无卤PCB材料的可靠性研究
|
摘要
电子产品正朝着微型化、多样化和高性能迅速发展,人们的健康和环境保护意识也在不断提高,对电子产品绿色化的呼声也越来越高。随着欧盟三大指令(RoHS、WEEE、REACH)的相继实施,印制电路板(PCB)作为电子产品重要的组成部分,也围绕着无铅化、无卤化和产品的循环再利用化三个方向展开了绿色化的进程。新型无卤PCB的可靠性问题是开发、研究工作的重点之一。鉴于无卤PCB尚属新材料,其可靠性相关资料较少,本文围绕新型无卤PCB是否可以代替传统含卤PCB,是否适宜无铅焊接等问题,从三个方面——实际印制板制造工艺、常规加湿试验和无铅焊接温度循环,研究了PCB材料的可靠性。论文的主要研究内容和成果归纳如下:
1.目前可参考文献大多只报道某种无卤PCB的优异性能,不利于PCB设计开发工作者选用材料。本文采用统一的IPC及其他相关PCB材料测试标准,对多种无卤PCB芯板材料的性能进行了分析对比,并对无卤材料进行了整体评价。研究表明,各新型无卤材料的电性能、热性能和物理化学性能均有不同程度的差异。所有材料均符合UL-94 V0要求,具有良好的阻燃性能;热稳定性好,符合无铅焊接温度要求;玻璃化转变温度(T_g)和热膨胀系数(CTE)测试结果与厂家标准数据一致,介电常数(D_k)和损耗因子(D_f)比厂家标准数据略高;具有较高的吸水率和硬度。介电常数和损耗因子高会影响信号传输的完整性,吸湿会影响PCB材料的热性能和电性能等,硬度高则影响材料的加工性能,都将近一步影响PCB的可靠性。改善无卤PCB材料的吸湿性,降低材料的介电常数和介电损耗,在降低热膨胀系数的同时不损害材料的韧性,是无卤PCB材料研究改进的重点方向。
2.印制板制作工艺前后PCB材料性能的变化状况,影响设计电路的最终性能,也决定了无卤PCB材料是否适宜工业化生产。鉴于尚无相关工作及文献可查,本文通过分析对比芯板材料与印制板的玻璃化转变温度、固化因子(△T_g)、热膨胀系数和热分解温度等性能参数,研究了印制板制作工艺对无卤PCB材料性能的影响。印制板与芯板材料相比,各性能参数出现不同程度的变化:玻璃化转变温度和固化因子略有下降;在低于T_g点时,印制板材料的面内CTE比芯板材料略高而面外CTE比芯板材料略低,在高于T_g点时,印制板材料的各轴向热膨胀系数都比芯板材料稍高;热分解温度无明显变化。因此,无卤PCB材料的选用及印制电路设计应以印制板性能测试结果为准。
3.研究对比了无卤PCB和含卤PCB材料的吸湿、放湿行为。本研究表明无卤PCB材料在室温下、85°C/85%RH和沸水中都比含卤材料更易吸湿。各材料吸湿、放湿过程均遵循费克扩散定律,扩散因子和吸湿含量可用费克扩散定律的一维模型来近似模拟和计算。吸湿后,水分子以两种形态存在于PCB材料内部:自由水分子和键合水分子。材料吸湿后再在105°C烘干去湿,不能去除已键合的水分子。PCB材料中树脂含量越高,吸湿越多,与水分子形成键合的数目越多,烘干去湿时,残余水分子的比例也越高。
4.鉴于无卤PCB材料的易吸湿性,对比研究了吸湿对无卤材料和含卤材料介电性能和热性能的影响。常规加湿试验条件下,各PCB材料的介电常数和损耗因子均随材料内部湿度含量的增加而呈线性增加。文中给出了在特定湿度及温度环境下工作的PCB基板材料,在某时刻的介电常数和损耗因子计算公式。吸湿对无卤PCB材料的热膨胀行为曲线影响明显,吸湿后的无卤材料由原来的以玻璃化转变温度为分界点的两段式热膨胀行为,转变为三段式热膨胀,加大了玻璃化转变温度以下的热失配,增加失效几率。原CTE测量方法不能表征湿度对PCB热膨胀性能的影响,本文提出应测试整个加热区间的热膨胀系数。玻璃化转变温度受湿度影响明显,与前人研究结果——T_g随材料内湿度含量的增加而降低最终趋于平衡,略有差异。本研究表明吸湿水分子在PCB材料内部的存在形态不同对T_g有不同的影响,T_g先降后升。饱和前,自由水分子的增塑作用占主导,T_g随吸湿含量的增加而降低;趋近饱和后,自由水分子不再增多,水分子与树脂键合起主导作用,增加了材料的交联密度,T_g随在湿热环境中放置时间的增长而略有回升。吸湿对材料的热分层时间有明显影响,PCB内部材料界面在热失配应力与水蒸气压双重作用下,更易发生分层,热分层时间随PCB材料内部湿度含量的增加而降低。以上参数在易吸湿的无卤材料中变化更为明显。
5.评估了相关IPC测试方法对含湿材料测试的适用性。测试标准中预处理的目的是排除干扰因素,使测试结果反映材料的本质性能,具有可重复性。本研究表明IPC-TM-650 2.5.5.9、IPC-TM-650 2.4.24和IPC-TM-650 2.4.25中测试前的预处理方法可以一定程度上降低湿度对材料性能的影响,但不能将具有不同湿度含量的样品处理到标准样品水平,实际测试结果不能反映材料的本质性能,而是吸湿后的性能。因此在按照此三种方法测量的性能参数选用材料时,应注意材料的吸湿历史。
6.综合分析研究了无铅焊接工艺对不同阻燃剂不同固化剂等多种PCB材料性能的影响。无铅焊接热曝露降低了材料的热分层时间和面外CTE,增加了材料的吸水性和可燃性,对面内CTE和热分解温度无明显影响。对玻璃化转变温度的影响,因固化剂和材料T_g类型不同而略有差异。无卤阻燃剂的转换对树脂材料的热分解行为有明显影响。相对含卤材料分解迅速,无卤材料的热分解是一个缓慢的老化分解过程。对两种不同固化方式的材料,无卤阻燃剂的添加有着相反的作用,它可以改善双氰胺固化的PCB材料的热稳定性,却会降低采用酚醛固化的PCB材料的热分解温度。各影响因素综合分析表明,使用酚醛固化的无填充剂含卤材料和低T_g类型材料性能相对较为优异。
With the development of electronics, the human health and environmental safty get more public concerns. The electronics are droven to GREEN while they are getting smaller, diverse and higher performance. With the release of Directives (RoHS/WEEE/REACH) on the restriction of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, printed circuit boards (PCB), as an essential part of electronics, are on its way by moving to halogen-free, lead-free and recycling. The reliability of new halogen-free PCBs is one of the important concerns in investigation and industry field. However, there are a few studies on the reliability of new halogen-free PCB materials as far. There are several questions are not clear, such as whether the PCBs are still reliable when replacing the halogenated flame retardant with halogen-free alternatives, whether the halogen-free PCBs are suitable for lead-free soldering. Therefore, the reliability of halogen-free PCBs was studied by conducting practical laminating process, moisture absorption and lead-free soldering experiments. The main contents and results are as following.
1. As there were only papers which report excellent qualities of halogen-free materials by individual industry or organization, it is not good enough for PCB designers choosing material. Several halogen-free PCB materials were evaluated by testing their properties with IPC and other related test methods and comparing with halogenated materials. There were some differences in electrical properties, thermal properties, physical and chemical properties. All the halogen-free materials reach the UL-94 V0 requirment which means good flame retardancy and have good thermal stability for the lead-free soldering process, but they have higher moisture absorption and stiffness. The test results of glass transition temperature (T_g) and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) were in accordance with their datasheets while the dielectric constant (D_k) and dissipation factor (D_f) were higher than datasheets. High dielectric properties which increase the signal transmission loss, moisture absorption which impact on thermal and electrical properties, high stiffness which affect the drilling process and mechanical process, may affect the PCB reliability further. The halogen-free PCB should be improved by lowering these properties in future.
