大学生英语学习自我效能感与学习者自主相关性研究
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摘要
自从二十世纪八十年代以来,自主学习一直是教育学和心理学共同关注的一个重要问题。在教育学领域,研究者把培养自主学习能力作为一项重要的教育目标。在心理学领域,研究者则侧重考察影响学生自主学习的各种因素,以及自主学习发生发展的内在心理机制。美国心理学家班杜拉在他的认知理论中强调,影响自主学习的因素很多,大致可分为内部因素,行为因素和环境因素三类。制约自主学习的内部因素主要包括自我效能感,学习策略,目标设置和情感等,其中自我效能感是影响自主学习的两个关键变量之一。自我效能感通过认知过程,动机过程,情绪反应和选择过程影响自主学习。
鉴于自我效能感在英语自主学习中的重要作用,本文围绕以下三个研究问题探讨自我效能感与英语自主学习的关系:1)大学生英语学习自我效能感的现状如何?2)
大学生自主性英语学习情况如何?3)英语学习自我效能感与自主学习之间关系如何?为使调查结果更全面,本研究把被调查的学生分为三组:英语高水平组,中等水平组和低水平组,并通过问卷的方式对他们进行了调查。本研究的受试来自华中科技大学的大二年级学生(高水平组55人,中等水平组94人,低水平组71人)调查结果表明:1)大学生英语学习的自我效能感普遍较低。在一般效能感方面,三组学生对英语学习都有较积极的认识;而在具体效能感方面,高水平学生比其它两组学生有更高的自我效能感,尤其是阅读与写作;2)大学生对英语自主学习持肯定的态度,然而他们目前的自主学习能力却并不令人满意;3)英语自我效能感和英语自主学习之间存在正相关关系。
基于以上调查结果,作者提出了一些方法以帮助提高大学生的英语自我效能感和自主学习。
Ever since its birth in the 1980s, Learner Autonomy(LA) is the focus of attention both in the field of pedagogy and psychology. The cultivation of LA is regarded as the most important aim by the researchers of pedagogy, while researchers of psychology paid much more attention in the factors that influence LA and on the mental mechanism concerning LA. American psychologist Bandura in his social cognitive theory makes several assumptions about the performance of behaviors and learner autonomy (or self-regulated learning). These assumptions address reciprocal interactions among person, behaviors and environments. Personal factors mainly include self-efficacy, learning strategies, goal setting, attribution, etc. Self-efficacy, as one of the two types of motivators (another is attribution), influences learner autonomy greatly through cognitive, motivational, affective and decisional processes.
In view of the crucial roles self-efficacy played in learner autonomy, the present study intends to investigate the relationship between the two by answering the following three research questions: 1) What is the overall situation of college students’self-efficacy in English learning? 2) What is the overall situation of college students’learner autonomy in English learning? 3)What is the relationship between college students’self-efficacy in English learning and learner autonomy? In order to answer these questions clearly, the present study classified the students into three different groups, that is, students with higher, average and lower English proficiency levels through two questionnaires. The subjects of this study are 220 sophomores (L1=71;L2=94;L3=55) from Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
The results of the study indicated that: First, College students’self-efficacy in English learning is low. As for general self-efficacy, all the students of three levels basically hold a higher self-efficacy in their English learning than specific ones. And for specific self-efficacy, L3 students do better than the other two groups of students in most specific sections and they always hold a more positive views on their abilities concerning specific English learning tasks, especially on reading and writing tasks, than L1 and L2 students do. Second, college students have positive attitudes toward autonomous English learning, however, their current ability of learner autonomy is not so satisfactory. Third, college students’English self-efficacy is positively correlated with their English learner autonomy.
In the light of the previous research, the present study proposes some strategies to enhance college students’self-efficacy and learner autonomy.
