中国学生英文写作中的语法错误订正
摘要
外语学习是一个循序渐进的过程，在这个过程中学生的语言错误是不可避免的。对错误的恐惧和处理的失误会导致学生的语言错误僵化。因而，如何对待错误就成了第二语言习得中的一个重要课题，这也是教师指导学生的一个重要策略。
在语言教学史上，教学的重心已经从过去的单纯追求目的语言的形式结构正确转移到了以交流为最终目的的语言内容的传达。这就更侧重了对学生语言应用能力的培养，但中国的英语教学，由于受到各方面的限制，仍将很大的精力放在片面追求学生的语法和词汇的正确上。这就造成了教师在进行错误纠正时，过分注重语法订正，这样做到底对学生语言能力的提高有无帮助呢?语法错误订正一向是一个有争议的话题。以Brown为首的一些理论家认为，忽视学生的语法错误是危险的，它会导致学习者将错误“内化”，成为习惯的语言定势，造成语言的僵化现象(Brown，1994：233)。但以Truscott为首的理论家则认为，语法错误订正对学习者语言能力的提高没有任何帮助(Truscott，1996：327-69)。
带着这个问题，本文作者进行了一个实地研究，主要对象是要参加2004年六月大学英语四六级考试的学生，旨在探讨中国学生英文作文中的语法错误订正对他们今后的英文写作能力有何影响，教师如何有效地进行错误订正(哪些错误需要订正，何时订正及如何订正)，如何指导学生正确对待教师的错误反馈以促进其写作能力的提高，以及写作教师面对众多的学生作文如何有效地利用时间。实地研究的结果表明，中国学生是十分欢迎教师对其语法错误进行订正的，但似乎对老师的错误反馈缺乏重视。因为经过数据统计，作者发现，教师的语法订正在提高学生写作的语法精确度方面并无明显的作用，且教师对水平越高的学生进行宏观的错误指导更为有效，而对语言能力较差的学生，细致而精确的语法订正更为适合。
此外，作者在结论部分还对研究的局限性进行了归纳，对今后研究的发展方向及其应用进行了预测，并着重探讨了本研究对中国英语教师在语法错误订正的方法上的指导作用。
Learning a foreign language is a step-by-step process, during which errors are to be expected at all stages of learning. Fear of making errors prevents Chinese students from being receptive and responsive. Overcoming fear of errors depends on the way they are rectified.
Error correction is an important issue that second language (L2) teachers have to address. Attitudes regarding whether to correct, what to correct, when to correct, and how to correct have changed considerably in the last three decades, which exert great influence on L2 teaching. One of the major changes is that language teaching shifts from a focus on the structural properties of the target language to an emphasis on the expression and comprehension of meaning. In other words, the main concern in second language curriculum has changed from fostering students' grammatical accuracy to enhancing their communicative competence or fluency necessary for real-life communication. A consensus regarding the need for grammar error correction in students' speech and writing has not been reached. Some theorists, however, argue that ignoring errors can be potentially dangerous in that it can have the effect of a positive reinforcer, thus leading the learner to internalize those errors, causing fossilization (Brown, 1994:233). However, Truscott (1996: 327-69) and many more theorists hold that correction does not make any contribution to the development of grammar.
The issue of whether to correct grammatical errors or not will be addressed in this paper. The field study done by the author deals with the major issues on the necessity and efficacy of grammar error correction in students' composition of essays, revision of essays and new essays, methods and strategies to deal with errors effectively and the students' attitudes toward error correction. Not much literature can be found addressing these topics. The present study is thus designed to answer these questions and thus contributes to our understanding of EFL learners. Results of the study indicate that grammar error correction sees no obvious improvement in students' writing accuracy and explicit and implicit correction works differently for students with different language proficiency.