2. The variation of PCB material’s properties in manufacturing process will affact the final performance of circuit and also decide whether the halogen-free PCB materials can be industrialized produced. However, there is no literature related to the variation. The effect of manufacturing process on halogen-free PCB properties was studied by comparing the curing factor (△T_g), CTE and decomposition temperature (T_d) between core material and printed boards. The results showed that T_g and△T_g decreased after manufacturing process. The in-plane CTE of printed boards were higher and out-of-plane CTE were lower than core materials below T_g while both the in-plane and out-of-plane CTE of printed boards were higher than core materials above T_g. The decomposition temperature didn’t show obvious variation. Therefore, the properties of printed boards instead of core materials should be used for choosing halogen-free material and designing circuits.
3. The moisture absorption and desorption behavior were analyzed and comparied between halogen-free and halogenated PCBs. The results showed halogen-free PCB materials always absorbed more moisture than halogenated PCBs in room storage condition, in 85°C/85%RH environment chamber and in boiling water. Moisture absorption and desorption followed the Fickcian Law. The diffusion factor and moisture content of PCB materials can be calculated with a one-dimensional Fickian model. The water molecules absorbed in PCBs were classified into two types: bound water and free water. And bound water can not be removed by baking process at 105°C. The moisture content increase with the resin content, result in more bound water in materials which lead to the final moisture content inside the materials is higher after baking process.
4. The moisture effect on dielectric and thermal properties of halogen-free and halogenated PCB material was studied. D_k and Df increased linearly with the increase of moisture content under 85°C/85%RH test condition. Two formulas were put forward for calculating D_k and Df in specific environmental conditions. The thermal expansion behaviors of halogen-free material changed significantly after absorbing moisture. It showed three phases in thermal expansion curves while it showed two phases in initial curves before absorbing moisture. The CTE around glass transition region became large which lead to thermal mismatch resulting in failure rate increasing. The original CTE measure method can not characterize the effect of moisture. A total CTE should be measured for whole thermal excursion. The glass transition temperatures were affected obviously by moisture absorption. Previous work has found that the absorbed water in epoxy materials leads to a decrease in the glass transition temperature and finally makes it reach a stable value. However, this study showed that the T_g decreased in the first stage and increased in second stage. Two types water molecules in PCB materials played different role. Before saturation, the plasticizing effect of free water dominated the trends, T_g decreased with the increase of moisture content; After saturation, the cross-linking density increased because water molecule bound with resins, T_g increased slowly with the immersion time. Printed boards more likely delaminated because the thermal stress and water vapor pressure acted on PCB internal interface after moisture absorption. Time to delamination of PCB decreased with the increase of moisture content.
5. The suitability of IPC test methods for measuring materials with moisture was evaluated. The purpose of preconditioning steps outlined in these test methods is to exclude confounding factors and bring all the test materials to a standard level so that the test results can be repeated and reflect the nature of materials. However, the preconditioning in IPC-TM-650 2.5.5.9, IPC-TM-650 2.4.24 and IPC-TM-650 2.4.25 can reduce the impact of moisture to a certain extent, but can not bring the samples which have different moisture content to a standard level. The test results were affected by moisture content. Therefore, the material’s moisture absorbing history should get our attention when they were choosed according to the properties measured by those three test methods.
6. The lead-free soldering process was applied on some high T_g, middle T_g and low T_g PCB materials which have different additives, such as flame retardant, curing agent and fillers. After lead-free soldering thermal exposure, time to delamination and out-of-plane CTE decreased, water absorption and flammability increased. T_g showed different trends in the materials with different T_g types and different curing agent. There is no obvious effect on in-plane CTE and T_d. However, the resin’s decomposition behavior was affected by replaceing halogenated flame retardant with halogen-free alternatives. Halogenated materials started to decompose at a temperature, subsequently experienced a rapid degradation while halogen-free material experienced a slow degradation. For DICY cured PCB materials, thermal stability were improved by replacing halogenated flame retardant with halogen-free alternatives. On the contray, for Phenolic cured materials, Td was degraded with halogen-free flame retardant. Considering all the factors, the low Tg halogenated materials without fillers, cured by phenolic, had relatively excellent performance.
1.目前可参考文献大多只报道某种无卤PCB的优异性能,不利于PCB设计开发工作者选用材料。本文采用统一的IPC及其他相关PCB材料测试标准,对多种无卤PCB芯板材料的性能进行了分析对比,并对无卤材料进行了整体评价。研究表明,各新型无卤材料的电性能、热性能和物理化学性能均有不同程度的差异。所有材料均符合UL-94 V0要求,具有良好的阻燃性能;热稳定性好,符合无铅焊接温度要求;玻璃化转变温度(T_g)和热膨胀系数(CTE)测试结果与厂家标准数据一致,介电常数(D_k)和损耗因子(D_f)比厂家标准数据略高;具有较高的吸水率和硬度。介电常数和损耗因子高会影响信号传输的完整性,吸湿会影响PCB材料的热性能和电性能等,硬度高则影响材料的加工性能,都将近一步影响PCB的可靠性。改善无卤PCB材料的吸湿性,降低材料的介电常数和介电损耗,在降低热膨胀系数的同时不损害材料的韧性,是无卤PCB材料研究改进的重点方向。
2.印制板制作工艺前后PCB材料性能的变化状况,影响设计电路的最终性能,也决定了无卤PCB材料是否适宜工业化生产。鉴于尚无相关工作及文献可查,本文通过分析对比芯板材料与印制板的玻璃化转变温度、固化因子(△T_g)、热膨胀系数和热分解温度等性能参数,研究了印制板制作工艺对无卤PCB材料性能的影响。印制板与芯板材料相比,各性能参数出现不同程度的变化:玻璃化转变温度和固化因子略有下降;在低于T_g点时,印制板材料的面内CTE比芯板材料略高而面外CTE比芯板材料略低,在高于T_g点时,印制板材料的各轴向热膨胀系数都比芯板材料稍高;热分解温度无明显变化。因此,无卤PCB材料的选用及印制电路设计应以印制板性能测试结果为准。
3.研究对比了无卤PCB和含卤PCB材料的吸湿、放湿行为。本研究表明无卤PCB材料在室温下、85°C/85%RH和沸水中都比含卤材料更易吸湿。各材料吸湿、放湿过程均遵循费克扩散定律,扩散因子和吸湿含量可用费克扩散定律的一维模型来近似模拟和计算。吸湿后,水分子以两种形态存在于PCB材料内部:自由水分子和键合水分子。材料吸湿后再在105°C烘干去湿,不能去除已键合的水分子。PCB材料中树脂含量越高,吸湿越多,与水分子形成键合的数目越多,烘干去湿时,残余水分子的比例也越高。
4.鉴于无卤PCB材料的易吸湿性,对比研究了吸湿对无卤材料和含卤材料介电性能和热性能的影响。常规加湿试验条件下,各PCB材料的介电常数和损耗因子均随材料内部湿度含量的增加而呈线性增加。文中给出了在特定湿度及温度环境下工作的PCB基板材料,在某时刻的介电常数和损耗因子计算公式。吸湿对无卤PCB材料的热膨胀行为曲线影响明显,吸湿后的无卤材料由原来的以玻璃化转变温度为分界点的两段式热膨胀行为,转变为三段式热膨胀,加大了玻璃化转变温度以下的热失配,增加失效几率。原CTE测量方法不能表征湿度对PCB热膨胀性能的影响,本文提出应测试整个加热区间的热膨胀系数。玻璃化转变温度受湿度影响明显,与前人研究结果——T_g随材料内湿度含量的增加而降低最终趋于平衡,略有差异。本研究表明吸湿水分子在PCB材料内部的存在形态不同对T_g有不同的影响,T_g先降后升。饱和前,自由水分子的增塑作用占主导,T_g随吸湿含量的增加而降低;趋近饱和后,自由水分子不再增多,水分子与树脂键合起主导作用,增加了材料的交联密度,T_g随在湿热环境中放置时间的增长而略有回升。吸湿对材料的热分层时间有明显影响,PCB内部材料界面在热失配应力与水蒸气压双重作用下,更易发生分层,热分层时间随PCB材料内部湿度含量的增加而降低。以上参数在易吸湿的无卤材料中变化更为明显。
5.评估了相关IPC测试方法对含湿材料测试的适用性。测试标准中预处理的目的是排除干扰因素,使测试结果反映材料的本质性能,具有可重复性。本研究表明IPC-TM-650 2.5.5.9、IPC-TM-650 2.4.24和IPC-TM-650 2.4.25中测试前的预处理方法可以一定程度上降低湿度对材料性能的影响,但不能将具有不同湿度含量的样品处理到标准样品水平,实际测试结果不能反映材料的本质性能,而是吸湿后的性能。因此在按照此三种方法测量的性能参数选用材料时,应注意材料的吸湿历史。
6.综合分析研究了无铅焊接工艺对不同阻燃剂不同固化剂等多种PCB材料性能的影响。无铅焊接热曝露降低了材料的热分层时间和面外CTE,增加了材料的吸水性和可燃性,对面内CTE和热分解温度无明显影响。对玻璃化转变温度的影响,因固化剂和材料T_g类型不同而略有差异。无卤阻燃剂的转换对树脂材料的热分解行为有明显影响。相对含卤材料分解迅速,无卤材料的热分解是一个缓慢的老化分解过程。对两种不同固化方式的材料,无卤阻燃剂的添加有着相反的作用,它可以改善双氰胺固化的PCB材料的热稳定性,却会降低采用酚醛固化的PCB材料的热分解温度。各影响因素综合分析表明,使用酚醛固化的无填充剂含卤材料和低T_g类型材料性能相对较为优异。
