Morphology and composition of particles emitted from a port fuel injection gasoline vehicle under real-world driving test cycles
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摘要
Traffic vehicles, many of which are powered by port fuel injection(PFI) engines, are major sources of particulate matter in the urban atmosphere. We studied particles from the emission of a commercial PFI-engine vehicle when it was running under the states of cold start, hot start, hot stabilized running, idle and acceleration, using a transmission electron microscope and an energy-dispersive X-ray detector. Results showed that the particles were mainly composed of organic, soot, and Ca-rich particles, with a small amount of S-rich and metal-containing particles, and displayed a unimodal size distribution with the peak at 600 nm. The emissions were highest under the cold start running state, followed by the hot start, hot stabilized, acceleration, and idle running states. Organic particles under the hot start and hot stabilized running states were higher than those of other running states. Soot particles were highest under the cold start running state. Under the idle running state, the relative number fraction of Ca-rich particles was high although their absolute number was low. These results indicate that PFI-engine vehicles emit substantial primary particles,which favor the formation of secondary aerosols via providing reaction sites and reaction catalysts, as well as supplying soot, organic, mineral and metal particles in the size range of the accumulation mode. In addition, the contents of Ca, P, and Zn in organic particles may serve as fingerprints for source apportionment of particles from PFI-engine vehicles.
Traffic vehicles, many of which are powered by port fuel injection(PFI) engines, are major sources of particulate matter in the urban atmosphere. We studied particles from the emission of a commercial PFI-engine vehicle when it was running under the states of cold start, hot start, hot stabilized running, idle and acceleration, using a transmission electron microscope and an energy-dispersive X-ray detector. Results showed that the particles were mainly composed of organic, soot, and Ca-rich particles, with a small amount of S-rich and metal-containing particles, and displayed a unimodal size distribution with the peak at 600 nm. The emissions were highest under the cold start running state, followed by the hot start, hot stabilized, acceleration, and idle running states. Organic particles under the hot start and hot stabilized running states were higher than those of other running states. Soot particles were highest under the cold start running state. Under the idle running state, the relative number fraction of Ca-rich particles was high although their absolute number was low. These results indicate that PFI-engine vehicles emit substantial primary particles,which favor the formation of secondary aerosols via providing reaction sites and reaction catalysts, as well as supplying soot, organic, mineral and metal particles in the size range of the accumulation mode. In addition, the contents of Ca, P, and Zn in organic particles may serve as fingerprints for source apportionment of particles from PFI-engine vehicles.
Traffic vehicles, many of which are powered by port fuel injection(PFI) engines, are major sources of particulate matter in the urban atmosphere. We studied particles from the emission of a commercial PFI-engine vehicle when it was running under the states of cold start, hot start, hot stabilized running, idle and acceleration, using a transmission electron microscope and an energy-dispersive X-ray detector. Results showed that the particles were mainly composed of organic, soot, and Ca-rich particles, with a small amount of S-rich and metal-containing particles, and displayed a unimodal size distribution with the peak at 600 nm. The emissions were highest under the cold start running state, followed by the hot start, hot stabilized, acceleration, and idle running states. Organic particles under the hot start and hot stabilized running states were higher than those of other running states. Soot particles were highest under the cold start running state. Under the idle running state, the relative number fraction of Ca-rich particles was high although their absolute number was low. These results indicate that PFI-engine vehicles emit substantial primary particles,which favor the formation of secondary aerosols via providing reaction sites and reaction catalysts, as well as supplying soot, organic, mineral and metal particles in the size range of the accumulation mode. In addition, the contents of Ca, P, and Zn in organic particles may serve as fingerprints for source apportionment of particles from PFI-engine vehicles.
引文
Agarwal,A.K.,Gupta,T.,Bothra,P.,Shukla,P.C.,2015.Emission profiling of diesel and gasoline cars at a city traffic junction.Particuology 18,186-193.
Apicella,B.,Pré,P.,Alfè,M.,Ciajolo,A.,Gargiulo,V.,Russo,C.,et al.,2015.Soot nanostructure evolution in premixed flames by high resolution electron transmission microscopy(HRTEM).Proc.Combust.Inst.35(2),1895-1902.