鉴于自我效能感在英语自主学习中的重要作用,本文围绕以下三个研究问题探讨自我效能感与英语自主学习的关系:1)大学生英语学习自我效能感的现状如何?2)
大学生自主性英语学习情况如何?3)英语学习自我效能感与自主学习之间关系如何?为使调查结果更全面,本研究把被调查的学生分为三组:英语高水平组,中等水平组和低水平组,并通过问卷的方式对他们进行了调查。本研究的受试来自华中科技大学的大二年级学生(高水平组55人,中等水平组94人,低水平组71人)调查结果表明:1)大学生英语学习的自我效能感普遍较低。在一般效能感方面,三组学生对英语学习都有较积极的认识;而在具体效能感方面,高水平学生比其它两组学生有更高的自我效能感,尤其是阅读与写作;2)大学生对英语自主学习持肯定的态度,然而他们目前的自主学习能力却并不令人满意;3)英语自我效能感和英语自主学习之间存在正相关关系。
基于以上调查结果,作者提出了一些方法以帮助提高大学生的英语自我效能感和自主学习。
Ever since its birth in the 1980s, Learner Autonomy(LA) is the focus of attention both in the field of pedagogy and psychology. The cultivation of LA is regarded as the most important aim by the researchers of pedagogy, while researchers of psychology paid much more attention in the factors that influence LA and on the mental mechanism concerning LA. American psychologist Bandura in his social cognitive theory makes several assumptions about the performance of behaviors and learner autonomy (or self-regulated learning). These assumptions address reciprocal interactions among person, behaviors and environments. Personal factors mainly include self-efficacy, learning strategies, goal setting, attribution, etc. Self-efficacy, as one of the two types of motivators (another is attribution), influences learner autonomy greatly through cognitive, motivational, affective and decisional processes.
In view of the crucial roles self-efficacy played in learner autonomy, the present study intends to investigate the relationship between the two by answering the following three research questions: 1) What is the overall situation of college students’self-efficacy in English learning? 2) What is the overall situation of college students’learner autonomy in English learning? 3)What is the relationship between college students’self-efficacy in English learning and learner autonomy? In order to answer these questions clearly, the present study classified the students into three different groups, that is, students with higher, average and lower English proficiency levels through two questionnaires. The subjects of this study are 220 sophomores (L1=71;L2=94;L3=55) from Huazhong University of Science and Technology.
The results of the study indicated that: First, College students’self-efficacy in English learning is low. As for general self-efficacy, all the students of three levels basically hold a higher self-efficacy in their English learning than specific ones. And for specific self-efficacy, L3 students do better than the other two groups of students in most specific sections and they always hold a more positive views on their abilities concerning specific English learning tasks, especially on reading and writing tasks, than L1 and L2 students do. Second, college students have positive attitudes toward autonomous English learning, however, their current ability of learner autonomy is not so satisfactory. Third, college students’English self-efficacy is positively correlated with their English learner autonomy.
In the light of the previous research, the present study proposes some strategies to enhance college students’self-efficacy and learner autonomy.
引文
[1] Bandura, A.. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change [J]. Psychological Review, 1977(84): 191-215.
[2] Bandura, A.. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1986.
[3] Bandura, A.. Human agency in social cognitive theory [J]. American Psychologist, 1989(44): 1175-1184.
[4] Bandura, A.. Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudram (ed.) Encyclopedia of human behavior[J]. New York: Academic Press,1994(l4): 71-81.
[5] Bandura, A.. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control [M]. New York: Freeman. 1997.
[6] Bandura, A. & Schunk. D.H.. Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation [J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1981(41).
[7] Bian, Yufang. Compiling the Perceived Academic Self-efficacy Scale [J]. Psychological Science, 2004(5): 1212-1222. (边玉芳.学习自我效能感量表的编制[J]。心理科学, 2004年第5期.1218-1222。)
[8] Boud, D. Developing Student Autonomy in Learning [M]. London: Kogan Page, 1988(17).
[9] Bouffard-Bouchard, Parent, & Larivee. Influence of self-efficacy on self-regulation and performance among junior and senior high-school aged students [J]. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1991(14).