With the development of electronics, the human health and environmental safty get more public concerns. The electronics are droven to GREEN while they are getting smaller, diverse and higher performance. With the release of Directives (RoHS/WEEE/REACH) on the restriction of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, printed circuit boards (PCB), as an essential part of electronics, are on its way by moving to halogen-free, lead-free and recycling. The reliability of new halogen-free PCBs is one of the important concerns in investigation and industry field. However, there are a few studies on the reliability of new halogen-free PCB materials as far. There are several questions are not clear, such as whether the PCBs are still reliable when replacing the halogenated flame retardant with halogen-free alternatives, whether the halogen-free PCBs are suitable for lead-free soldering. Therefore, the reliability of halogen-free PCBs was studied by conducting practical laminating process, moisture absorption and lead-free soldering experiments. The main contents and results are as following.
1. As there were only papers which report excellent qualities of halogen-free materials by individual industry or organization, it is not good enough for PCB designers choosing material. Several halogen-free PCB materials were evaluated by testing their properties with IPC and other related test methods and comparing with halogenated materials. There were some differences in electrical properties, thermal properties, physical and chemical properties. All the halogen-free materials reach the UL-94 V0 requirment which means good flame retardancy and have good thermal stability for the lead-free soldering process, but they have higher moisture absorption and stiffness. The test results of glass transition temperature (T_g) and the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) were in accordance with their datasheets while the dielectric constant (D_k) and dissipation factor (D_f) were higher than datasheets. High dielectric properties which increase the signal transmission loss, moisture absorption which impact on thermal and electrical properties, high stiffness which affect the drilling process and mechanical process, may affect the PCB reliability further. The halogen-free PCB should be improved by lowering these properties in future.
2. The variation of PCB material’s properties in manufacturing process will affact the final performance of circuit and also decide whether the halogen-free PCB materials can be industrialized produced. However, there is no literature related to the variation. The effect of manufacturing process on halogen-free PCB properties was studied by comparing the curing factor (△T_g), CTE and decomposition temperature (T_d) between core material and printed boards. The results showed that T_g and△T_g decreased after manufacturing process. The in-plane CTE of printed boards were higher and out-of-plane CTE were lower than core materials below T_g while both the in-plane and out-of-plane CTE of printed boards were higher than core materials above T_g. The decomposition temperature didn’t show obvious variation. Therefore, the properties of printed boards instead of core materials should be used for choosing halogen-free material and designing circuits.
3. The moisture absorption and desorption behavior were analyzed and comparied between halogen-free and halogenated PCBs. The results showed halogen-free PCB materials always absorbed more moisture than halogenated PCBs in room storage condition, in 85°C/85%RH environment chamber and in boiling water. Moisture absorption and desorption followed the Fickcian Law. The diffusion factor and moisture content of PCB materials can be calculated with a one-dimensional Fickian model. The water molecules absorbed in PCBs were classified into two types: bound water and free water. And bound water can not be removed by baking process at 105°C. The moisture content increase with the resin content, result in more bound water in materials which lead to the final moisture content inside the materials is higher after baking process.
4. The moisture effect on dielectric and thermal properties of halogen-free and halogenated PCB material was studied. D_k and Df increased linearly with the increase of moisture content under 85°C/85%RH test condition. Two formulas were put forward for calculating D_k and Df in specific environmental conditions. The thermal expansion behaviors of halogen-free material changed significantly after absorbing moisture. It showed three phases in thermal expansion curves while it showed two phases in initial curves before absorbing moisture. The CTE around glass transition region became large which lead to thermal mismatch resulting in failure rate increasing. The original CTE measure method can not characterize the effect of moisture. A total CTE should be measured for whole thermal excursion. The glass transition temperatures were affected obviously by moisture absorption. Previous work has found that the absorbed water in epoxy materials leads to a decrease in the glass transition temperature and finally makes it reach a stable value. However, this study showed that the T_g decreased in the first stage and increased in second stage. Two types water molecules in PCB materials played different role. Before saturation, the plasticizing effect of free water dominated the trends, T_g decreased with the increase of moisture content; After saturation, the cross-linking density increased because water molecule bound with resins, T_g increased slowly with the immersion time. Printed boards more likely delaminated because the thermal stress and water vapor pressure acted on PCB internal interface after moisture absorption. Time to delamination of PCB decreased with the increase of moisture content.
5. The suitability of IPC test methods for measuring materials with moisture was evaluated. The purpose of preconditioning steps outlined in these test methods is to exclude confounding factors and bring all the test materials to a standard level so that the test results can be repeated and reflect the nature of materials. However, the preconditioning in IPC-TM-650 2.5.5.9, IPC-TM-650 2.4.24 and IPC-TM-650 2.4.25 can reduce the impact of moisture to a certain extent, but can not bring the samples which have different moisture content to a standard level. The test results were affected by moisture content. Therefore, the material’s moisture absorbing history should get our attention when they were choosed according to the properties measured by those three test methods.
6. The lead-free soldering process was applied on some high T_g, middle T_g and low T_g PCB materials which have different additives, such as flame retardant, curing agent and fillers. After lead-free soldering thermal exposure, time to delamination and out-of-plane CTE decreased, water absorption and flammability increased. T_g showed different trends in the materials with different T_g types and different curing agent. There is no obvious effect on in-plane CTE and T_d. However, the resin’s decomposition behavior was affected by replaceing halogenated flame retardant with halogen-free alternatives. Halogenated materials started to decompose at a temperature, subsequently experienced a rapid degradation while halogen-free material experienced a slow degradation. For DICY cured PCB materials, thermal stability were improved by replacing halogenated flame retardant with halogen-free alternatives. On the contray, for Phenolic cured materials, Td was degraded with halogen-free flame retardant. Considering all the factors, the low Tg halogenated materials without fillers, cured by phenolic, had relatively excellent performance.