The paper also discusses a number of previous studies which attempted to investigate the
在语言教学史上，教学的重心已经从过去的单纯追求目的语言的形式结构正确转移到了以交流为最终目的的语言内容的传达。这就更侧重了对学生语言应用能力的培养，但中国的英语教学，由于受到各方面的限制，仍将很大的精力放在片面追求学生的语法和词汇的正确上。这就造成了教师在进行错误纠正时，过分注重语法订正，这样做到底对学生语言能力的提高有无帮助呢?语法错误订正一向是一个有争议的话题。以Brown为首的一些理论家认为，忽视学生的语法错误是危险的，它会导致学习者将错误“内化”，成为习惯的语言定势，造成语言的僵化现象(Brown，1994：233)。但以Truscott为首的理论家则认为，语法错误订正对学习者语言能力的提高没有任何帮助(Truscott，1996：327-69)。
带着这个问题，本文作者进行了一个实地研究，主要对象是要参加2004年六月大学英语四六级考试的学生，旨在探讨中国学生英文作文中的语法错误订正对他们今后的英文写作能力有何影响，教师如何有效地进行错误订正(哪些错误需要订正，何时订正及如何订正)，如何指导学生正确对待教师的错误反馈以促进其写作能力的提高，以及写作教师面对众多的学生作文如何有效地利用时间。实地研究的结果表明，中国学生是十分欢迎教师对其语法错误进行订正的，但似乎对老师的错误反馈缺乏重视。因为经过数据统计，作者发现，教师的语法订正在提高学生写作的语法精确度方面并无明显的作用，且教师对水平越高的学生进行宏观的错误指导更为有效，而对语言能力较差的学生，细致而精确的语法订正更为适合。
此外，作者在结论部分还对研究的局限性进行了归纳，对今后研究的发展方向及其应用进行了预测，并着重探讨了本研究对中国英语教师在语法错误订正的方法上的指导作用。
Learning a foreign language is a step-by-step process, during which errors are to be expected at all stages of learning. Fear of making errors prevents Chinese students from being receptive and responsive. Overcoming fear of errors depends on the way they are rectified.
Error correction is an important issue that second language (L2) teachers have to address. Attitudes regarding whether to correct, what to correct, when to correct, and how to correct have changed considerably in the last three decades, which exert great influence on L2 teaching. One of the major changes is that language teaching shifts from a focus on the structural properties of the target language to an emphasis on the expression and comprehension of meaning. In other words, the main concern in second language curriculum has changed from fostering students' grammatical accuracy to enhancing their communicative competence or fluency necessary for real-life communication. A consensus regarding the need for grammar error correction in students' speech and writing has not been reached. Some theorists, however, argue that ignoring errors can be potentially dangerous in that it can have the effect of a positive reinforcer, thus leading the learner to internalize those errors, causing fossilization (Brown, 1994:233). However, Truscott (1996: 327-69) and many more theorists hold that correction does not make any contribution to the development of grammar.
The issue of whether to correct grammatical errors or not will be addressed in this paper. The field study done by the author deals with the major issues on the necessity and efficacy of grammar error correction in students' composition of essays, revision of essays and new essays, methods and strategies to deal with errors effectively and the students' attitudes toward error correction. Not much literature can be found addressing these topics. The present study is thus designed to answer these questions and thus contributes to our understanding of EFL learners. Results of the study indicate that grammar error correction sees no obvious improvement in students' writing accuracy and explicit and implicit correction works differently for students with different language proficiency.
The paper also discusses a number of previous studies which attempted to investigate the
引文
Allwright, Dick & Kathleen M. Bailey. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bartram, M. & Walton, R. (1991). Correction. Language Teaching Publications 7: 87-91.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Burt, M. K., & C. Kiparsky. (1972). The Gooficon: A Repair Manual for English. Rowley: Newbury House.
Carroll, S., & Swain, M. (1992). The Role of Feedback in Adult Second Language Acquisition: Error Correction and Morphological Generalizations. Applied Linguistics, 13, 173-98.