Arnold,F.,Pirjola,L.,Ronkk,T.,Reichl,U.,Schlager,H.,Lahde,T.,et al.,2012.First online measurements of sulfuric acid gas in modern heavy-duty diesel engine exhaust:implications for nanoparticle formation.Environ.Sci.Technol.46(20),11227-11234.
Arsie,I.,Di Iorio,S.,Vaccaro,S.,2013.Experimental investigation of the effects of AFR,spark advance and EGR on nanoparticle emissions in a PFI SI engine.J.Aerosol Sci.64,1-10.
Bahreini,R.,Xue,J.,Johnson,K.,Durbin,T.,Quiros,D.,Hu,S.,et al.,2015.Characterizing emissions and optical properties of particulate matter from PFI and GDI light-duty gasoline vehicles.J.Aerosol Sci.90,144-153.
Bond,T.C.,Doherty,S.J.,Fahey,D.W.,Forster,P.M.,Berntsen,T.,Deangelo,B.J.,et al.,2013.Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system:a scientific assessment.J.Geophys.Res.-Atmos.118(11),5380-5552.
California Air Resources Board(CARB),2010.Preliminary discussion paper-proposed amendments to California's low-emission vehicle regulations-particulate matter mass,ultra fine solid particle number,and black carbon emissions.Workshop Report.
Chart-Asa,C.,Gibson,J.M.,2015.Health impact assessment of traffic-related air pollution at the urban project scale:influence of variability and uncertainty.Sci.Total Environ.506,409-421.
Chen,L.,Liang,Z.,Zhang,X.,Shuai,S.,2017a.Characterizing particulate matter emissions from GDI and PFI vehicles under transient and cold start conditions.Fuel 189,131-140.
Chen,S.,Xu,L.,Zhang,Y.,Chen,B.,Wang,X.,Zhang,X.,et al.,2017b.Direct observations of organic aerosols in common wintertime hazes in North China:insights into direct emissions from Chinese residential stoves.Atmos.Chem.Phys.17(2),1259-1270.
Drozd,G.T.,Zhao,Y.,Saliba,G.,Frodin,B.,Maddox,C.,Weber,R.J.,et al.,2016.Time resolved measurements of speciated tailpipe emissions from motor vehicles:trends with emission control technology,cold start effects,and speciation.Environ.Sci.Technol.50(24),13592-13599.
Fu,H.,Wang,Y.,Li,X.,Shuai,S.,2014.Impacts of cold-start and gasoline RON on particulate emission from vehicles powered by GDI and PFI engines.SAE Technical Paper 2014-01-2836https://doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-2836.
Guo,S.,Hu,M.,Guo,Q.,Zhang,X.,Zheng,M.,Zheng,J.,et al.,2012.Primary sources and secondary formation of organic aerosols in Beijing,China.Environ.Sci.Technol.(18),9846-9853.
Hou,C.,Shao,L.,Hu,W.,Zhang,D.,Zhao,C.,Xing,J.,et al.,2018.Characteristics and aging of traffic-derived particles in a highway tunnel at a coastal city in southern China.Sci.Total Environ.619-620,1385-1393.
Hu,W.,Niu,H.,Zhang,D.,Wu,Z.,Chen,C.,Wu,Y.,et al.,2016.Insights into a dust event transported through Beijing in spring2012:morphology,chemical composition and impact on surface aerosols.Sci.Total Environ.565,287-298.
Huang,R.,Zhang,Y.,Bozzetti,C.,Ho,K.,Cao,J.,Han,Y.,et al.,2014.High secondary aerosol contribution to particulate pollution during haze events in China.Nature 514(7521),218-222.
Jakober,C.A.,Robert,M.A.,Riddle,S.G.,Destaillats,H.,Charles,M.J.,Green,P.G.,et al.,2008.Carbonyl emissions from gasoline and diesel motor vehicles.Environ.Sci.Technol.42(13),4697-4703.
Karavalakis,G.,Short,D.,Vu,D.,Russell,R.,Hajbabaei,M.,Asa-Awuku,A.,et al.,2015.Evaluating the effects of aromatics content in gasoline on gaseous and particulate matter emissions from SI-PFI and SIDI vehicles.Environ.Sci.Technol.49(11),7021-7031.