引文
[1] O. Mauerer. New Reactive, halogen-free flame retardant system for epoxy resins. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2005, 88 (1): 70-73
[2] S. Ganesan, and M. Pecht. Lead-free electronics. IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, A. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA, 2006
[3] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances (RoHS) in electrical and electronic equipment. Official Journal of the European Union, February, 2003
[4] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Directive 2002/95/EC on the waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Official Journal of the European Union, February, 2003
[5] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). Official Journal of the European Union, December, 2006
[6] De Boysere Jerome, and Beard Adrian. Halogen-free laminates: Worldwide trends, driving forces and current status. Circuit World, 2006, 32(2): 8-11
[7] L. Nie, M. Pecht, and R. Ciocci. Regulations and Market Trends in Lead-free and Halogen-free Electronics. Circuit World, 2007, 33(2): 4-9
[8]张家亮.2008年全球刚性覆铜板市场总结及其未来发展预测.覆铜板资讯, 2009, (3): 12-20.
[9] A. Rae, K. Gilleo, C. Moses, et al. Halogen free packaging materials. Proceedings of the International Symposium and Exhibition on Advanced Packaging Materials Processes, Properties and Interfaces, 2001, 148-152
[10]祝大同.无卤化PCB基板材料的新发展(上).印制电路信息, 2001, (03): 13-17
[11]张家亮.低传输损失无卤PCB基板材料的发展(一).覆铜板资讯, 2009, (1): 16-38
[12] C. Coombs. Printed circuit handbook. McGraw Hill, fifth edition, 2001
[13] E.D. Weil, S.V. Levchik. A Review of Current Flame Retardant Systems for Epoxy Resins. Journal of Fire Science, 2004, 22(1): 25-40
[14] S.V. Levchik, E.D. Weil. A review of recent progress in phosphorus-based flame retardants. Journal of Fire Science, 2006, 24(9): 345-364
[15]杨云峰,张现军,胡国胜.无卤阻燃剂的研究现状.山西化工,2010, 30(1): 50-53
[16]邵鸿飞,苏芳.塑料无卤阻燃剂研究进展.工程塑料应用,2009, 37(8): 91-94
[17]汪关才,卢忠远,胡小平.无机阻燃剂的作用机理及研究现状.材料导报,2007, 21(2): 47-50.
[18]祝大同.含磷环氧树脂及其在无卤化覆铜板中的应用.阻燃材料与技术,2005, (1): 4-8
[19] H. Horacek and R. Grabner. Advantages of flame retardants based on nitrogen compounds. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 1996, 54(2-3): 205-215
[20] S. V. Levchik and C. S. Wang. P-based flame retardants in halogen-free laminates. OnBoard Technology, 2007, (4): 18-20
[21]李芝华,谢科予,任冬燕.电路板用无卤阻燃环氧树脂材料研究进展.中国塑料, 2005, 19(12): 1-6
[22]茹敬宏.无卤阻燃型覆铜板的最新进展.热固性树脂,2005, 20(1): 43-46
[23] EU. (2008). Communication from the Commission on the results of the risk evaluation and the risk reduction strategies for the substances: sodium chromate, sodium dichromate and 2,2',6,6'-tetrabromo-4,4'-isopropylidenediphenol (tetra-bromobisphenol A). Official Journal of the European Union, June 18, 2008, C152-11.
[24] IPC. (2008). IPC Brussels Meeting on RoHS Revisions Identifies Concerns with ?ko-Institut Study. [Online].Available: http://www.ipc.org/contentpage.aspx?pageid=6.3.33.18.
[25] IPC. (2008). The Electronic Interconnection Supply Chain’s Response to ?ko-Institut Recommendations for Proposed Revisions to the RoHS Directive (white paper). September 19, 2008.
[26] M. Medesti, A. Lorenzetti, and F. Simioni. Influence of different flame retardants on fire behaviour of modified PIR/PUB polymers. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2001, 72: 475-479.
[27] C. Chigwada, P. Jash, and D D Jiang. Fire retardaney of vinyl ester nanocomposites: Synergy with phosphorus-based fire retardants. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2005, 89(1): 85-100
[28] Wang Z Z, Qu B J, and Fan W H. Combustion characteristic of halogen-free flame retarded polyethylene containing magnesium hydroxide and some synergists. Journal of Apply Polymer science, 2001, 81(1): 206-214
[29] Liu Ying-Ling, Chang Gung-Pei, and Wu Chuan-Shao. Halogen-free flame retardant epoxy resins from hybrids of phosphorus- Or silicon-containing epoxies with an amine resin. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2006,102(2): 1071-1077
[30] V. Tilliette, L.E. Schmidt, C. Ghoul, et al. Environmentally friendly flame retardant epoxy for electrical insulation. Electrical Insulation, 2008. Conference Record of the 2008 IEEE International Symposium on, 9-12 June 2008. ISEI 2008, 492-496
[31] Y. Yoneda, D. Mizutani, N. F. Cooray, et al. A high reliability halogen-free flame-retardant dielectric forbuild-up PCBs. Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2001. Proceedings EcoDesign 2001: Second International Symposium on, Tokyo Japan, 407-412
[32]祝大同.绿色环保型覆铜板用新型环氧树脂.印制电路信息, 2006, (5): 16-20
[33] Zhao J, Miyashita Y, Mutoh Y. Fatigue crack growth behavior of 96.5Sn-3.5Ag lead-free solder. International Journal of Fatigue, 2001, 23: 723–731
[34] Wang L, Yu D Q, Zhao J, et al. Improvement of wettability and tensile property in Sn-Ag-RE lead-free solder alloy. Materials Letters, 2002, 56, 1039-1042
[35] Anderson I E, Cook B A, Harringa J, et al. Sn-Ag-Cu solders and solder joints: alloy development, microstructure, and properties. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, 31(11): 1166-1174
[36] Vaynman S, Fine M E. Development of fluxes for lead-free solders containing zinc. Scripta Materialia, 1999, 41(12): 1269-1271
[37] Vianco P T, Regent J A. Properties of ternary Sn-Ag-Bi solder alloys: part II-wettability and mechanical properties analyses. Journal of Electron Material, 1999, 28(10): 1138-1143
[38] M. Pecht, Y. Fukuda, and S. Rajagopal. The Impact of Lead-free Legislation Exemptions on the Electronics Industry. IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing, 2004, 27(4): 221-232
[39] R. Ciocci and M. Pecht. Questions Concerning the Migration to Lead-free Solder. Circuit World, 2004, 30(2): 34-40
[40] Peng Yih-Rern, Qi Xiaolong, Chrisafides Christos. The influence of curing systems on epoxide-based PCB laminate performance. Circuit World, 2005, 31(4): 14-20
[41]祝大同.无卤化FR-4覆铜板开发进展.绝缘材料, 2002, (4): 30-33
[42] Hikari Murai, Yoshiyuki Takeda, Nozomu Takano, et al. New halogen-free materials for PWB, HDI and advanced package substrate. Circuit World, 2001, 27(2): 7-11
[43] Tanabe Takahiro, Inno Tetsuro, Ose Masahisa, et al. New halogen-free laminate for advanced package substrate. 2008 10th International Conference on Electronic Materials and Packaging, EMAP 2008, Taipei Taiwan, October 2008: 29-32
[44] Kehong Fang. High performance epoxy copper clad laminate. Circuit World, 2004, 30(4): 16-19
[45]何岳山,程涛.一种高耐湿无卤无铅覆铜板.印制电路信息, 2010, (06): 25-27
[46] Sanny He, Elren Zhang, J. Chen. New halogen free and low loss material for high frequency PCB application. 2008 3rd International Microsystems, Packaging, Assembly and Circuits Technology Conference, IMPACT 2008, Taipei Taiwan, October 2008, 329-331
[47] Seol Kyeong-Won, Choi Chang-Hee, Kim Sangyum, et al. On the mechanism of popcorn blistering in copper clad laminates. Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, 2003, 17(10): 1331-1349
[48]马学辉.无铅焊接爆板之成因及控制.印制电路信息,2007, (06): 64-69
[49] Li Jianjun, Yi Sung. Studies on thermal and mechanical properties of PBGA substrate and material construction. Proceedings - Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 2002, 1595-1604
