesco.org/events/towards-sustainable-development-goal-ocean-healthyproductive-and-resilient-ocean-people,11 October 2016.
22《公约》确实设立了强制且具有约束力的争端解决机制,但是争端解决机制与遵约是不同的。
23《公约》设立的这3个机构分别是国际海底管理局、国际海洋法法庭和大陆架界限委员会。每个机构都是独立的,各自肩负《公约》规定的特定与有限责任。
24 Global Ocean Commission,From Decline to Recovery:A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean,at http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/GOC_report_2015.July_2.pdf,12 July 2016.
25 Global Ocean Commission,From Decline to Recovery:A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean,http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/GOC_report_2015.July_2.pdf,12 July 2016.
26 Global Ocean Commission,From Decline to Recovery:A Rescue Package for the Global Ocean,at http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/GOC_report_2015.July_2.pdf,12 July 2016.
27 WBGU,World in Transition:Governing the Marine Heritage,p.253,at http://www.wbgu.de/fileadmin/templates/dateien/veroeffentlichungen/hauptgutachten/hg2013/wbgu_hg2013_en.pdf,24 October 2016.
28 Anshuman Chakraborty,Dispute Settlement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Its Role in Oceans Governance(LL.M Thesis),New Zealand:Victoria University of Wellington,2006.
29 Elinor Ostrom,Governing the Commons:The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action,New York:Cambridge University Press,1990,p.181.
30 European Commission,“What is Governance?”,at http://europa.eu.int/comm./governance/index_en.htm,9 September 2016.
31 Annex VII&VIII and Parts XI and XV,UNCLOS.
32 Annex VII&VIII and Parts XI and XV,UNCLOS.
33 Statute of the ITLOS,Article 21.
34 Statute of the ITLOS,Article 20.
35 UNCLOS,Article 279.
36 PCA Case No.2013-19:The Republic of Philippines v.The People’s Republic of China.
37 UNCLOS,Article 287.
38 ITLOS,Case Nos.7&23.
39 Statute of the ITLOS,Article 36.
40 UNCLOS,Article 191.
41 Rules of the ITLOS,Article 138.
42 L.B.Sohn,The Importance of the Peaceful Settlement of Disputes Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea,in Myron H.Nordquist and John Norton Moore eds.,Entry into Force of the Law of the Sea Convention,The Hague:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers,1995.
43 U.N.Document A/CONF.62/WP.9/ADD.1,Memorandum by the President of the Conference on document A/CONF.62/WP.9,31 March 1976,p.122.
44 Ivan A.Shearer,The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea and Its Potential for Resolving Navigational Disputes,in Donald R.Rothwell and Sam Bateman eds.,Navigational Rights and Freedoms and the New Law of the Sea,The Hague:Kluwer Law International,2000.
45 Lawrence Juda,International Law and Ocean Use Management:The Evolution of Ocean Governance,London:Routledge,1996.
46截至目前,向海洋法法庭提交的案件共有25起,详情请参见https://www.itlos.org/en/cases/list-of-cases/。
47 Sue Nichols,David Monahan and Michael Sutherland,Good Governance of Canada’s Offshore and Coastal Zone:Towards an Understanding of the Marine Boundary Issues,Geomatica,Vol.54,No.4,2000,p.415.
48 At http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/oceancommission/publicomment/novgencomment/fry_comment.pdf,18 September 2016.
49 UNCLOS,Article 280.
50 Anshuman Chakraborty,Dispute Settlement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Its Role in Oceans Governance(LL.M Thesis),New Zealand:Victoria University of Wellington,2006,pp.46~73.
51 PCA Case No.2013-19:The Republic of Philippines v.The People’s Republic of China,an Arbitration before the Arbitral Tribunal Constituted under Annex VII to the 1982 United Nations Conventions on Law of the Sea between the Republic of Philippines and the People’s Republic of China.
52中菲南海仲裁案涉及中国在南海的“U形线”主张在《公约》下的合法性问题。2015年10月29日,仲裁庭作出裁决,认定其具有审理该案的管辖权。
53 Wu Shicun,The South China Sea Arbitration Case Could Exacerbate Disputes in the South China Sea,at http://nl.china-embassy.org/eng/hldt/t1374516.htm,18 September 2016.
54 Wu Shicun,The South China Sea Arbitration Case Could Exacerbate Disputes in the South China Sea,at http://nl.china-embassy.org/eng/hldt/t1374516.htm,18 September 2016.