Karjalainen,P.,Pirjola,L.,Heikkil?,J.,L?hde,T.,Tzamkiozis,T.,Ntziachristos,L.,et al.,2014a.Exhaust particles of modern gasoline vehicles:a laboratory and an on-road study.Atmos.Environ.97,262-270.
Karjalainen,P.,Ronkko,T.,Pirjola,L.,Heikkila,J.,Happonen,M.,Arnold,F.,et al.,2014b.Sulfur driven nucleation mode formation in diesel exhaust under transient driving conditions.Environ.Sci.Technol.48(4),2336-2343.
L?hde,T.,Virtanen,A.,Happonen,M.,S?derstr?m,C.,Kyt?,M.,et al.,2014.Heavy-duty,off-road diesel engine low-load particle number emissions and particle control.J.Air Waste Manage.Assoc.64(10),1186-1194.
Leach,F.,Stone,R.,Richardson,D.,2013.The influence of fuel properties on particulate number emissions from a direct injection spark ignition engine.SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-1558https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-1558.
Li,W.,Shao,L.,2009.Transmission electron microscopy study of aerosol particles from the brown hazes in northern China.J.Geophys.Res.-Atmos.https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011285.
Liu,Z.G.,Vasys,V.N.,Kittelson,D.B.,2007.Nuclei-mode particulate emissions and their response to fuel sulfur content and primary dilution during transient operations of old and modern diesel engines.Environ.Sci.Technol.41(18),647-6483.
Liu,L.,Kong,S.,Zhang,Y.,Wang,Y.,Xu,L.,Yan,Q.,et al.,2017.Morphology,composition,and mixing state of primary particles from combustion sources-crop residue,wood,and solid waste.Sci.Rep.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-05357-2.
Lv,G.,Song,C.,Pan,S.,Gao,J.,Cao,X.,2014.Comparison of number,surface area and volume distributions of particles emitted from a multipoint port fuel injection car and a gasoline direct injection car.Atmos.Pollut.Res.5(4),753-758.
Mathis,U.,Mohr,M.,Forss,A.,2005.Comprehensive particle characterization of modern gasoline and diesel passenger cars at low ambient temperatures.Atmos.Environ.39(1),107-117.
May,A.A.,Nguyen,N.T.,Presto,A.A.,Gordon,T.D.,Lipsky,E.M.,Karve,M.,et al.,2014.Gas-and particle-phase primary emissions from in-use,on-road gasoline and diesel vehicles.Atmos.Environ.88,247-260.
Myung,C.L.,Park,S.,2012.Exhaust nanoparticle emission from internal combustion engines:a review.Int.J.Automot.Technol.1(13),9-22.
National Bureau of Statistics of China,2015.China statistical yearbook 2015,part eighteen:transportation,post and telecommunications and software industry.Available online at http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2015/indexch.htm.
Niu,H.,Shao,L.,Zhang,D.,2012.Soot particles at an elevated site in eastern China during the passage of a strong cyclone.Sci.Total Environ.430,217-222.
Okada,K.,Qin,Y.,Kai,K.,2005.Elemental composition and mixing properties of atmospheric mineral particles collected in Hohhot,China.Atmos.Res.73,45-67.
Peng,J.,Hu,M.,Guo,S.,Du,Z.,Zheng,J.,Shang,D.,et al.,2016.Markedly enhanced absorption and direct radiative forcing of black carbon under polluted urban environments.Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.113,4266-4271.
Petzold,A.,Marsh,R.,Johnson,M.,Miller,M.,Sevcenco,Y.,Delhaye,D.,et al.,2011.Evaluation of methods for measuring particulate matter emissions from gas turbines.Environ.Sci.Technol.45(8),3562-3568.
R?nkk?,T.,L?hde,T.,Heikkil?,J.,Pirjola,L.,Bauschke,U.,Arnold,F.,et al.,2013.Effects of gaseous sulphuric acid on diesel exhaust nanoparticle formation and characteristics.Environ.Sci.Technol.47,11882-11889.