[50] Lu Jicun, Trigg Alastair, Wu Jianhua, et al. Detecting underfill delamination and cracks in flip chip on board assemblies using infrared microscope. International Journal of Microcircuits and Electronic Packaging, 1998, 21(3): 231-236
[51] Ji Li-Na, Yang Zhen-Guo, Liu Jian-Sheng. Failure analysis on blind vias of PCB for novel mobile phones. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, 2008, 8(6): 524-532
[52] Ji Li-Na, Gong Yi; Yang Zhen-Guo. Failure investigation on copper-plated blind vias in PCB. Microelectronics Reliability, 2010, 50(8): 1163-1170
[53] V. Sundaram, R. Tummala, L. Fuhanetal. Next generation microvia and global wiring technologies for SOP. IEEE Transactions on Advanced packaging, 2004, 27(2): 315-323
[54] G. Ramakrishna, L. Fuhan, S.K. Sitaraman. Experimental and numerical investigation of microvia reliability. The Eighth Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems, ITHERM 2002: 932-939
[55] Song H G, Morris J W, Hua Jr, et al. The creep properties of lead-free solder joints. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, (6): 30-32
[56] Wiese S, Feustel F, Meusel E. Characterisation of constitutive behavior of SnAg, SnAgCu and SnPb solder in flip chip joints. Scripta Materialia, 2002, 99 A: 188-193
[57] Mulugeta Abtew, Guna Selvaduray. Lead-free solder in microelectronics. Materials Science and Engineering, 2000, 27: 95-141
[58] Frank W Gayle, Gary Becka, Jerry Badgett, et al. High temperature leadfree solder for microelectronics. Journal of Electron Material, 2001, (6): 17-21
[59] K. Zeng, K. N. Tu. Six cases of reliability study of Pb-free solder joints in electronic packaging technology. Materials Science and Engineering, 2002, 38R: 55-105
[60] Gan H, Choi W J, Xu G, et al. Electromigration in solder joints and solder lines. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, (6): 34-37
[61]蔡积庆.PWB设计制造工艺和基材对耐CAF影响的评估.印制电路信息, 2003, 6: 9-14
[62] Kang S K, Rai R S, Purushothaman S. Interfacial reactions during soldering with lead-tin eutectic and lead(Pb)-free, tin-rich solders. Journal of Electron Material, 1996, 25(7): 1113-1120.
[63] Zribi A, Kinyanjui R, Borgesen P, et al. Aspects of the structural evolution of lead-free solder joints. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, (6): 38-40
[64] Rudra B, Pecht M, and Jennings D. Assessing Time-to-Failure Due to Conductive Filament Formation in Multi-Layer Organic Laminates. IEEE Transactions on Component, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology, 1994, 17(3): 269-276
[65] Navarro Clarissa. Development of a standard test method for evaluating conductive anodic filament (CAF) growth failure in PCBs. Circuit World, 2001, 28(2): 14-18
[66] Amla Tarun. Conductive anodic filament growth failure. Printed Circuit Fabrication, 2002, 25(7): 40-43
[67] Grupen-Shemansky Melissa. Overcoming tin whisker problems on lead-free packaging. Advanced Packaging, 2004, 13(6): 24-26
[68] Lei Nie, Maik Mueller, Michael Osterman, et al. Microstructural analysis of reballed tin-lead, lead-free, and mixed ball grid array assemblies under temperature cycling test. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2010, 39(8): 1218-1232
[69] A. Skwarek, J. Ratajczak, A. Czerwinski, et al. Effect of Cu addition on whisker formation in tin-rich solder alloys under thermal shock stress. Applied Surface Science, 2009, 255(15): 7100-7103
[70] Tong Fang, Michael Osterman, Sony Mathew, et al. Tin whisker risk assessment. Circuit World, 2006, 32(3): 25-29
[71] Johander Per, Tegehall Per-Erik, Ahmed Abelrahim, et al. Printed circuit boards for lead-free soldering: Materials and failure mechanisms. Circuit World, 2007, 33(2): 10-16
[72] A. Chatterjee and J. Gillespie. The effect of moisture on DGEBA epoxy resin systems. International SAMPE Technical Conference, CA USA, May 2004, 3409-3416
[73] E. Bergum. Thermal analysis of base materials through assembly: Can current analytical techniques predict and characterize difference in laminate performance prior to exposure to thermal excursions during assembly? Printed Circuit Design & Manufacture, September 2003
[74] E. Kelley, and E. Bergum. Laminate material selection for RoHS assembly, Part 1. Printed Circuit Design & Manufacture, November 2006, 30-34
[75] E. Kelley, and E. Bergum. Laminate material selection for RoHS assembly, Part 2. Printed Circuit Design & Manufacture, December 2006, 30-37
[76] E. Kelley. An assessment of the impact of lead-free assembly processes on base material and PCB reliability. Proceedings of IPC APEX Conference, 2004, S16-2-1
[77] S. Ehrler. The compatibility of epoxy-based printed circuit boards with leadfree assembly. Circuit World, 2005, 31(4): 3-13
[78] iNEMI. iNEMI Halogen-free Project. [online]. Available: http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/Industry_Forums/Productronica_2007/Adv_Materials_Research/Halogen-Free.pdf
[79] iNEMI. iNEMI Halogen-free Project Statement of work. [online]. Available: http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/projects/ese/Halogen-Free/Halogen-Free_Revised_SOW_Draft_Feb_07.pdf
[80] iNEMI. iNEMI BFR-Free High Reliability PCB Project statement. [online]. Available: http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/projects/ese/BFR-Free/SOW_BFR-Free_High-Rel_V7.pdf
[81] Fu Haley, Tisdale Stephen, Rausch Martin, et al. iNEMI HFR-free program report. 2009 International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology and High Density Packaging, ICEPT-HDP 2009, 627-632
[82] ITRI. HDP User Group Halogen-Free Project. [online]. Available: http://impact.itri.org.tw/2007/Files/NewsFile/2007101618818.ppt
[83] HDPUG- HF Product Properties Database Project. [online]. Available: http://content.onlineagency.com/sites/38788/pdf/3hfdatabaseprojecthdp907.pdf
[84] Reliability of Halogen-free Printed Circuit Board Assembly, ITRI, Taiwan. [online]. Available: http://content.onlineagency.com/sites/38788/pdf/9reliabilityofhalogen-freepcbahdp907.pdf
[85] EPA. Flame Retardants in Printed Circuit Boards. [online]. Available: http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/projects/pcb/index.htm
[86] Neil Patton. Lead/halogen-free laminates and their effect on desmearing and metallization. Circuit World, 2007, 33(2): 28-35
[87] Krishna Jonnalagadda, Fangjuan Qi, and Jim Liu. Mechanical bend fatigue reliability of lead-free and halogen-free PBGA Assemblies. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 2005, 28(3): 430-434
[88] Fangjuan Qi and Jim Liu. Research on failure modes of BGA assemblies with lead-free solder on different PCB materials. Electronic Packaging Technology Proceedings2003, ICEPT 2003, Fifth International Conference on, 28-30 Oct. 2003, 396-400
[89] Dongji Xie, J. Wang, Him Yu, et al. Impact Performance of Microvia and Buildup Layer Materials and Its Contribution to Drop Test Failures. Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 2007. ECTC '07. Proceedings. 57th, May 29 2007-June 1 2007, 391-399
[90] Yu Chi-Ko, Chang Graver, Shao Tina, et al. The impact investigation of CSP IC packaging on Halogen-free board level performance. IMPACT Conference 2009 International 3D IC Conference - Proceedings, 2009, 666-669
[91] Lili Ma, Shengxiang Bao, Dechun Lv, et al. Application of C-mode Scanning Acoustic Microscopy in Packaging. 2007 8th International Conference on Electronics Packaging Technology, ICEPT 2007, 591-596