[10] Clemente, M.A.. Teachers attitudes within a self-directed language learning scheme [J]. System, 2001(29): 45-67.
[11] Compbell, R.N.. The New Science: Self-esteem Psychology [M]. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. 1984.
[12] Cotterall, S.. Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs [J]. System, 1995(23):2.
[13] Dickinson, L.. Self-Instruction in Language Learning [M]. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. 1987.
[14] Ellis, R.. Understanding Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1985.
[15] Gardner, R.C. Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation[M]. London: Edward Amold. 1985.
[16] Gardner, D. & L. Miller. Establishing self-access: from theory to practice [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2002.
[17] Guo, N.Z. and Zhang, Y.L.. An empirical investigation of learner autonomy in some EFL classes in China [A]. From http://www.aare.edu.au/04pap/nai04371.pdf. 2004.
[18] He, Lianzhen. Learner autonomy and its development [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2003(4): 287-289. (何莲珍,自主学习及其能力的培养[J]。《外语教学与研究》2003年第4期。(287-289页。)
[19] Holec H.. Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Pergamon. 1981.
[20] Holec, H. On autonomy: some elementary concepts [J]. In: P. Riley (ed). Discourse and Learning [M]. London: Longman, 1985a: 173～190.
[21] Kenny, B. For more autonomy [J]. System, 1993(26/4):436.
[22] Li, Hong. Learner autonomy and English teaching in China [J]. Foreign Languages and Their teaching, 1998(10): 24-26. (李红,学习自主性与中国英语教学[J]。外语与外语教学1998年第10期: 24-26。)
[23] Little, D.. Autonomy in language learning: some theoretical and practical considerations [J]. In: Ian Gathercole (ed). Autonomy in language learning. London: CILT, 1990(7).
[24] Little, D. Learner Autonomy: Definitions, Issues and Problems [M]. Dublin: Authentik.1991.
[25] Littlewood, W..“Autonomy”: an anatomy and a framework [J]. System, 1996(24/4): 427-435.
[26] Liu, N.F. & Littlewood, W.. Why do many students appear reluctant to participatein classroom learning discourse? [J]. System, 1997(25/3): 371-384.
[27] Marsh, H.W. The structure of academic self-concept: The Marsh-Shavelson Model [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1990(82): 623-636.
[28] Meier, S. McCarthy, P.R. & Schmeck, P.R.. Validity of self-efficacy as a predictor of writing performance [J]. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1984(8): 107-120.
[29] Ministry of Education P.R.C. College English Teaching Requirements. Beijing: Ministry of Education P.R.C. 2007.
[30] Multon, K.D. Brown, S.D. & Lent, R.W.. Relation of self-efficacy expectation for social skill: Amethodological inquiry [J]. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1991(6): 191-205.
[31] Murphy, P. Karen, & Alexander, Patricia A.. A motivated exploration of motivation terminology [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2000(25): 2-53.
[32] O’Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A.U. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990.
[33] Oxford, R. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know [M]. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. 1990.
[34] Pajares, F. Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retreived month, day, year [A]. From http://www.wmory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/efftalk/html. 2002.
[35] Parajes, F. & Johnson, M.J. Confidence and competence in writing: The role of writing self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and apprehension [J]. Research in the Teaching of English, 1994(28): 313-331.
[36] Pajares, F. & Johnson, M.J.. Self-efficacy beliefs in the writing of high school students: A path analysis [J]. Psychology in the schools, 1996(33): 163-175.
[37] Pajares, F. & Kranzler, J. Self-efficacy beliefs and general mental ability in mathematical problem-solving [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1995(20):426-443.
[38] Pajares, F. & Miller, M.D. The role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: A path analysis [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1994(86): 193-203.
[39] Pajares, F. Miller, M.D. & Johnson, M.J.. Gender differences in writing self-efficacy beliefs of elementary school students [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1999(91): 50-61.
[40] Pajares, F. & Valiante, G. Influence of writing self-efficacy beliefs on the writing performance of upper elementary students [J]. Journal of Educational Research, 1997(90): 353-405.
