智能合约:架构及进展
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摘要
智能合约是一种无需中介、自我验证、自动执行合约条款的计算机交易协议,近年来随着区块链技术的日益普及而备受关注.区块链上的智能合约具有去中心化、去信任、可编程、不可篡改等特性,可灵活嵌入各种数据和资产,帮助实现安全高效的信息交换、价值转移和资产管理,最终有望深入变革传统商业模式和社会生产关系,为构建可编程资产、系统和社会奠定基础.本文致力于以区块链智能合约为研究对象,对已有的研究成果进行全面梳理和系统概述,提出了智能合约的基础架构模型并以此为研究框架阐述了智能合约的运行机制与基础架构,总结了智能合约的研究挑战与进展,介绍了智能合约的技术优势与典型应用领域,讨论了智能合约的发展趋势,以期为智能合约的后续研究提供参考.
Smart contracts are computerized transaction protocols that can self-verify and self-execute the terms of contracts without a trusted third-party intermediary. In recent years, smart contracts have attracted intensive attention with the increasing popularity of their main computational architecture, i.e., blockchain. Blockchain-enabled smart contracts are decentralized, trustless, programmable, and tamper-resistant, they can be flexibly embedded into a variety of data and assets to help achieve secure and efficient information exchange, value transfer and asset management. Thus,they are expected to deepen the revolution of traditional business models and social production relationships, and lay the foundation for building programmable assets, systems and societies. This article is dedicated to a comprehensive analysis and systematic overview of blockchain-enabled smart contracts. Specifically, we proposed a basic model of smart contracts which employs a six-layer architecture and used it as a research framework to explain the operating mechanism and infrastructure of smart contracts. We also summarized their research challenges and recent progresses, introduced their technical advantages and typical application fields, and discussed their future development trends. This article is aimed at providing helpful guidance and reference for future research efforts of blockchain-enabled smart contracts.
Smart contracts are computerized transaction protocols that can self-verify and self-execute the terms of contracts without a trusted third-party intermediary. In recent years, smart contracts have attracted intensive attention with the increasing popularity of their main computational architecture, i.e., blockchain. Blockchain-enabled smart contracts are decentralized, trustless, programmable, and tamper-resistant, they can be flexibly embedded into a variety of data and assets to help achieve secure and efficient information exchange, value transfer and asset management. Thus,they are expected to deepen the revolution of traditional business models and social production relationships, and lay the foundation for building programmable assets, systems and societies. This article is dedicated to a comprehensive analysis and systematic overview of blockchain-enabled smart contracts. Specifically, we proposed a basic model of smart contracts which employs a six-layer architecture and used it as a research framework to explain the operating mechanism and infrastructure of smart contracts. We also summarized their research challenges and recent progresses, introduced their technical advantages and typical application fields, and discussed their future development trends. This article is aimed at providing helpful guidance and reference for future research efforts of blockchain-enabled smart contracts.
引文
1 Szabo N. Smart contracts[Online], avaliable:http://www.fon.hum.uva.nl/rob/Courses/InformationInSpeech/CDROM/Literature/LOTwinterschool2006/szabo.best.vwh.net/smart.contracts.html, November 5, 2018
2 Nakamoto S. Bitcoin:a peer-to-peer electronic cash system[Online], avaliable:https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf,January, 2009
3 Stark J. Making sense of blockchain smart contracts[Online], available:https://www.coindesk.com/making-sense-smart-contracts/, November 5, 2018
4 Bartoletti M, Pompianu L. An empirical analysis of smart contracts:platforms, applications, and design patterns. In:Proceedings of the International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. Springer, Cham, 2017.494-509
5 Wood G. Ethereum:A secure decentralized generalized transaction ledger(EIP-150 revision)[Online], avaliable:http://gavwood.com/paper.pdf, November 5, 2018
6 Wikipedia:The DAO(organization)[Online], available:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_DAO_(organization),November 5, 2018