——. (1993). Explicit and Implicit Negative Feedback: An Empirical Study of the Learning of Linguistic Generalizations. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 337-86.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar Pedagogy in Second and Foreign Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 459-78.
Cohen, A. (1987). Student Processing of Feedback on Their Compositions. Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 57-69. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Cohen, A., and M. Cavalcanti. (1990). Feedback on Written Compositions: Teacher and Student Verbal Reports. Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom, 155-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corder, S. P. (1971). Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis. International Review of Applied Linguistics 9 (2): 147-60.
——. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
Chaudron, Craig. (1988). Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: CUP.
Ellis, R. (1998). Teaching and Research: Options in Grammar Teaching. TESOl Quarterly 32: 39-60.
Fathman, A. K., & Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher Response to Student Writing: Focus on Form versus Content. Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroo, 178-90. Cambridge: CUP.
Ferris, D. R. (1999). The Case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes: a Response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing 8: 1-10.
——. (2002). Treatment of Error in Second Language Student Writing. U. S.: The University of Michigan Press.
Gass, Susan M., & Selinker, Larry. (1994). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Publishers.
Grauberg, Walter. (1997). The Elements of Foreign Language Teaching. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Green, Kathleen. (1983). Values Clarification Theory in ESL and Bilingual Education. Methods That Work: A Smorgasbord of Ideas For Language Teachers, 179-89. Rowley: Newbury House.
Keppner, C. G (1991). An Experiment in the Relationship of Types of Written Feedback to the Development of Second-language Writing Skills. Modern Language Journal 75: 305-13.
Krashen, S. D. (1984). Writing: Research, Theory, and Application. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Leki, I. (1991). The Preferences of ESL Students for Error Correction in College-level Writing Classes. Foreign Language Annals 24: 203-18.
——. (1993). Coaching From the Margins: Issues in Written Response. Second Language Writing: Research Insights For the Classroom, 57-68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lyster, R. (1998). Negotiation of Form, Recasts, and Explicit Correction in Relation to Error Types and Learner Repair in Immersion Classrooms. Language Learning, 48(2), 183-218.
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective Feedback and Learner Uptake: Negotiation of Form in Communicative Classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37-66.
McPherson, K. (1998). Feedback on Oral Performance: Some Insights from Adult Learners. Prospect, 13(2), 47-62.
Mings, R. C. (1993). Changing Perspectives on the Utility of Error Correction in Second Language Acquisition. Foreign Language Annals, 26: 171-79.
Sheppard, K. (1992). Two Feedback Types: Do They Make a Difference? RELC Journal 23: 103-10.
Semke, H. D. (1984). Effects of the Red Pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17: 195-202.
Steinberg, Danny D. (1993). An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. New York: Longman Publishing.
Truscott, J. (1996). The Case against Grammar Correction in L1 Writing Classes. Language Learning 4(2): 327-69.
——. (1999). The Case for "The Case against Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes": A Response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(2): 111-22.
Zamel, V. (1982). Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning. TESOL Quarterly 16: 195-209.
——. (1985). Responding to Student Writing. TESOL Quarterly 19: 79-102.
桂诗春，杨惠中，(2003)，《中国学习者英语语料库》，上海：上海教育出版社。
苏红霞，(2002)，“中国学生英语过渡语动词差错分析”，《外语教学》，第一期，36-41。
吴丁娥，(2001)，“第二语言习得中的过渡语动词差错分析”，《外语教学》，第一期，36-41。
姚文振，马生虎，(2004)，“创造良好的教学环境，提高教学质量”，《外语教学与翻译》，第三卷，第三期，81-83。
Bartram, M. & Walton, R. (1991). Correction. Language Teaching Publications 7: 87-91.
Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents.
Burt, M. K., & C. Kiparsky. (1972). The Gooficon: A Repair Manual for English. Rowley: Newbury House.
Carroll, S., & Swain, M. (1992). The Role of Feedback in Adult Second Language Acquisition: Error Correction and Morphological Generalizations. Applied Linguistics, 13, 173-98.