[41] Pajares, F. & Valiante, G.. Grade level and gender differences in the writing self-beliefs of middle school students [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1999(24): 390-405.
[42] Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H.. Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications [M]. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/ Prentice Hall.1996.
[43] Qin, Xiaoqing. Analysis of Quantitative Data from Foreign Language Teaching and Learnig [M]. Wuhan: Huazhong University of Science and Technology Press. 2003. (秦晓晴,,外语教学研究种的定量数据分析[M]。武汉:华中科技大学出版社。2003。)
[44] Reyes, L.H. Affective variables and mathematics education [J]. The Elementary School Journal, 1984(84): 558-581.
[45] Salomon, G.. Television is“easy”and print is“tough”: The differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function of perceptions and attributions [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1984(76): 647-658.
[46] Schunk, D. H. Peer models and children behavioral change [J]. Review of Educational Research, 1987(57).
[47] Schunk, D. H.. Self-efficacy and achievement behaviors [J]. Educational Psychology Review, 1989a (1): 173-208.
[48] Schunk, D. H.. Social cognitive theory and self-regulated learning [J]. In B. Zimmerman & D. Schunk (eds.), Self-regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: Theory, Research and Practice [M]. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989b: 83-110.
[49] Schunk, D.H.. Self-efficacy and academic motivation [J]. Educational Psychologist, 1991(26): 207-232.
[50] Schunk, D.H.. Self-efficacy for learning and performance [A]. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. 1996.
[51] Schunk, D.H. & Hanson, A.R. & Cox, P.D.. Peer-model attributes and children’s achievements behaviors [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1987(79): 54-61.
[52] Schwarzer, Ralf. General Perceived Self-Efficacy in 14 Cultures [A]. In Schwarzer, R. (ed.): Self-efficacy: Thought Control of Action [M]. Washington. D.C.:Hemisphere. 1992.
[53] SEMIHE. Syllabus for English Majors at the Institution of Higher Education. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. 1990.
[54] Shell, D.F. Colvin, C. & Bruning, R.. Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement: grade-level and achievement-level differences [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1995(87/3): 386一398.
[55] Shell, D.F., Murphy, C.C. & Bruning, R.H.. Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement: grade-level and achievement-level differences [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1995(87/3): 386一398.
[56] Siegel, R.G., Galassi, J.P. & Ware, W.B.. A comparison of two models for predicting mathematics performance: Social learning versus math aptitude-anxiety [J]. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1985(32): 531-538.
[57] Xu, J. F., R. Z., Peng & W. P., Wu. A survey and analysis of non-English major undergraduates’autonomous English learning competence [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2004(1): 64-68. (徐锦芬、彭仁忠、吴卫平,非英语专业大学生自主性英语学习能力调查与分析[J]。《外语教学与研究》2004年第1期,64-68页。)
[58] Xu, J.F. & X.H., Zhan. Review of research on learner autonomy at home and abroad [J] Foreign Language World, 2004(4): 2-9. (徐锦芬、占小海,国内外学习者自主研究述评[J]。《外语界》2004年第4期,2-9页)
[59] Wenden. Learner strategies for Learner Autonomy: Planning and Implementing Learner Training for Language Learners [M]. Hertford shire, UK: Prentice-Hall International. 1995.
[60] Wenden. Learner Strategies for Learner Autonomy [M]. Great Britain: Prentice Hall. 1998.
[61] Zimmerman, B.J.. Self-efficacy and educational development [A]. In A. Bandura (ed.), Self-efficacy in changing Societies [M]. NewYork: Cambridge University Press, 1995: 202-231.
[62] Zimmerman, B.J.. Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2000(25).
[63] Zimmerman, B.J & Bandura, A.. Impact of self-regulatory influences on writing course attainment [J]. American Education Research Journal, 1994(31): 845-862.
[64] Zimmerman, B.J., Bandura, A., & Martinez-pons, M.. Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting [J]. American Educational Research Journal, 1992(29): 663-676.