7 Yuan Yong, Wang Fei-Yue. Blockchain:the state of the art and future trends. Acta Automatica Sinica, 2016, 42(4):481-494(袁勇,王飞跃.区块链技术发展现状与展望.自动化学报,2016,42(4):481-494)
8 Hyperledger fabric website[Online], available:https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/fabric, November 5, 2018
9 Meiklejohn S, Pomarole M, Jordan G, Levchenko K, McCoy D, Voelker G M, et al. A fistful of bitcoins:characterizing payments among men with no names. In:Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Internet Measurement Conference.New York, USA:ACM, 2013. 127-140
10 Ron D, Shamir A. Quantitative analysis of the full bitcoin transaction graph. In:Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security.Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2013. 6-24
11 Kosba A, Miller A, Shi E, Wen Z, Papamanthou C.Hawk:the blockchain model of cryptography and privacypreserving smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 37th Symposium on Security and Privacy. New York, USA:IEEE,2016. 839-858
12 Zhang F, Cecchetti E, Croman K, Juels A, Shi Elaine. Town crier:an authenticated data feed for smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM,2016. 270-282
13 Ye P J, Wang S, Wang F Y. A general cognitive architecture for agent-based modeling in artificial societies. IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems, 2018, 5(1):176-185
14 Atzei N, Bartoletti M, Cimoli T. A survey of attacks on ethereum smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Principles of Security and Trust.Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2017. 164-186
15 Luu L, Chu D H, Olickel H, Saxena P, Hobor A. Making smart contracts smarter. In:Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2016. 254-269
16 Chen T, Li X Q, Luo X P, Zhang X S. Under-optimized smart contracts devour your money. In:Proceedings of the4th International Conference on Software Analysis, Evolution and Reengineerin. New York, USA:IEEE, 2017.442-446
17 Juels A, Kosba A, Shi E. The ring of gyges:investigating the future of criminal smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2016. 283-295
18 Christin N. Traveling the silk road:a measurement analysis of a large anonymous online marketplace. In:Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on World Wide Web.New York, USA:ACM, 2013. 213-224
19 Erdman A G, Sandor G N. Mechanical Design(3rd ed):Analysis and Synthesis(Vol.1). Englewood Cliffs:PrenticeHall, 1997
20 Zeng Shuai, Yuan Yong, Ni Xiao-Chun, Wang Fei-Yue.Scaling blockchain towards bitcoin:key technologies, constraints and related issues. Acta Automatica Sinica, DOI:10.16383/j.aas.c180100(曾帅,袁勇,倪晓春,王飞跃.面向比特币的区块链扩容:关键技术、制约因素与衍生问题.自动化学报,DOI:10.16383/j.aas.c180100)
21 Dickerson T, Gazzillo P, Herlihy M, Koskinen E. Adding concurrency to smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2017ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing.New York, USA:ACM, 2017. 303-312
22 Hu Kai, Bai Xiao-Min, Gao Ling-Chao, Dong Ai-Qiang. Formal verification method of smart contract. Journal of Information Security Research, 2016, 2(12):1080-1089(胡凯,白晓敏,高灵超,董爱强.智能合约的形式化验证方法.信息安全研究,2016, 2(12):1080-1089)
23 Mythril website[Online], available:https://github.com/bmueller/mythril/, November 5, 2018
24 Bhargavan K, Delignat-Lavaud A, Fournet C, Gollamudi A,Gonthier G, Kobeissi N, et al. Short paper:formal verification of smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Workshop on Programming Languages and 23 Analysis for Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2016. 91-96
25 Kalra S. Goel S. Dhawan M, Sharma S. Zeus:analyzing safety of smart contracts[Online], available:http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~joel.reardon/blockchain/readings/ndss2018_09-1_Kalra_paper.pdf, November 5,2018
26 Manticore website[Online], available:https://github.com/trailofbits/manticore, November 5, 2018
27 Tsankov P, Dan A, Cohen D D, et al. Securify:practical security analysis of smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the25th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2018. 67-82
28 Solgraph website[Online], available:https://github.com/raineorshine/solgraph, November 5, 2018
29 Qiao Hai-Shu, Xie Shan-Shan. The latest development of theoretical research on blockchain finance. Financial Theory and Practice, 2017,(3):75-79(乔海曙,谢姗珊.区块链金融理论研究的最新进展.金融理论与实践,2017,(3):75-79)