R?nkk?,T.,Pirjola,L.,Ntziachristos,L.,Heikkil?,J.,Karjalainen,P.,Hillamo,R.,et al.,2014.Vehicle engines produce exhaust nanoparticles even when not fueled.Environ.Sci.Technol.48(3),2043-2050.
Seong,H.,Choi,S.,Lee,K.,2014.Examination of nanoparticles from gasoline direct-injection(GDI)engine using transmission electron microscopy(TEM).Int.J.Automot.Technol.15(2),175-181.
Shao,L.,Hu,Y.,Fan,J.,Wang,J.,Wang,J.,Ma,J.,2017a.Physicochemical characteristics of aerosol particles in the Tibetan Plateau:Insights from TEM-EDX analysis.J.Nanosci.Nanotechnol.17(9),6899-6908.
Shao,L.,Hu,Y.,Shen,R.,Sch?fer,K.,Wang,J.,Wang,J.,et al.,2017b.Seasonal variation of particle-induced oxidative potential of airborne particulate matter in Beijing.Sci.Total Environ.579,1152-1160.
Tong,H.Y.,Hung,W.T.,Cheung,C.S.,2000.On-road motor vehicle emissions and fuel consumption in urban driving conditions.J.Air Waste Manage.Assoc.50(4),543-554.
Weinbruch,S.,Benker,N.,Kandler,K.,Ebert,M.,Ellingsen,D.G.,Berlinger,B.,et al.,2016.Morphology,chemical composition and nanostructure of single carbon-rich particles studied by transmission electron microscopy:source apportionment in workroom air of aluminium smelters.Anal.Bioanal.Chem.408(4),1151-1158.
Weinbruch,S.,Benker,N.,Kandler,K.,Schuetze,K.,Kling,K.,Berlinger,B.,et al.,2018.Source identification of individual soot agglomerates in Arctic air by transmission electron microscopy.Atmos.Environ.172,47-54.
Xing,J.,Shao,L.,Zheng,R.,Peng,J.,Wang,W.,Guo,Q.,et al.,2017.Individual particles emitted from gasoline engines:impact of engine types,engine loads and fuel components.J.Clean.Prod.149,461-471.
Xu,L.,Liu,L.,Zhang,J.,Zhang,Y.,Ren,Y.,Wang,X.,et al.,2017.Morphology,composition,and mixing state of individual aerosol particles in Northeast China during wintertime.Atmosphere 8(3),47.
Yang,B.,Ma,P.,Shu,J.,Zhang,P.,Huang,J.,Zhang,H.,2018.Formation mechanism of secondary organic aerosol from ozonolysis of gasoline vehicle exhaust.Environ.Pollut.234,960-968.
Yu,L.,Wang,G.,Zhang,R.,Zhang,L.,Song,Y.,Wu,B.,et al.,2013.Characterization and source apportionment of PM2.5in an urban environment in Beijing.Aerosol Air Qual.Res.13(2),574-583.
Zhang,D.,Tang,X.,Qin,Y.,Iwasaka,Y.,Gai,X.,1995.Tests for individual sulfate-containing particles in urban atmosphere in Beijing.Adv.Atmos.Sci.12,343-350.
Zhang,Y.,Cai,J.,Wang,S.,He,K.,Zheng,M.,2017a.Review of receptor-based source apportionment research of fine particulate matter and its challenges in China.Sci.Total Environ.586,917-929.
Zhang,J.,Liu,L.,Wang,Y.,Ren,Y.,Wang,X.,Shi,Z.,et al.,2017b.Chemical composition,source,and process of urban aerosols during winter haze formation in Northeast China.Environ.Pollut.231,357-366.
Zhu,R.,Hu,J.,Bao,X.,He,L.,Lai,Y.,Zu,L.,et al.,2016.Tailpipe emissions from gasoline direct injection(GDI)and port fuel injection(PFI)vehicles at both low and high ambient temperatures.Environ.Pollut.216,223-234.
Apicella,B.,Pré,P.,Alfè,M.,Ciajolo,A.,Gargiulo,V.,Russo,C.,et al.,2015.Soot nanostructure evolution in premixed flames by high resolution electron transmission microscopy(HRTEM).Proc.Combust.Inst.35(2),1895-1902.