——. (1993). Explicit and Implicit Negative Feedback: An Empirical Study of the Learning of Linguistic Generalizations. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 337-86.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1991). Grammar Pedagogy in Second and Foreign Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 459-78.
Cohen, A. (1987). Student Processing of Feedback on Their Compositions. Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 57-69. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall.
Cohen, A., and M. Cavalcanti. (1990). Feedback on Written Compositions: Teacher and Student Verbal Reports. Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom, 155-77. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Corder, S. P. (1971). Idiosyncratic Dialects and Error Analysis. International Review of Applied Linguistics 9 (2): 147-60.
——. (1981). Error Analysis and Interlanguage. Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
Chaudron, Craig. (1988). Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning. Cambridge: CUP.
Ellis, R. (1998). Teaching and Research: Options in Grammar Teaching. TESOl Quarterly 32: 39-60.
Fathman, A. K., & Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher Response to Student Writing: Focus on Form versus Content. Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroo, 178-90. Cambridge: CUP.
Ferris, D. R. (1999). The Case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes: a Response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing 8: 1-10.
——. (2002). Treatment of Error in Second Language Student Writing. U. S.: The University of Michigan Press.
Gass, Susan M., & Selinker, Larry. (1994). Second Language Acquisition: An Introductory Course. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Publishers.
Grauberg, Walter. (1997). The Elements of Foreign Language Teaching. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Green, Kathleen. (1983). Values Clarification Theory in ESL and Bilingual Education. Methods That Work: A Smorgasbord of Ideas For Language Teachers, 179-89. Rowley: Newbury House.
Keppner, C. G (1991). An Experiment in the Relationship of Types of Written Feedback to the Development of Second-language Writing Skills. Modern Language Journal 75: 305-13.
Krashen, S. D. (1984). Writing: Research, Theory, and Application. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Leki, I. (1991). The Preferences of ESL Students for Error Correction in College-level Writing Classes. Foreign Language Annals 24: 203-18.
——. (1993). Coaching From the Margins: Issues in Written Response. Second Language Writing: Research Insights For the Classroom, 57-68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lyster, R. (1998). Negotiation of Form, Recasts, and Explicit Correction in Relation to Error Types and Learner Repair in Immersion Classrooms. Language Learning, 48(2), 183-218.
Lyster, R., & Ranta, L. (1997). Corrective Feedback and Learner Uptake: Negotiation of Form in Communicative Classrooms. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19, 37-66.
McPherson, K. (1998). Feedback on Oral Performance: Some Insights from Adult Learners. Prospect, 13(2), 47-62.
Mings, R. C. (1993). Changing Perspectives on the Utility of Error Correction in Second Language Acquisition. Foreign Language Annals, 26: 171-79.
Sheppard, K. (1992). Two Feedback Types: Do They Make a Difference? RELC Journal 23: 103-10.
Semke, H. D. (1984). Effects of the Red Pen. Foreign Language Annals, 17: 195-202.
Steinberg, Danny D. (1993). An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. New York: Longman Publishing.
Truscott, J. (1996). The Case against Grammar Correction in L1 Writing Classes. Language Learning 4(2): 327-69.
——. (1999). The Case for "The Case against Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes": A Response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8(2): 111-22.
Zamel, V. (1982). Writing: The Process of Discovering Meaning. TESOL Quarterly 16: 195-209.
——. (1985). Responding to Student Writing. TESOL Quarterly 19: 79-102.
桂诗春，杨惠中，(2003)，《中国学习者英语语料库》，上海：上海教育出版社。
苏红霞，(2002)，“中国学生英语过渡语动词差错分析”，《外语教学》，第一期，36-41。
吴丁娥，(2001)，“第二语言习得中的过渡语动词差错分析”，《外语教学》，第一期，36-41。
姚文振，马生虎，(2004)，“创造良好的教学环境，提高教学质量”，《外语教学与翻译》，第三卷，第三期，81-83。