30 Peters G W, Panayi E. Understanding Modern Banking Ledgers Through Blockchain Technologies:Future of Transaction Processing and Smart Contracts on the Internet of Money. Berlin:Springer International Publishing, 2016.5-10
31 Corda website[Online], available:https://docs.corda.net/,November 5, 2018
32 Gatteschi V, Lamberti F, Demartini C, Pranteda C, Santamaria V. Blockchain and smart contracts for insurance:is the technology mature enough. Future Internet, 2018, 10(2):20
33 Bertani T, Butkute K, Canessa F. Smart flight insuranceinsureth[Online], available:https://mkvd.s3.amazonaws.com/apps/InsurEth.pdf, November 5, 2018
34 ECoinmerce:decentralized marketplace[Online], available:https://www.ecoinmerce.io/, November 5, 2018
35 Slock.it:enabling the economy of things[Online], available:https://slock.it/, November 5, 2018
36 Beck R, Avital M, Rossi M, Thatcher J B. Blockchain technology in business and information systems research.Business&Information Systems Engineering, 2017, 59(6):381-384
37 Weber I, Gramoli V, Ponomarev A, Staples M, Holz R, Tran A B, et al. On availability for blockchain-based systems.In:Proceedings of the International Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems. New York, USA:IEEE, 2017. 64-73
38 Wang S, Ni X C, Yuan Y, Wang X, Ouyang L W, Wang F Y. A preliminary research of prediction markets based on blockchain powered smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the2018 International Conference on Blockchain(Blockchain-2018. New York, USA:IEEE, 2018. 1287-1293
39 McCorry P, Shahandashti S F, Hao F. A smart contract for boardroom voting with maximum voter privacy. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. Springer, Cham, 2017.357-375
40 Rosa J L, Gibovic D, Torres-Padrosa V, Maicher L, Miralles F, Fakdi A, et al. On intellectual property in online open innovation for SME by means of blockchain and smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 3rd Annual World Open Innovation Conference. Barcelona, Spain, 2016
41 IP360 website[Online], available:https://www.ip360.net.cn/index, November 5, 2018
42 Xia Q, Sifah E B, Asamoah K O, Gao J B, Du X J, Guizani M. MeDShare:trust-less medical data sharing among cloud service providers via blockchain. IEEE Access, 2017, 5(99):14757-14767
43 Azaria A, Ekblaw A, Vieira T, Lippman A. MedRec:using blockchain for medical data access and permission management. In:Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Open and Big Data. New York, USA:IEEE, 2016. 25-30
44 Kuo T T, Ohno-Machado L. ModelChain:decentralized privacy-preserving healthcare predictive modeling framework on private blockchain networks. Computers and Society, arXiv:1802.01746
45 Mediledger website[Online],available:https://www.mediledger. com/, November 5, 2018
46 BlockMedx website[Online], available:https://blockmedx.com/en/, November 5, 2018
47 Dorri A, Kanhere S S, Jurdak R, Gauravaram P. Blockchain for IoT security and privacy:the case study of a smart home. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops.New York, USA:IEEE, 2017. 618-623
48 Dorri A, Kanhere S S, Jurdak R. Towards an optimized blockchain for IoT. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Internet-Of-Things Design and Implementation, Pittsburgh. New York, USA:IEEE, 2017. 173-178
49 Zhang Y, Wen J T. An IoT electric business model based on the protocol of bitcoin. In:Proceedings of 18th International Conference on Intelligence in Next Generation Networks. New York, USA:IEEE, 2015. 184-191
50 Zhang Y Y, Kasahara S, Shen Y L, Jiang X H, Wan J X. Smart contract-based access control for the Internet of Things. Cryptography and Security, arXiv:1802.04410
51 IoTeX website[Online], available:https://iotex.io/, November 5, 2018
52 Byrne R O. How blockchain can transform the supply chain[Online], available:https://www.logisticsbureau.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-the-supply-chain/,November 5, 2018
53 Bocek T, Rodrigues B B, Strasser T, Stiller B. Blockchains everywhere-a use-case of blockchains in the pharma supply-chain. In:Proceedings of the 2017 Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management. New York,USA:IEEE, 2017. 772-777