Arnold,F.,Pirjola,L.,Ronkk,T.,Reichl,U.,Schlager,H.,Lahde,T.,et al.,2012.First online measurements of sulfuric acid gas in modern heavy-duty diesel engine exhaust:implications for nanoparticle formation.Environ.Sci.Technol.46(20),11227-11234.
Arsie,I.,Di Iorio,S.,Vaccaro,S.,2013.Experimental investigation of the effects of AFR,spark advance and EGR on nanoparticle emissions in a PFI SI engine.J.Aerosol Sci.64,1-10.
Bahreini,R.,Xue,J.,Johnson,K.,Durbin,T.,Quiros,D.,Hu,S.,et al.,2015.Characterizing emissions and optical properties of particulate matter from PFI and GDI light-duty gasoline vehicles.J.Aerosol Sci.90,144-153.
Bond,T.C.,Doherty,S.J.,Fahey,D.W.,Forster,P.M.,Berntsen,T.,Deangelo,B.J.,et al.,2013.Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system:a scientific assessment.J.Geophys.Res.-Atmos.118(11),5380-5552.
California Air Resources Board(CARB),2010.Preliminary discussion paper-proposed amendments to California's low-emission vehicle regulations-particulate matter mass,ultra fine solid particle number,and black carbon emissions.Workshop Report.
Chart-Asa,C.,Gibson,J.M.,2015.Health impact assessment of traffic-related air pollution at the urban project scale:influence of variability and uncertainty.Sci.Total Environ.506,409-421.
Chen,L.,Liang,Z.,Zhang,X.,Shuai,S.,2017a.Characterizing particulate matter emissions from GDI and PFI vehicles under transient and cold start conditions.Fuel 189,131-140.
Chen,S.,Xu,L.,Zhang,Y.,Chen,B.,Wang,X.,Zhang,X.,et al.,2017b.Direct observations of organic aerosols in common wintertime hazes in North China:insights into direct emissions from Chinese residential stoves.Atmos.Chem.Phys.17(2),1259-1270.
Drozd,G.T.,Zhao,Y.,Saliba,G.,Frodin,B.,Maddox,C.,Weber,R.J.,et al.,2016.Time resolved measurements of speciated tailpipe emissions from motor vehicles:trends with emission control technology,cold start effects,and speciation.Environ.Sci.Technol.50(24),13592-13599.
Fu,H.,Wang,Y.,Li,X.,Shuai,S.,2014.Impacts of cold-start and gasoline RON on particulate emission from vehicles powered by GDI and PFI engines.SAE Technical Paper 2014-01-2836https://doi.org/10.4271/2014-01-2836.
Guo,S.,Hu,M.,Guo,Q.,Zhang,X.,Zheng,M.,Zheng,J.,et al.,2012.Primary sources and secondary formation of organic aerosols in Beijing,China.Environ.Sci.Technol.(18),9846-9853.
Hou,C.,Shao,L.,Hu,W.,Zhang,D.,Zhao,C.,Xing,J.,et al.,2018.Characteristics and aging of traffic-derived particles in a highway tunnel at a coastal city in southern China.Sci.Total Environ.619-620,1385-1393.
Hu,W.,Niu,H.,Zhang,D.,Wu,Z.,Chen,C.,Wu,Y.,et al.,2016.Insights into a dust event transported through Beijing in spring2012:morphology,chemical composition and impact on surface aerosols.Sci.Total Environ.565,287-298.
Huang,R.,Zhang,Y.,Bozzetti,C.,Ho,K.,Cao,J.,Han,Y.,et al.,2014.High secondary aerosol contribution to particulate pollution during haze events in China.Nature 514(7521),218-222.
Jakober,C.A.,Robert,M.A.,Riddle,S.G.,Destaillats,H.,Charles,M.J.,Green,P.G.,et al.,2008.Carbonyl emissions from gasoline and diesel motor vehicles.Environ.Sci.Technol.42(13),4697-4703.