[92] Lili Ma, Shengxiang Bao, Dechun Lv, et al. IC surface corrosion inspection by scanning acoustic microscopy. Journal of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 2007, 5(4): 336-339
[93] IPC-TM-650 2.4.24. Glass transition temperature and z-axis thermal expansion by TMA. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[94] IPC-TM-650 2.5.5.9. Permittivity and Loss Tangent, Parallel Plate, 1 MHz to 1.5 GHz. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[95] IPC-TM-650 2.5.17.1. Volume and Surface Resistivity of Dielectric Materials. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[96] UL 94. Tests for flammability of plastic materials for parts in devices and appliances. Underwriters Laboratories, June 1990
[97] IPC-TM-650 2.4.25. Glass transition temperature and cure factor by DSC. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[98] T. Y. Wu, Y. Guo, and W. T. Chen. Thermal-Mechanical Strain Characterization for Printed Wiring Boards. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 1993, 37 (5): 621-634
[99] J. Yuan, and L. A. Falanga. The In-Plane Thermal Expansion of Glass Fabric Reinforced Epoxy Laminates. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 1993, 12: 489-496
[100] IPC-TM-650 2.4.24.6. Decomposition temperature of laminate material using TGA. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Bannockburn, IL, April 2006
[101] IPC-TM-650 2.4.24.1. Time to delamination by TMA. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[102] IPC TM-650 2.6.2.1. Water Absorption, Metal Clad Plastic Laminates. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, May 1986
[103] Y. Diamant, G. Marom, and L. Broutman. The effect of network structure on moisture absorption of epoxy resins. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1981, 26: 3015-3025
[104] Marsh L., Lasky R., Seraphim D., et al. Moisture solubility and diffusion in epoxy and epoxy-glass composites. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 1984, 28(6): 655-661
[105] C. Maggana and P. Pissis. Water sorption and diffusion studies in an epoxy resin system. Journal of Polymer Science: Part B: Polymer Physics, 1999, 37(11): 1165-1182
[106] P.C. Liu, D.W. Wang, E.D. Livingston,et al. Moisture Absorption Behavior of Printed Circuit Laminate Materials. Advances in Electronic Packaging, 1993, 4: 435-442
[107] M. Pecht, H. Ardebili, and Anand A. Shukla, et al. Moisture ingress into organic laminates. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 1999, 22(1): 104-110
[108] E.H. Wong and R. Rajoo. Moisture absorption and diffusion characterisation of packaging materials - Advanced treatment. Microelectronics Reliability, 2003, 43(12): 2087-2096
[109] M. Akay, S.K.A Mun, and A. Stanley. Influence of Moisture on the Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Autoclaved and Oven-Cured Kevlar-49/Epoxy Laminates. Composites Science and Technology, 1997,57: 565-571
[110] J. Lundgren and P. Gudmundson. Moisture Absorption in Glass-Fiber/Epoxy Laminates with Transverse Matrix Cracks. Composites Science and Technology, 1999,59: 1983-1991
[111] E.H. Wong and R. Rajoo. Trends and challenges of environmentally friendly laminates. Printed Circuit Fabrication, 2003, 3: 26-29
[112] C. Maggana and P. Pissis. Water Sorption and Diffusion Studies in an Epoxy Resin System. Journal of Polymer Science: Part B: Polymer Physics, 1999, 37: 1165-1182
[113] P. Hamilton, G. Brist, B. Guy, et al. Humidity-Dependent Loss in PCB Substrates. Proceedings of IPC Printed Circuit Expo, February 2007
[114] H. Zhao and Robert K.Y. Li. Effect of water absorption on the mechanical and dielectric properties of nano-alumina filled epoxy nanocomposites. Composites: Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2008, 39(4): 602-611
[115] H. Ardebili, E. H. Wong, and M. Pecht. Hygroscopic swelling and sorption characteristics of epoxy molding compounds used in electronic packaging. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 2003, 26(1): 206-204
[116] T.S. Hsu. Water and moisture absorption of laminates. Printed Circuit Fabrication, 1991, 7: 52
[117] A. Apicella, L. Egiziano, L. Nicolais, et al. Environmental degradation of the electrical and thermal properties of organic insulating materials. Journal of Material Science, 1988, 23:729-735
[118] T. Kumazawa, M. Oishi, and M. Todoki. High-humidity deterioration and internal structure change of epoxy resin for electrical insulation. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 1994, 1: 133-138
[119] S. Kumagai, N. Yoshimura. Impacts of thermal aging and water absorption on the surface electrical and chemical properties of cycloaliphatic epoxy resin. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 2000, 7(3): 424-431
[120] D.B. Singh, A. Kumar, V.P. Tayal, et al. Effect of moisture and electronic packaging exhalates on the electrical conductivity of epoxy laminate. Journal of Material Science, 1988, 23: 3015
[121] P. Thomas, K. Dwarakanath, and P. Sampathkumaran, et al. Influence of moisture absorption on electrical characteristics of glass-epoxy polymer composite system. Electrical Insulating Materials, (ISEIM 2005), Proceedings of 2005 International Symposium on, vol. 3, June 2005, 612-615
[122] S. Khan. Comparison of the dielectric constant and dissipation factors of non-woven aramid/FR4 and glass/FR4 laminates. Circuit World, 2007, 26(2): 33-37
[123] K.H. Lu, B. Chao, Zhiquan Luo, et al. Moisture transport and its effects on fracture strength and dielectric constant of underfill materials. Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 2007. ECTC '07. Proceedings, May 29 2007-June 1 2007, 1040-1044
[124] P. Gonon, A. Sylvestrea, J. Teysseyreb, et al. Combined effects of humidity and thermal stress on the dielectric properties of epoxy-silica composites. Materials Science and Engineering B, 2001, 83(1-3): 158-164
[125] T.J. Bosma, T. Lebey, V. Pouillres, et al. The use of mixing laws for modelling the climatic aging of dielectric materials. Journal of Physics D. Applied Physics, 1995, 28: 1180
[126] Richard Pangier and Michael J. Gay. Making sense of laminate dielectric properties. Printed Circuit Design & Fab, January 2009
[127] P. Moy and F. E. Karasz. Epoxy-water interactions. Polymer Engineering Science, 1980, 20: 315-319
[128] S. Luo, J. Leisen, C. P. Wong. Study on Mobility of Water and Polymer Chain in Epoxy and Its Influence on Adhesion. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2002, 85: 1-8
[129] E. L. Jr. McKague, J. D. Reynold, J. E. Halkias. Swelling and glass transition relations for epoxy matrix materials in humid environments. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1978, 22: 1643-1654
[130] E. S. W. Kong, M. J. Adamson. Physical ageing and its effect on the moisture sorption of amine cured epoxy, Polymer Comm., 1983, 24: 171-173
[131] J. M. Zhou and J. P. Lucas. Hygrothermal effects of epoxy resin Part I: the nature of water in epoxy. Polymer, 1999, 40(20): 5505-5512
[132] S. Ganesan and M. Pecht. Lead-free electronics. IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, A. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA, 2006.