54 Stark J. Making sense of ethereum's layer2 scaling solutions:state channels, plasma, and truebit[Online],available:https://medium.com/14-media/making-sense-ofethereums-layer-2-scaling-solutions-state-channels-plasmaand-truebit-22cb40dcc2f4, November 5, 2018
55 Taxa Website[Online], available:https://taxa.network/,November 5, 2018
56 Wang Fei-Yue. Software-defined systems and knowledge automation:a parallel paradigm shift from Newton to Merton.Acta Automatica Sinica, 2015, 41(1):1-8(王飞跃.软件定义的系统与知识自动化:从牛顿到默顿的平行升华.自动化学报,2015, 411(1):1-8)
57 Wang Fei-Yue, Wang Xiao, Yuan Yong, Wang Tao, Lin Yi-Lun. Social computing and computational societies:the fouyndation and consequence of smart societies. China Science Bulletin, 2015, 60(5-6):460-469(王飞跃,王晓,袁勇,王涛,林懿伦.社会计到与计算社会:智慧社会的基础与必然.科学通报,2015, 60(5-6):460-469)
58 Wang Fei-Yue. Artificial societies, computational experiments, and parallel systems:a discussion on comput.ational theory of complex social-economic systems. Complex System and Complexity Science, 2004, 1(4):25-35(王飞跃.人工社会、计算实验、平行系统—关于复杂社会经济系统计算研究的司论.复杂系统与复杂性科学,2004, 1(4):25-35)
59 Wang F Y, Yuan Y, Wang X, Qin R. Societies 5.0:a new paradigm for computational social systems research. IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems, 2018, 5(1):2-8
60 Zhang J J, Wang F Y, Wang Q, Hao D, Yang X. Parallel dispatch:a new paradigm of electrical power system dispatch. IEEE/CAA Journal of Automatica S'inica, 2018,5(1):311-319
61 Li Li, Lin Yi-Lun, Cao Dong-Pu, Zheng Nan-Ning, Wang Fei-Yue. Parallel learning—a new framework for machine learning. Acta Automatica Sinica, 2017, 43(1):1-8(李力,林懿伦,曹东璞,郑南宁,王飞跃.平行学习一机器学习的一个新型理论框架.自动化学报,2017, 43(1):1-8)
62 Yuan Yong, Wang Fei-Yue. Parallel blockchain:concept,methods and issues. Acta Automatica Sinica, 2017, 43(10):1703-1712(袁勇,王飞跃.平行区块链:概念、方法与内涵辨析.自动化学报,2017, 43(10):1703-1712)
2 Nakamoto S. Bitcoin:a peer-to-peer electronic cash system[Online], avaliable:https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf,January, 2009
3 Stark J. Making sense of blockchain smart contracts[Online], available:https://www.coindesk.com/making-sense-smart-contracts/, November 5, 2018
4 Bartoletti M, Pompianu L. An empirical analysis of smart contracts:platforms, applications, and design patterns. In:Proceedings of the International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. Springer, Cham, 2017.494-509
5 Wood G. Ethereum:A secure decentralized generalized transaction ledger(EIP-150 revision)[Online], avaliable:http://gavwood.com/paper.pdf, November 5, 2018
6 Wikipedia:The DAO(organization)[Online], available:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_DAO_(organization),November 5, 2018
7 Yuan Yong, Wang Fei-Yue. Blockchain:the state of the art and future trends. Acta Automatica Sinica, 2016, 42(4):481-494(袁勇,王飞跃.区块链技术发展现状与展望.自动化学报,2016,42(4):481-494)
8 Hyperledger fabric website[Online], available:https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/fabric, November 5, 2018
9 Meiklejohn S, Pomarole M, Jordan G, Levchenko K, McCoy D, Voelker G M, et al. A fistful of bitcoins:characterizing payments among men with no names. In:Proceedings of the 2013 Conference on Internet Measurement Conference.New York, USA:ACM, 2013. 127-140
10 Ron D, Shamir A. Quantitative analysis of the full bitcoin transaction graph. In:Proceedings of the 2013 International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security.Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2013. 6-24
11 Kosba A, Miller A, Shi E, Wen Z, Papamanthou C.Hawk:the blockchain model of cryptography and privacypreserving smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 37th Symposium on Security and Privacy. New York, USA:IEEE,2016. 839-858
12 Zhang F, Cecchetti E, Croman K, Juels A, Shi Elaine. Town crier:an authenticated data feed for smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM,2016. 270-282
13 Ye P J, Wang S, Wang F Y. A general cognitive architecture for agent-based modeling in artificial societies. IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems, 2018, 5(1):176-185
14 Atzei N, Bartoletti M, Cimoli T. A survey of attacks on ethereum smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Principles of Security and Trust.Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2017. 164-186
