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集聚、增长与福利:理论和实证
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摘要
诺贝尔经济学奖得主Simon Kuznets曾指出,经济活动的空间集聚是伴随现代经济增长的重要事实之一。当前,随着信息技术革命和全球化的发展,空间集聚和经济增长现象亦日益凸显。从全球范围内来看,空间集聚一个重要的表现就是城市化,正如美国城市史研究专家芒福德所指出的:这个世界,从许多实际内容来看已变为一座城市。再来看我国的现实背景,自1978年实行改革开放以来,中国经济以年均9.8%的速度飞速增长,创造了举世瞩目的经济奇迹,与此同时,中国经济活动的空间分布模式也发生了显著变化,即形成了以东部沿海地区为中心,中西部内陆地区为外围的中心——外围结构。现实世界经济运行的两个特征事实则促使我们不得不思考如下问题:一是经济活动空间集聚的内在机制;二是经济活动的空间分布与经济增长之间的关系。
     对上述问题的思考构成了本文的研究动机。本文基于新经济地理学的理论研究框架,首先从理论和实证两个方面分析了空间集聚的形成机制以及空间集聚与经济增长的关系,然后首次尝试构建了空间集聚的福利分析框架,并在此基础上展开经验分析。从本文的研究中我们可以得到如下的基本结论:
     (1)对产业集聚形成机制的实证分析发现:自然资源禀赋、Marshall外部性、本地市场效应、对外开放水平均促进了中国制造业的空间集聚,而地方保护主义却抑制了制造业的空间集聚。
     (2)本文构建的新经济地理学动态模型表明,在经济体处于对称结构均衡情况下,长期经济增长率的相对高低与区际知识溢出的空间效率相关,而且区际知识溢出的不对称会引致长期经济增长出现差异,而当区际知识溢出不存在障碍时,则两地区的长期经济增长率达到最大值。核心——边缘结构均衡下的经济增长率大于对称结构均衡下的经济增长率,即经济活动的不同空间分布模式影响长期经济增长率,并且空间因素的影响效应会随区际知识溢出效率的增强而削弱,当区际知识溢出完全不存在障碍时,空间因素则不会产生任何影响效应。
     (3)通过对产业集聚和生产率关系的实证分析发现,首先,制造业的空间集聚主要是通过促进技术进步和提高技术效率两个途径对制造业全要素生产率产生正向作用,并且在后一途径中对技术效率的影响作用相对较大。其次,制造业空间集聚对生产率的影响在不同要素密集度的行业中存在一定的差异。具体而言,在劳动密集型行业和资本密集型行业,产业集聚显著促进了生产率的增长和效率的改进,但对技术进步的影响并不明显。而在技术密集型行业,产业集聚只对效率的改进有促进作用,对生产率和技术进步均没有显著影响。而从影响作用的大小来看,产业集聚的影响作用在资本密集型行业最大,劳动密集型行业次之,技术密集型行业最微弱。最后,从作用机制来看,产业集聚对生产率的影响主要源于三种形式的Marshall外部性经济。其中,知识外溢的影响作用最大,劳动力市场外部性仅次之,而中间投入品共享的促进作用相对而言较为微弱。
     (4)从跨地区层面针对空间集聚与经济增长所展开的经验研究表明,空间集聚对经济增长具有显著促进作用,该影响作用还会随运输成本的降低而削弱,并且当运输成本降低到一个临界点时,由集聚所产生的拥挤效应还可能阻碍经济增长,多维度的稳健性检验也证明该结论是可靠的。但同时,这种影响作用还存在明显的时空差异性,具体表现为:空间集聚对经济增长的影响作用随时间的推移而增强,并且对内陆地区经济增长的促进作用远大于东部沿海地区。
     (5)从动态外部性视角所进行的实证分析表明,首先,在关于MAR外部性与Jacobs外部性理论的争论上,从全国样本数据来看,产业专业化(MAR外部性)和与产业增长存在一种非线性关系,即只有当地区产业专业化水平达到一个临界值时,它才会促进产业增长。而产业多样化(Jacobs外部性)对产业增长的影响作用并不显著;其次,从分地区所进行的子样本敏感性分析表明,产业专业化与产业增长的非线性关系只存在于内陆地区,而产业多样化却对东部沿海地区的产业增长产生显著促进作用;再次,分产业的回归分析则进一步证实动态外部性对经济增长的影响作用在不同产业间也有显著差异,具体而言,产业专业化的影响作用主要表现在低技术含量的资源型产业和传统制造业,而产业多样化则对技术含量较高的高新技术产业的经济增长有显著促进作用;最后,从企业竞争(Porter外部性)对产业增长的影响作用来看,不管是全国范围内,还是分地区或分产业的回归分析中,竞争与产业增长均呈现非线性关系,这尤其在沿海地区更加显著。这说明当竞争程度较低时,MAR外部性理论框架关于垄断市场比竞争市场更有利于经济增长是成立的,而当竞争程度逐渐增加并超过临界值时,那么Jacobs外部性理论框架关于高度竞争的市场环境更有利于促进经济增长的观点则是正确的。
     (6)本文最后从理论和实证两个方面分析了空间集聚的福利效应。理论分析表明,经济活动的空间集聚会提升核心地区居民的福利水平,但却会给边缘地区居民带来福利损失。接下来再采用CGSS数据展开经验研究,回归结果进一步验证了理论分析的结论,即经济活动的空间集聚会提升了我国城镇居民的主观幸福感,而降低了农村地区居民的幸福感。
Simon Kuznets,who is the Nobel Prize winner in Economics,has pointed out that thespatial agglomeration of economic activity accompanied by modern economic growth isthe most significant features.Nowadays,as the extensive development of the informationtechnology revolution and globalization,the phenomenons of spatial agglomeration andeconomic growth have been becoming increasingly prominent.From the world-wideperspective,the most important manifestation of spatial agglomeration is urbanization,as Mumford,an American urban history experts,has pointed out: The whole world hasbecom a single city in many ways.On the other hand,the rapid global economic growthis accompanying with the above phenomenon.Now let us focus on China,since itseconomic reform from1978,China has got a remarkable economic miracle,with theaverage annual growth rate of9.8%,which has attracted world-wide attention.In themeanwhile,the spatial distribution of economic activity has also undergone a significantchange,a core-peripheral structure in China is becoming more and more obvious.The twostylized facts of the real world prompt us to think about the following questions:(1)whatis the internal mechanism of the spatial agglomeration?That is to say,which factorsdetermine spatial agglomeration?(2)what is the relationship between the spatialagglomeration and economic growth?(3)how does the spatial distribution of economicactivity affect the welfare of the residents?