[65] Zimmerman, B.J. & Kitsantas, A.. Acquiring writing revision skill: Shifting from process to outcome self-regulatory goals [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1999(91): 1-10.
[66] Zimmerman, B.J. & Martinez-pons, M.. Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1990(82): 51-59.
[2] Bandura, A.. Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory [M]. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1986.
[3] Bandura, A.. Human agency in social cognitive theory [J]. American Psychologist, 1989(44): 1175-1184.
[4] Bandura, A.. Self-efficacy. In V. S. Ramachaudram (ed.) Encyclopedia of human behavior[J]. New York: Academic Press,1994(l4): 71-81.
[5] Bandura, A.. Self-efficacy: The exercise of control [M]. New York: Freeman. 1997.
[6] Bandura, A. & Schunk. D.H.. Cultivating competence, self-efficacy, and intrinsic interest through proximal self-motivation [J]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1981(41).
[7] Bian, Yufang. Compiling the Perceived Academic Self-efficacy Scale [J]. Psychological Science, 2004(5): 1212-1222. (边玉芳.学习自我效能感量表的编制[J]。心理科学, 2004年第5期.1218-1222。)
[8] Boud, D. Developing Student Autonomy in Learning [M]. London: Kogan Page, 1988(17).
[9] Bouffard-Bouchard, Parent, & Larivee. Influence of self-efficacy on self-regulation and performance among junior and senior high-school aged students [J]. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1991(14).
[10] Clemente, M.A.. Teachers attitudes within a self-directed language learning scheme [J]. System, 2001(29): 45-67.
[11] Compbell, R.N.. The New Science: Self-esteem Psychology [M]. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. 1984.
[12] Cotterall, S.. Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs [J]. System, 1995(23):2.
[13] Dickinson, L.. Self-Instruction in Language Learning [M]. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. 1987.
[14] Ellis, R.. Understanding Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1985.
[15] Gardner, R.C. Social Psychology and Second Language Learning: The Role of Attitudes and Motivation[M]. London: Edward Amold. 1985.
[16] Gardner, D. & L. Miller. Establishing self-access: from theory to practice [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2002.
[17] Guo, N.Z. and Zhang, Y.L.. An empirical investigation of learner autonomy in some EFL classes in China [A]. From http://www.aare.edu.au/04pap/nai04371.pdf. 2004.
[18] He, Lianzhen. Learner autonomy and its development [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 2003(4): 287-289. (何莲珍,自主学习及其能力的培养[J]。《外语教学与研究》2003年第4期。(287-289页。)
[19] Holec H.. Autonomy in Foreign Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Pergamon. 1981.
[20] Holec, H. On autonomy: some elementary concepts [J]. In: P. Riley (ed). Discourse and Learning [M]. London: Longman, 1985a: 173～190.
[21] Kenny, B. For more autonomy [J]. System, 1993(26/4):436.
[22] Li, Hong. Learner autonomy and English teaching in China [J]. Foreign Languages and Their teaching, 1998(10): 24-26. (李红,学习自主性与中国英语教学[J]。外语与外语教学1998年第10期: 24-26。)
[23] Little, D.. Autonomy in language learning: some theoretical and practical considerations [J]. In: Ian Gathercole (ed). Autonomy in language learning. London: CILT, 1990(7).
[24] Little, D. Learner Autonomy: Definitions, Issues and Problems [M]. Dublin: Authentik.1991.
[25] Littlewood, W..“Autonomy”: an anatomy and a framework [J]. System, 1996(24/4): 427-435.
[26] Liu, N.F. & Littlewood, W.. Why do many students appear reluctant to participatein classroom learning discourse? [J]. System, 1997(25/3): 371-384.
[27] Marsh, H.W. The structure of academic self-concept: The Marsh-Shavelson Model [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1990(82): 623-636.
[28] Meier, S. McCarthy, P.R. & Schmeck, P.R.. Validity of self-efficacy as a predictor of writing performance [J]. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1984(8): 107-120.