[133] W. Christiansen, D. Shirrell, B. Aguirre,et al. Thermal stability of electrical grade laminates based on epoxy resins. Proceedings of IPC Printed Circuits EXPO, Anaheim, CA, 2001: S03-1-1-S03-1-7
[134] Y. Peng, X. Qi, and C. Chrisafides. The influence of curing systems on epoxide-based PCB laminate performance. Circuit World, 2005, 31(4): 14-20
[135] J. Paterson-Jones, V. Percy, R. Giles, et al. The thermal degradation of model compounds of amine-cured epoxide resins II. The thermal degradation of 1,3-diphenoxypropan-2-ol and 1,3-diphenoxypropene. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1973, 17(6): 1877-1887
[136] Z. Brito and G. Sanchez. Influence of metallic fillers on the thermal and mechanical behavior in composites of epoxy matrix. Composite Structures, 2000, 48(1-3): 79-81
[137] G. Sanchez, Z. Brito, V. Mujica, et al. The thermal behavior of cured epoxy-resins: The influence of metallic fillers. Polymer Degradation Stability, 1993, 40(1): 109-114
[138] P. Jain, V. Choudhary, and I. Varma. Flame retarding epoxies with phosphorous. Journal of Macromolecular Science-Polymer Reviews, 2002, 42(2): 139-183
[139] J. Chang, Y. Sheen, R. Chang, et al. The thermal degradation of phosphorous-containing copolyesters. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 1996, 54(2-3): 365-371
[140] W. Liu, R. Varley, and G. Simon. Understanding the decomposition and fire performance processes in phosphorus and nanomodified high performance epoxy resins and composites. Polymer, 2007, 48(8): 2345-2354
[141] M Iji, and Y. Kiuchi. Flame resistant glass-epoxy printed wiring boards with no halogen or phosphorous compounds. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2004, 15: 175-182
[142] R. Lambert. The impact of materials on the flammability of printed wiring board products. 43rd Proceedings of Electronic Components and Technology Conference, June 1993, 134-142
[143] S. Levchik and E. Weil. Thermal decomposition, combustion and flameretardancy of epoxy resins-a review of the recent literature. Polymer International, 2004, 53: 1901-1929
[144] K. Wondraczek, J. Adams, and J. Fuhrmann. Effect of thermal degradation on glass transition temperature of PMMA. Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 2004, 205(14): 1858-1862
[145] G. Sala. Composition degradation due to fluid absorption. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2000, 31(5): 357-373
[146] C. Smith. Water absorption in glass fiber-epoxide resin laminates. Circuit World, 1988, 14(3): 22-26
[147] G. Flor, G. Campari-Vigano, and R. Feduzi. A thermal study on moisture absorption by epoxy composites. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 1989, 35(7): 2255-2264
[2] S. Ganesan, and M. Pecht. Lead-free electronics. IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, A. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA, 2006
[3] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Directive 2002/95/EC on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances (RoHS) in electrical and electronic equipment. Official Journal of the European Union, February, 2003
[4] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Directive 2002/95/EC on the waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). Official Journal of the European Union, February, 2003
[5] The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union. Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 concerning the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). Official Journal of the European Union, December, 2006
[6] De Boysere Jerome, and Beard Adrian. Halogen-free laminates: Worldwide trends, driving forces and current status. Circuit World, 2006, 32(2): 8-11
[7] L. Nie, M. Pecht, and R. Ciocci. Regulations and Market Trends in Lead-free and Halogen-free Electronics. Circuit World, 2007, 33(2): 4-9
[8]张家亮.2008年全球刚性覆铜板市场总结及其未来发展预测.覆铜板资讯, 2009, (3): 12-20.
[9] A. Rae, K. Gilleo, C. Moses, et al. Halogen free packaging materials. Proceedings of the International Symposium and Exhibition on Advanced Packaging Materials Processes, Properties and Interfaces, 2001, 148-152
[10]祝大同.无卤化PCB基板材料的新发展(上).印制电路信息, 2001, (03): 13-17
[11]张家亮.低传输损失无卤PCB基板材料的发展(一).覆铜板资讯, 2009, (1): 16-38
[12] C. Coombs. Printed circuit handbook. McGraw Hill, fifth edition, 2001
[13] E.D. Weil, S.V. Levchik. A Review of Current Flame Retardant Systems for Epoxy Resins. Journal of Fire Science, 2004, 22(1): 25-40
[14] S.V. Levchik, E.D. Weil. A review of recent progress in phosphorus-based flame retardants. Journal of Fire Science, 2006, 24(9): 345-364
[15]杨云峰,张现军,胡国胜.无卤阻燃剂的研究现状.山西化工,2010, 30(1): 50-53
[16]邵鸿飞,苏芳.塑料无卤阻燃剂研究进展.工程塑料应用,2009, 37(8): 91-94
[17]汪关才,卢忠远,胡小平.无机阻燃剂的作用机理及研究现状.材料导报,2007, 21(2): 47-50.
[18]祝大同.含磷环氧树脂及其在无卤化覆铜板中的应用.阻燃材料与技术,2005, (1): 4-8
[19] H. Horacek and R. Grabner. Advantages of flame retardants based on nitrogen compounds. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 1996, 54(2-3): 205-215
[20] S. V. Levchik and C. S. Wang. P-based flame retardants in halogen-free laminates. OnBoard Technology, 2007, (4): 18-20
[21]李芝华,谢科予,任冬燕.电路板用无卤阻燃环氧树脂材料研究进展.中国塑料, 2005, 19(12): 1-6
[22]茹敬宏.无卤阻燃型覆铜板的最新进展.热固性树脂,2005, 20(1): 43-46
[23] EU. (2008). Communication from the Commission on the results of the risk evaluation and the risk reduction strategies for the substances: sodium chromate, sodium dichromate and 2,2',6,6'-tetrabromo-4,4'-isopropylidenediphenol (tetra-bromobisphenol A). Official Journal of the European Union, June 18, 2008, C152-11.
[24] IPC. (2008). IPC Brussels Meeting on RoHS Revisions Identifies Concerns with ?ko-Institut Study. [Online].Available: http://www.ipc.org/contentpage.aspx?pageid=6.3.33.18.
[25] IPC. (2008). The Electronic Interconnection Supply Chain’s Response to ?ko-Institut Recommendations for Proposed Revisions to the RoHS Directive (white paper). September 19, 2008.
[26] M. Medesti, A. Lorenzetti, and F. Simioni. Influence of different flame retardants on fire behaviour of modified PIR/PUB polymers. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2001, 72: 475-479.