15 Luu L, Chu D H, Olickel H, Saxena P, Hobor A. Making smart contracts smarter. In:Proceedings of the 2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2016. 254-269
16 Chen T, Li X Q, Luo X P, Zhang X S. Under-optimized smart contracts devour your money. In:Proceedings of the4th International Conference on Software Analysis, Evolution and Reengineerin. New York, USA:IEEE, 2017.442-446
17 Juels A, Kosba A, Shi E. The ring of gyges:investigating the future of criminal smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the2016 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2016. 283-295
18 Christin N. Traveling the silk road:a measurement analysis of a large anonymous online marketplace. In:Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on World Wide Web.New York, USA:ACM, 2013. 213-224
19 Erdman A G, Sandor G N. Mechanical Design(3rd ed):Analysis and Synthesis(Vol.1). Englewood Cliffs:PrenticeHall, 1997
20 Zeng Shuai, Yuan Yong, Ni Xiao-Chun, Wang Fei-Yue.Scaling blockchain towards bitcoin:key technologies, constraints and related issues. Acta Automatica Sinica, DOI:10.16383/j.aas.c180100(曾帅,袁勇,倪晓春,王飞跃.面向比特币的区块链扩容:关键技术、制约因素与衍生问题.自动化学报,DOI:10.16383/j.aas.c180100)
21 Dickerson T, Gazzillo P, Herlihy M, Koskinen E. Adding concurrency to smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2017ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing.New York, USA:ACM, 2017. 303-312
22 Hu Kai, Bai Xiao-Min, Gao Ling-Chao, Dong Ai-Qiang. Formal verification method of smart contract. Journal of Information Security Research, 2016, 2(12):1080-1089(胡凯,白晓敏,高灵超,董爱强.智能合约的形式化验证方法.信息安全研究,2016, 2(12):1080-1089)
23 Mythril website[Online], available:https://github.com/bmueller/mythril/, November 5, 2018
24 Bhargavan K, Delignat-Lavaud A, Fournet C, Gollamudi A,Gonthier G, Kobeissi N, et al. Short paper:formal verification of smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 2016 ACM Workshop on Programming Languages and 23 Analysis for Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2016. 91-96
25 Kalra S. Goel S. Dhawan M, Sharma S. Zeus:analyzing safety of smart contracts[Online], available:http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~joel.reardon/blockchain/readings/ndss2018_09-1_Kalra_paper.pdf, November 5,2018
26 Manticore website[Online], available:https://github.com/trailofbits/manticore, November 5, 2018
27 Tsankov P, Dan A, Cohen D D, et al. Securify:practical security analysis of smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the25th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security. New York, USA:ACM, 2018. 67-82
28 Solgraph website[Online], available:https://github.com/raineorshine/solgraph, November 5, 2018
29 Qiao Hai-Shu, Xie Shan-Shan. The latest development of theoretical research on blockchain finance. Financial Theory and Practice, 2017,(3):75-79(乔海曙,谢姗珊.区块链金融理论研究的最新进展.金融理论与实践,2017,(3):75-79)
30 Peters G W, Panayi E. Understanding Modern Banking Ledgers Through Blockchain Technologies:Future of Transaction Processing and Smart Contracts on the Internet of Money. Berlin:Springer International Publishing, 2016.5-10
31 Corda website[Online], available:https://docs.corda.net/,November 5, 2018
32 Gatteschi V, Lamberti F, Demartini C, Pranteda C, Santamaria V. Blockchain and smart contracts for insurance:is the technology mature enough. Future Internet, 2018, 10(2):20
33 Bertani T, Butkute K, Canessa F. Smart flight insuranceinsureth[Online], available:https://mkvd.s3.amazonaws.com/apps/InsurEth.pdf, November 5, 2018
34 ECoinmerce:decentralized marketplace[Online], available:https://www.ecoinmerce.io/, November 5, 2018
35 Slock.it:enabling the economy of things[Online], available:https://slock.it/, November 5, 2018
36 Beck R, Avital M, Rossi M, Thatcher J B. Blockchain technology in business and information systems research.Business&Information Systems Engineering, 2017, 59(6):381-384
37 Weber I, Gramoli V, Ponomarev A, Staples M, Holz R, Tran A B, et al. On availability for blockchain-based systems.In:Proceedings of the International Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems. New York, USA:IEEE, 2017. 64-73
38 Wang S, Ni X C, Yuan Y, Wang X, Ouyang L W, Wang F Y. A preliminary research of prediction markets based on blockchain powered smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the2018 International Conference on Blockchain(Blockchain-2018. New York, USA:IEEE, 2018. 1287-1293