Karavalakis,G.,Short,D.,Vu,D.,Russell,R.,Hajbabaei,M.,Asa-Awuku,A.,et al.,2015.Evaluating the effects of aromatics content in gasoline on gaseous and particulate matter emissions from SI-PFI and SIDI vehicles.Environ.Sci.Technol.49(11),7021-7031.
Karjalainen,P.,Pirjola,L.,Heikkil?,J.,L?hde,T.,Tzamkiozis,T.,Ntziachristos,L.,et al.,2014a.Exhaust particles of modern gasoline vehicles:a laboratory and an on-road study.Atmos.Environ.97,262-270.
Karjalainen,P.,Ronkko,T.,Pirjola,L.,Heikkila,J.,Happonen,M.,Arnold,F.,et al.,2014b.Sulfur driven nucleation mode formation in diesel exhaust under transient driving conditions.Environ.Sci.Technol.48(4),2336-2343.
L?hde,T.,Virtanen,A.,Happonen,M.,S?derstr?m,C.,Kyt?,M.,et al.,2014.Heavy-duty,off-road diesel engine low-load particle number emissions and particle control.J.Air Waste Manage.Assoc.64(10),1186-1194.
Leach,F.,Stone,R.,Richardson,D.,2013.The influence of fuel properties on particulate number emissions from a direct injection spark ignition engine.SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-1558https://doi.org/10.4271/2013-01-1558.
Li,W.,Shao,L.,2009.Transmission electron microscopy study of aerosol particles from the brown hazes in northern China.J.Geophys.Res.-Atmos.https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011285.
Liu,Z.G.,Vasys,V.N.,Kittelson,D.B.,2007.Nuclei-mode particulate emissions and their response to fuel sulfur content and primary dilution during transient operations of old and modern diesel engines.Environ.Sci.Technol.41(18),647-6483.
Liu,L.,Kong,S.,Zhang,Y.,Wang,Y.,Xu,L.,Yan,Q.,et al.,2017.Morphology,composition,and mixing state of primary particles from combustion sources-crop residue,wood,and solid waste.Sci.Rep.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-05357-2.
Lv,G.,Song,C.,Pan,S.,Gao,J.,Cao,X.,2014.Comparison of number,surface area and volume distributions of particles emitted from a multipoint port fuel injection car and a gasoline direct injection car.Atmos.Pollut.Res.5(4),753-758.
Mathis,U.,Mohr,M.,Forss,A.,2005.Comprehensive particle characterization of modern gasoline and diesel passenger cars at low ambient temperatures.Atmos.Environ.39(1),107-117.
May,A.A.,Nguyen,N.T.,Presto,A.A.,Gordon,T.D.,Lipsky,E.M.,Karve,M.,et al.,2014.Gas-and particle-phase primary emissions from in-use,on-road gasoline and diesel vehicles.Atmos.Environ.88,247-260.
Myung,C.L.,Park,S.,2012.Exhaust nanoparticle emission from internal combustion engines:a review.Int.J.Automot.Technol.1(13),9-22.
National Bureau of Statistics of China,2015.China statistical yearbook 2015,part eighteen:transportation,post and telecommunications and software industry.Available online at http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2015/indexch.htm.
Niu,H.,Shao,L.,Zhang,D.,2012.Soot particles at an elevated site in eastern China during the passage of a strong cyclone.Sci.Total Environ.430,217-222.
Okada,K.,Qin,Y.,Kai,K.,2005.Elemental composition and mixing properties of atmospheric mineral particles collected in Hohhot,China.Atmos.Res.73,45-67.
Peng,J.,Hu,M.,Guo,S.,Du,Z.,Zheng,J.,Shang,D.,et al.,2016.Markedly enhanced absorption and direct radiative forcing of black carbon under polluted urban environments.Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.U.S.A.113,4266-4271.
Petzold,A.,Marsh,R.,Johnson,M.,Miller,M.,Sevcenco,Y.,Delhaye,D.,et al.,2011.Evaluation of methods for measuring particulate matter emissions from gas turbines.Environ.Sci.Technol.45(8),3562-3568.