55 Leaders,The Tragedy of the High Seas,The Economist,22 February 2014,pp.10~12.
56 Leaders,The Tragedy of the High Seas,The Economist,22 February 2014,pp.10~12.
57这一做法已经在沿海国和群岛国的专属经济区进行尝试,但却未在公海施行。根据国际法,公海鱼类是面向所有国家开放的,其中的矿物属于“人类共同继承财产”。
58旨在保护海洋环境的具有法律约束力的区域海洋公约框架。同时参见联合国环境规划署签署的区域海洋公约--1976年《保护地中海海洋环境和沿海地区公约》(《巴塞罗那公约》)。
59《防止船舶污染国际公约》,英文简称为“MARPOL 73/78”,全称为《关于1973年防止船舶污染国际公约之1978年议定书》。
60 1995年《联合国鱼类种群协定》于2001年生效,全称为1995年《执行1982年12月10日〈联合国海洋法公约〉有关养护和管理跨界鱼类种群和高度洄游鱼类种群之规定的协定》。
61 Leaders,The Tragedy of the High Seas,The Economist,22 February 2014,pp.10~12.
62 Coral Triangle,Report:World’s Oceans Continue to Suffer from Overfishing’,at http://iwlearn.net/iw-projects/3591/news/cti-iw-learn/5d5b48d6fd6fe918c1a6108491089e98,24October 2016.
63 Humans Are Damaging the High Seas-Now the Oceans Are Doing Harm Back,at http://www.businessinsider.com/humans-are-damaging-the-high-seas--now-the-oceans-are-doingharm-back-2015-1,22 September 2016.
64第59届联合国大会:在其第59/24号决议中,联合国大会设立了一个不限成员名额非正式特设工作组,研究保护和可持续利用国家管辖范围以外海洋生物多样性的问题,并呼吁各国和国际组织立即采取行动,依据国际法,处理对海洋生物多样性和生态系统造成不利影响的破坏性做法。
65 UNCLOS,Article 86.
66 UNCLOS,Article 1.
67 At http://www.commonoceans.org/home/en/,1 November 2016.
68 Sharelle Hart,Element of a Possible Implementation Agreement to UNCLOS for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction,Gland,Switzerland:IUCN,2008,at https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_marine_paper_4.pdf,12 July 2016.
69 At https://globaloceanforum.com/areas-of-focus/areas-beyond-national-jurisdiction/,12July 2016.
70 Marjo Vierros,Governance of Marine Area Beyond National Jurisdictions,at http://ourworl d.unu.edu/en/governance-of-marine-areas-beyond-national-jurisdictions,12 July 2016.
71 Arlo H.Hemphill and George Shillinger,Casting the Net Broadly:Ecosystem-based Management Beyond National Jurisdiction,Sustainable Development Law&Policy,Vol.7,Issue 1,Fall 2006,pp.56~59.
72 Ransom A.Myers and Boris Worm,Rapid Worldwide Depletion of Predatory Fish Communities,Nature,Vol.423,No.6937,2003,pp.208~283;James R.Spotila,Richard D.Reina,Anthony C.Steyermark,Pamela T,Plotkin and Frank V.Paladino,Pacific Leatherback Turtles Face Extinction,Nature,Vol.405,No.6786,2000,pp.529~530.
73 Boris Worm,Marcel Sandow,Andreas Oschlies,Heike K.Lotze and Ransom A.Myers,Global Patterns of Predator Diversity in the Open Oceans,Science,Vol.309,Issue 5739,2005,pp.1365~1369.
74 Jennifer A.Devine,Krista D.Baker and Richard L.Haedrich,Fisheries:Deep-sea Fishes Quality as Endangered,Nature,Vol.439,No.7072,2006,p.29.
75 Jean-Jacques Maguire,Michael Sissenwine,Jorge Csirke and Richard Grainger,The State of the World Highly Migratory,Straddling and Other High Seas Fishery Fish Stocks and Associated Species,FAO Fisheries Technical Paper,No.495,2006,at http://www.fao.org/newsroom/common/ecg/1000302/en/paper.pdf,12 July 2016.
76 Henry Nicholls,Marine Conservation:Sink or Swim,Nature,Vol.432,No.7013,2004,pp.12~14.
77 Pew Oceans Commission,America’s Living Oceans:Charting a Course for Sea Change,at http://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/reports/2003/06/02/americas-livingoceans-charting-a-course-for-sea-change,12 July 2016.