39 McCorry P, Shahandashti S F, Hao F. A smart contract for boardroom voting with maximum voter privacy. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Financial Cryptography and Data Security. Springer, Cham, 2017.357-375
40 Rosa J L, Gibovic D, Torres-Padrosa V, Maicher L, Miralles F, Fakdi A, et al. On intellectual property in online open innovation for SME by means of blockchain and smart contracts. In:Proceedings of the 3rd Annual World Open Innovation Conference. Barcelona, Spain, 2016
41 IP360 website[Online], available:https://www.ip360.net.cn/index, November 5, 2018
42 Xia Q, Sifah E B, Asamoah K O, Gao J B, Du X J, Guizani M. MeDShare:trust-less medical data sharing among cloud service providers via blockchain. IEEE Access, 2017, 5(99):14757-14767
43 Azaria A, Ekblaw A, Vieira T, Lippman A. MedRec:using blockchain for medical data access and permission management. In:Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Open and Big Data. New York, USA:IEEE, 2016. 25-30
44 Kuo T T, Ohno-Machado L. ModelChain:decentralized privacy-preserving healthcare predictive modeling framework on private blockchain networks. Computers and Society, arXiv:1802.01746
45 Mediledger website[Online],available:https://www.mediledger. com/, November 5, 2018
46 BlockMedx website[Online], available:https://blockmedx.com/en/, November 5, 2018
47 Dorri A, Kanhere S S, Jurdak R, Gauravaram P. Blockchain for IoT security and privacy:the case study of a smart home. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops.New York, USA:IEEE, 2017. 618-623
48 Dorri A, Kanhere S S, Jurdak R. Towards an optimized blockchain for IoT. In:Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Internet-Of-Things Design and Implementation, Pittsburgh. New York, USA:IEEE, 2017. 173-178
49 Zhang Y, Wen J T. An IoT electric business model based on the protocol of bitcoin. In:Proceedings of 18th International Conference on Intelligence in Next Generation Networks. New York, USA:IEEE, 2015. 184-191
50 Zhang Y Y, Kasahara S, Shen Y L, Jiang X H, Wan J X. Smart contract-based access control for the Internet of Things. Cryptography and Security, arXiv:1802.04410
51 IoTeX website[Online], available:https://iotex.io/, November 5, 2018
52 Byrne R O. How blockchain can transform the supply chain[Online], available:https://www.logisticsbureau.com/how-blockchain-can-transform-the-supply-chain/,November 5, 2018
53 Bocek T, Rodrigues B B, Strasser T, Stiller B. Blockchains everywhere-a use-case of blockchains in the pharma supply-chain. In:Proceedings of the 2017 Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management. New York,USA:IEEE, 2017. 772-777
54 Stark J. Making sense of ethereum's layer2 scaling solutions:state channels, plasma, and truebit[Online],available:https://medium.com/14-media/making-sense-ofethereums-layer-2-scaling-solutions-state-channels-plasmaand-truebit-22cb40dcc2f4, November 5, 2018
55 Taxa Website[Online], available:https://taxa.network/,November 5, 2018
56 Wang Fei-Yue. Software-defined systems and knowledge automation:a parallel paradigm shift from Newton to Merton.Acta Automatica Sinica, 2015, 41(1):1-8(王飞跃.软件定义的系统与知识自动化:从牛顿到默顿的平行升华.自动化学报,2015, 411(1):1-8)
57 Wang Fei-Yue, Wang Xiao, Yuan Yong, Wang Tao, Lin Yi-Lun. Social computing and computational societies:the fouyndation and consequence of smart societies. China Science Bulletin, 2015, 60(5-6):460-469(王飞跃,王晓,袁勇,王涛,林懿伦.社会计到与计算社会:智慧社会的基础与必然.科学通报,2015, 60(5-6):460-469)
58 Wang Fei-Yue. Artificial societies, computational experiments, and parallel systems:a discussion on comput.ational theory of complex social-economic systems. Complex System and Complexity Science, 2004, 1(4):25-35(王飞跃.人工社会、计算实验、平行系统—关于复杂社会经济系统计算研究的司论.复杂系统与复杂性科学,2004, 1(4):25-35)
59 Wang F Y, Yuan Y, Wang X, Qin R. Societies 5.0:a new paradigm for computational social systems research. IEEE Transactions on Computational Social Systems, 2018, 5(1):2-8
60 Zhang J J, Wang F Y, Wang Q, Hao D, Yang X. Parallel dispatch:a new paradigm of electrical power system dispatch. IEEE/CAA Journal of Automatica S'inica, 2018,5(1):311-319
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