R?nkk?,T.,L?hde,T.,Heikkil?,J.,Pirjola,L.,Bauschke,U.,Arnold,F.,et al.,2013.Effects of gaseous sulphuric acid on diesel exhaust nanoparticle formation and characteristics.Environ.Sci.Technol.47,11882-11889.
R?nkk?,T.,Pirjola,L.,Ntziachristos,L.,Heikkil?,J.,Karjalainen,P.,Hillamo,R.,et al.,2014.Vehicle engines produce exhaust nanoparticles even when not fueled.Environ.Sci.Technol.48(3),2043-2050.
Seong,H.,Choi,S.,Lee,K.,2014.Examination of nanoparticles from gasoline direct-injection(GDI)engine using transmission electron microscopy(TEM).Int.J.Automot.Technol.15(2),175-181.
Shao,L.,Hu,Y.,Fan,J.,Wang,J.,Wang,J.,Ma,J.,2017a.Physicochemical characteristics of aerosol particles in the Tibetan Plateau:Insights from TEM-EDX analysis.J.Nanosci.Nanotechnol.17(9),6899-6908.
Shao,L.,Hu,Y.,Shen,R.,Sch?fer,K.,Wang,J.,Wang,J.,et al.,2017b.Seasonal variation of particle-induced oxidative potential of airborne particulate matter in Beijing.Sci.Total Environ.579,1152-1160.
Tong,H.Y.,Hung,W.T.,Cheung,C.S.,2000.On-road motor vehicle emissions and fuel consumption in urban driving conditions.J.Air Waste Manage.Assoc.50(4),543-554.
Weinbruch,S.,Benker,N.,Kandler,K.,Ebert,M.,Ellingsen,D.G.,Berlinger,B.,et al.,2016.Morphology,chemical composition and nanostructure of single carbon-rich particles studied by transmission electron microscopy:source apportionment in workroom air of aluminium smelters.Anal.Bioanal.Chem.408(4),1151-1158.
Weinbruch,S.,Benker,N.,Kandler,K.,Schuetze,K.,Kling,K.,Berlinger,B.,et al.,2018.Source identification of individual soot agglomerates in Arctic air by transmission electron microscopy.Atmos.Environ.172,47-54.
Xing,J.,Shao,L.,Zheng,R.,Peng,J.,Wang,W.,Guo,Q.,et al.,2017.Individual particles emitted from gasoline engines:impact of engine types,engine loads and fuel components.J.Clean.Prod.149,461-471.
Xu,L.,Liu,L.,Zhang,J.,Zhang,Y.,Ren,Y.,Wang,X.,et al.,2017.Morphology,composition,and mixing state of individual aerosol particles in Northeast China during wintertime.Atmosphere 8(3),47.
Yang,B.,Ma,P.,Shu,J.,Zhang,P.,Huang,J.,Zhang,H.,2018.Formation mechanism of secondary organic aerosol from ozonolysis of gasoline vehicle exhaust.Environ.Pollut.234,960-968.
Yu,L.,Wang,G.,Zhang,R.,Zhang,L.,Song,Y.,Wu,B.,et al.,2013.Characterization and source apportionment of PM2.5in an urban environment in Beijing.Aerosol Air Qual.Res.13(2),574-583.
Zhang,D.,Tang,X.,Qin,Y.,Iwasaka,Y.,Gai,X.,1995.Tests for individual sulfate-containing particles in urban atmosphere in Beijing.Adv.Atmos.Sci.12,343-350.
Zhang,Y.,Cai,J.,Wang,S.,He,K.,Zheng,M.,2017a.Review of receptor-based source apportionment research of fine particulate matter and its challenges in China.Sci.Total Environ.586,917-929.
Zhang,J.,Liu,L.,Wang,Y.,Ren,Y.,Wang,X.,Shi,Z.,et al.,2017b.Chemical composition,source,and process of urban aerosols during winter haze formation in Northeast China.Environ.Pollut.231,357-366.
Zhu,R.,Hu,J.,Bao,X.,He,L.,Lai,Y.,Zu,L.,et al.,2016.Tailpipe emissions from gasoline direct injection(GDI)and port fuel injection(PFI)vehicles at both low and high ambient temperatures.Environ.Pollut.216,223-234.
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