78 U.S.Commission on Ocean Policy,An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century,at http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/oceancommission/documents/full_color_rpt/000_ocean_full_report.pdf,12 July 2016.
79 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution,Turning the Tide:Addressing the Impact of Fisheries on the Marine Environment,at http://www.rcep.org.uk/fisheries/Turningthetide.pdf,12 July 2016.
80 Linda Glover and Sylvia Earle eds.,Defying Ocean’End:An Agenda for Action,Washington D.C.:Island Press,2004.
81 Rosemary Rayfuse and Robin M.Warner,Securing a Sustainable Future for the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction:The Legal Basis for an Integrated Cross-sectoral Regime for High Seas Governance for the 21st Century,International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,Vol.23,No.3,2008,pp.399~421.
82 Rosemary Rayfuse and Robin M.Warner,Securing a Sustainable Future for the Oceans Beyond National Jurisdiction:The Legal Basis for an Integrated Cross-sectoral Regime for High Seas Governance for the 21st Century,International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law,Vol.23,No.3,2008,pp.399~421.
83 Charles S.Colgan,The Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics:An Introduction and Invitation,Journal of Ocean and Coastal Economics,Vol.2014,Article 8,December 2014,p.3,at http://cbe.miis.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=joce,12 July 2016.
13 These conventions,treaties and agreements governing the ocean commons mainly include:UNCLOS,1982;Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD),1992;Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES),1973;International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling,1946;Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea of December 1982,Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks,1995;Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources(CCAMLR),1980;Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter(London Convention 1972 or LC’72);International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships(MARPOL);International Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants;Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities,1995.
14 In its sixty-ninth session of the General Assembly held on 23 January 2015,the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal Working Group re-affirmed the commitment in paragraph 162 of the outcome document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development,held in Rio de Janeiro,Brazil,from 20 to 22 June 2012,entitled“The Future We Want”,as endorsed by the General Assembly in its resolution 66/288 of 27 July 2012.In the document,the heads of State and Government committed to address,on an urgent basis,building on the work of the Ad Hoc Open-ended Informal Working Group,the issue of the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of ABNJ,including by taking a decision on the development of an international instrument under the UNCLOS.
16 As of 26 October 2016,168 States have ratified,acceded to,or succeeded to,UNCLOS.For the full text and status of UNCLOS,at http://www.un.org/depts/los/,26 October 2016.
22 UNCLOS did establish mechanisms for compulsory and binding settlement of disputes,but that is to be distinguished from compliance.
23 The three institutions created by UNCLOS are the International Seabed Authority,the ITLOS and the Commission for the Limits of Continental Shelf.Each of these organizations is autonomous and has specific,limited responsibilities established by UNCLOS.
46 To date,25 cases have been submitted to the ITLOS,see https://www.itlos.org/en/cases/listof-cases/for details.
52 The Republic of Philippines v.The People’s Republic of China is a arbitration case concerning the legality of China’s“U-shaped line”claim over the South China Sea under UNCLOS.On October 29,2015,the Arbitral Tribunal ruled that it has jurisdiction over the case.
57 This is being tried in coastal and archipelagic States’EEZs,but it does not apply on the high seas.Under international law,fishing there is open to all and minerals count as“the common heritage of mankind.”
58 Framework of a legally binding Regional Seas Conventions that aim to protect the marine environment.Also note the UNEP Regional Seas Convention-The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean(Barcelona Convention)1976.
59 MARPOL 73/78 is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from ships,1973 as modified by the Protocol of 1978.MARPOL is short for marine pollution and 73/78short for the years 1973 and 1978.
60 United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement,1995,came into force in 2001.Its full title is Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks,1995.
64 59th Session of the General Assembly:In resolution 59/24,the General Assembly established an ad hoc open-ended informal working group to study issues relating to ABNJconservation and sustainable use,and called upon States and international organizations to take action urgently to address,in accordance with international law,destructive practices that have adverse impacts on marine biodiversity and ecosystems.
© 2004-2018 中国地质图书馆版权所有 京ICP备05064691号 京公网安备11010802017129号 地址：北京市海淀区学院路29号 邮编：100083 电话：办公室：(+86 10)66554848；文献借阅、咨询服务、科技查新：66554700 |