     This dissertation aims to answer the above questions.We firstly sort out the existingliterature in the field of the new economic geography,and give brief comments.Thenbased on the existing theoretic framework,we explore an empirical study of thedeterminants of the agglomeration of China s manufacturing industries,which providesempirical evidence from China for new economic geography. Thirdly, based onendogenous growth theory and new economic geography, we develop a two-regions-three-sectors general equilibrium model,which aims to analyze the influencesof the knowledge spillovers and spatial agglomeration on long-run growth.Then werespectively explore empirical studies from trans-regional level,trans-industrial level anddynamic external perspective to verify the relashionship between spatial agglomerationand economic growth,which thereby furher enrich the contents of field.Finally,weattempt to analyze the effects of spatial distribution of economic activity respectively fromtheoretic and empirical perspective,which identifies important direction for futureresearch in spatial economoics.
     The main conclusion of this dissertation can be summarized as follows:
     (1)The empirical study on the formation mechanism of the industrial agglomerationshows that the proxies for natural resource endowment,Marshallian externalities,homemarket effect positively influence the agglomeration of China s manufacturingindustries,while the proxy for local protectionism obstructs industrial agglomeration.
     (2) The dynamic model of new economic geography shows that while the spatialdistribution of economy is in the case of symmetric balance,the efficiency of theinterregional knowledge spillovers leads to the different long-run growth rate,and theasymmetry of knowledge spillovers also causes different long-run growth rate,whlie thereis no obstacle between the interregional knowledge spillovers,the long-run economicgrowth rate will reach a maximum;while the spatial distribution of economy is in the caseof core-peripheral structure,the long-run growth rate is greater than other situations,thatis to say,the spatial factor has very important impact on economic growth,while is noobstacle between the interregional knowledge spillovers,the spatial factor will have notany impact.
     (3) Chapter5explores an empirical study of the effects and mechanism of industrialagglomeration on TFP.The resaults show that from the perspective of the whole industry,industrial agglomeration mainly promote TFP through technical efficiency, whilesub-industry shows that the effects of industrial agglomeration on TFP differ among different industries.In addition,from the mechanism of industrial agglomeration,wealso find industrial agglomeration promote technical efficiency mainly through Marshalls external economies.
     (4) Chapter6conducts an empirical study of the relashionship between spatialagglomeration and economic growth using China s provincial panel data from1991to2010.The results show that spatial agglomeration has significantly positive effects onChina s provincial economic growth,which survive from various robustness checks.Inaddition,the results of sub-regional regression show the role of spatial agglomeration onChina s provincial economic growth depends on the dimension of the geographic location(coastal or inland areas).
     (5) Chapter7estimates the effect of dynamic externalities on regional industrialeconomic growth using a large sample of panel data including Chinese28provinces and21industries.From the whole country we find that the effect of specialization anddiversity on industrial economic growth is nonlinear,while local competition don t havesignificantly effect.Further analysis in the robustness check indicates that the effects ofdynamic externalities on industrial economic growth depends on types of industry and thedimension of geographic location.That is to say,the effect of specialization mainly existsin traditional labor-extensive industries,while effect of diversity mainly exists in high-techindustries.
     (6) This dissertation analyzes theoretically and empirically the welfare effects of thespatial distribution of the economic activity,which shows that the spatial agglomerationcan enhance the residents subjective well-bing who live in urban areas,while reduce therural residents subjective well-bing.
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