[29] Ministry of Education P.R.C. College English Teaching Requirements. Beijing: Ministry of Education P.R.C. 2007.
[30] Multon, K.D. Brown, S.D. & Lent, R.W.. Relation of self-efficacy expectation for social skill: Amethodological inquiry [J]. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1991(6): 191-205.
[31] Murphy, P. Karen, & Alexander, Patricia A.. A motivated exploration of motivation terminology [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 2000(25): 2-53.
[32] O’Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A.U. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1990.
[33] Oxford, R. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know [M]. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. 1990.
[34] Pajares, F. Overview of social cognitive theory and of self-efficacy. Retreived month, day, year [A]. From http://www.wmory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/efftalk/html. 2002.
[35] Parajes, F. & Johnson, M.J. Confidence and competence in writing: The role of writing self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, and apprehension [J]. Research in the Teaching of English, 1994(28): 313-331.
[36] Pajares, F. & Johnson, M.J.. Self-efficacy beliefs in the writing of high school students: A path analysis [J]. Psychology in the schools, 1996(33): 163-175.
[37] Pajares, F. & Kranzler, J. Self-efficacy beliefs and general mental ability in mathematical problem-solving [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1995(20):426-443.
[38] Pajares, F. & Miller, M.D. The role of self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs in mathematical problem solving: A path analysis [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1994(86): 193-203.
[39] Pajares, F. Miller, M.D. & Johnson, M.J.. Gender differences in writing self-efficacy beliefs of elementary school students [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1999(91): 50-61.
[40] Pajares, F. & Valiante, G. Influence of writing self-efficacy beliefs on the writing performance of upper elementary students [J]. Journal of Educational Research, 1997(90): 353-405.
[41] Pajares, F. & Valiante, G.. Grade level and gender differences in the writing self-beliefs of middle school students [J]. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 1999(24): 390-405.
[42] Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H.. Motivation in Education: Theory, Research and Applications [M]. Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/ Prentice Hall.1996.
[43] Qin, Xiaoqing. Analysis of Quantitative Data from Foreign Language Teaching and Learnig [M]. Wuhan: Huazhong University of Science and Technology Press. 2003. (秦晓晴,,外语教学研究种的定量数据分析[M]。武汉:华中科技大学出版社。2003。)
[44] Reyes, L.H. Affective variables and mathematics education [J]. The Elementary School Journal, 1984(84): 558-581.
[45] Salomon, G.. Television is“easy”and print is“tough”: The differential investment of mental effort in learning as a function of perceptions and attributions [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1984(76): 647-658.
[46] Schunk, D. H. Peer models and children behavioral change [J]. Review of Educational Research, 1987(57).
[47] Schunk, D. H.. Self-efficacy and achievement behaviors [J]. Educational Psychology Review, 1989a (1): 173-208.
[48] Schunk, D. H.. Social cognitive theory and self-regulated learning [J]. In B. Zimmerman & D. Schunk (eds.), Self-regulated Learning and Academic Achievement: Theory, Research and Practice [M]. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1989b: 83-110.
[49] Schunk, D.H.. Self-efficacy and academic motivation [J]. Educational Psychologist, 1991(26): 207-232.
[50] Schunk, D.H.. Self-efficacy for learning and performance [A]. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. 1996.
[51] Schunk, D.H. & Hanson, A.R. & Cox, P.D.. Peer-model attributes and children’s achievements behaviors [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1987(79): 54-61.
[52] Schwarzer, Ralf. General Perceived Self-Efficacy in 14 Cultures [A]. In Schwarzer, R. (ed.): Self-efficacy: Thought Control of Action [M]. Washington. D.C.:Hemisphere. 1992.
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[54] Shell, D.F. Colvin, C. & Bruning, R.. Self-efficacy, attribution, and outcome expectancy mechanisms in reading and writing achievement: grade-level and achievement-level differences [J]. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1995(87/3): 386一398.
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