[27] C. Chigwada, P. Jash, and D D Jiang. Fire retardaney of vinyl ester nanocomposites: Synergy with phosphorus-based fire retardants. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 2005, 89(1): 85-100
[28] Wang Z Z, Qu B J, and Fan W H. Combustion characteristic of halogen-free flame retarded polyethylene containing magnesium hydroxide and some synergists. Journal of Apply Polymer science, 2001, 81(1): 206-214
[29] Liu Ying-Ling, Chang Gung-Pei, and Wu Chuan-Shao. Halogen-free flame retardant epoxy resins from hybrids of phosphorus- Or silicon-containing epoxies with an amine resin. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2006,102(2): 1071-1077
[30] V. Tilliette, L.E. Schmidt, C. Ghoul, et al. Environmentally friendly flame retardant epoxy for electrical insulation. Electrical Insulation, 2008. Conference Record of the 2008 IEEE International Symposium on, 9-12 June 2008. ISEI 2008, 492-496
[31] Y. Yoneda, D. Mizutani, N. F. Cooray, et al. A high reliability halogen-free flame-retardant dielectric forbuild-up PCBs. Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, 2001. Proceedings EcoDesign 2001: Second International Symposium on, Tokyo Japan, 407-412
[32]祝大同.绿色环保型覆铜板用新型环氧树脂.印制电路信息, 2006, (5): 16-20
[33] Zhao J, Miyashita Y, Mutoh Y. Fatigue crack growth behavior of 96.5Sn-3.5Ag lead-free solder. International Journal of Fatigue, 2001, 23: 723–731
[34] Wang L, Yu D Q, Zhao J, et al. Improvement of wettability and tensile property in Sn-Ag-RE lead-free solder alloy. Materials Letters, 2002, 56, 1039-1042
[35] Anderson I E, Cook B A, Harringa J, et al. Sn-Ag-Cu solders and solder joints: alloy development, microstructure, and properties. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, 31(11): 1166-1174
[36] Vaynman S, Fine M E. Development of fluxes for lead-free solders containing zinc. Scripta Materialia, 1999, 41(12): 1269-1271
[37] Vianco P T, Regent J A. Properties of ternary Sn-Ag-Bi solder alloys: part II-wettability and mechanical properties analyses. Journal of Electron Material, 1999, 28(10): 1138-1143
[38] M. Pecht, Y. Fukuda, and S. Rajagopal. The Impact of Lead-free Legislation Exemptions on the Electronics Industry. IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing, 2004, 27(4): 221-232
[39] R. Ciocci and M. Pecht. Questions Concerning the Migration to Lead-free Solder. Circuit World, 2004, 30(2): 34-40
[40] Peng Yih-Rern, Qi Xiaolong, Chrisafides Christos. The influence of curing systems on epoxide-based PCB laminate performance. Circuit World, 2005, 31(4): 14-20
[41]祝大同.无卤化FR-4覆铜板开发进展.绝缘材料, 2002, (4): 30-33
[42] Hikari Murai, Yoshiyuki Takeda, Nozomu Takano, et al. New halogen-free materials for PWB, HDI and advanced package substrate. Circuit World, 2001, 27(2): 7-11
[43] Tanabe Takahiro, Inno Tetsuro, Ose Masahisa, et al. New halogen-free laminate for advanced package substrate. 2008 10th International Conference on Electronic Materials and Packaging, EMAP 2008, Taipei Taiwan, October 2008: 29-32
[44] Kehong Fang. High performance epoxy copper clad laminate. Circuit World, 2004, 30(4): 16-19
[45]何岳山,程涛.一种高耐湿无卤无铅覆铜板.印制电路信息, 2010, (06): 25-27
[46] Sanny He, Elren Zhang, J. Chen. New halogen free and low loss material for high frequency PCB application. 2008 3rd International Microsystems, Packaging, Assembly and Circuits Technology Conference, IMPACT 2008, Taipei Taiwan, October 2008, 329-331
[47] Seol Kyeong-Won, Choi Chang-Hee, Kim Sangyum, et al. On the mechanism of popcorn blistering in copper clad laminates. Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology, 2003, 17(10): 1331-1349
[48]马学辉.无铅焊接爆板之成因及控制.印制电路信息,2007, (06): 64-69
[49] Li Jianjun, Yi Sung. Studies on thermal and mechanical properties of PBGA substrate and material construction. Proceedings - Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 2002, 1595-1604
[50] Lu Jicun, Trigg Alastair, Wu Jianhua, et al. Detecting underfill delamination and cracks in flip chip on board assemblies using infrared microscope. International Journal of Microcircuits and Electronic Packaging, 1998, 21(3): 231-236
[51] Ji Li-Na, Yang Zhen-Guo, Liu Jian-Sheng. Failure analysis on blind vias of PCB for novel mobile phones. Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention, 2008, 8(6): 524-532
[52] Ji Li-Na, Gong Yi; Yang Zhen-Guo. Failure investigation on copper-plated blind vias in PCB. Microelectronics Reliability, 2010, 50(8): 1163-1170
[53] V. Sundaram, R. Tummala, L. Fuhanetal. Next generation microvia and global wiring technologies for SOP. IEEE Transactions on Advanced packaging, 2004, 27(2): 315-323
[54] G. Ramakrishna, L. Fuhan, S.K. Sitaraman. Experimental and numerical investigation of microvia reliability. The Eighth Intersociety Conference on Thermal and Thermomechanical Phenomena in Electronic Systems, ITHERM 2002: 932-939
[55] Song H G, Morris J W, Hua Jr, et al. The creep properties of lead-free solder joints. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, (6): 30-32
[56] Wiese S, Feustel F, Meusel E. Characterisation of constitutive behavior of SnAg, SnAgCu and SnPb solder in flip chip joints. Scripta Materialia, 2002, 99 A: 188-193
[57] Mulugeta Abtew, Guna Selvaduray. Lead-free solder in microelectronics. Materials Science and Engineering, 2000, 27: 95-141
[58] Frank W Gayle, Gary Becka, Jerry Badgett, et al. High temperature leadfree solder for microelectronics. Journal of Electron Material, 2001, (6): 17-21
[59] K. Zeng, K. N. Tu. Six cases of reliability study of Pb-free solder joints in electronic packaging technology. Materials Science and Engineering, 2002, 38R: 55-105
[60] Gan H, Choi W J, Xu G, et al. Electromigration in solder joints and solder lines. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, (6): 34-37
[61]蔡积庆.PWB设计制造工艺和基材对耐CAF影响的评估.印制电路信息, 2003, 6: 9-14
[62] Kang S K, Rai R S, Purushothaman S. Interfacial reactions during soldering with lead-tin eutectic and lead(Pb)-free, tin-rich solders. Journal of Electron Material, 1996, 25(7): 1113-1120.
[63] Zribi A, Kinyanjui R, Borgesen P, et al. Aspects of the structural evolution of lead-free solder joints. Journal of Electron Material, 2002, (6): 38-40
[64] Rudra B, Pecht M, and Jennings D. Assessing Time-to-Failure Due to Conductive Filament Formation in Multi-Layer Organic Laminates. IEEE Transactions on Component, Packaging, and Manufacturing Technology, 1994, 17(3): 269-276
[65] Navarro Clarissa. Development of a standard test method for evaluating conductive anodic filament (CAF) growth failure in PCBs. Circuit World, 2001, 28(2): 14-18
[66] Amla Tarun. Conductive anodic filament growth failure. Printed Circuit Fabrication, 2002, 25(7): 40-43
[67] Grupen-Shemansky Melissa. Overcoming tin whisker problems on lead-free packaging. Advanced Packaging, 2004, 13(6): 24-26
[68] Lei Nie, Maik Mueller, Michael Osterman, et al. Microstructural analysis of reballed tin-lead, lead-free, and mixed ball grid array assemblies under temperature cycling test. Journal of Electronic Materials, 2010, 39(8): 1218-1232
[69] A. Skwarek, J. Ratajczak, A. Czerwinski, et al. Effect of Cu addition on whisker formation in tin-rich solder alloys under thermal shock stress. Applied Surface Science, 2009, 255(15): 7100-7103
[70] Tong Fang, Michael Osterman, Sony Mathew, et al. Tin whisker risk assessment. Circuit World, 2006, 32(3): 25-29
[71] Johander Per, Tegehall Per-Erik, Ahmed Abelrahim, et al. Printed circuit boards for lead-free soldering: Materials and failure mechanisms. Circuit World, 2007, 33(2): 10-16
[72] A. Chatterjee and J. Gillespie. The effect of moisture on DGEBA epoxy resin systems. International SAMPE Technical Conference, CA USA, May 2004, 3409-3416
[73] E. Bergum. Thermal analysis of base materials through assembly: Can current analytical techniques predict and characterize difference in laminate performance prior to exposure to thermal excursions during assembly? Printed Circuit Design & Manufacture, September 2003
[74] E. Kelley, and E. Bergum. Laminate material selection for RoHS assembly, Part 1. Printed Circuit Design & Manufacture, November 2006, 30-34
[75] E. Kelley, and E. Bergum. Laminate material selection for RoHS assembly, Part 2. Printed Circuit Design & Manufacture, December 2006, 30-37
[76] E. Kelley. An assessment of the impact of lead-free assembly processes on base material and PCB reliability. Proceedings of IPC APEX Conference, 2004, S16-2-1
[77] S. Ehrler. The compatibility of epoxy-based printed circuit boards with leadfree assembly. Circuit World, 2005, 31(4): 3-13
[78] iNEMI. iNEMI Halogen-free Project. [online]. Available: http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/Industry_Forums/Productronica_2007/Adv_Materials_Research/Halogen-Free.pdf
[79] iNEMI. iNEMI Halogen-free Project Statement of work. [online]. Available: http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/projects/ese/Halogen-Free/Halogen-Free_Revised_SOW_Draft_Feb_07.pdf
[80] iNEMI. iNEMI BFR-Free High Reliability PCB Project statement. [online]. Available: http://thor.inemi.org/webdownload/projects/ese/BFR-Free/SOW_BFR-Free_High-Rel_V7.pdf
[81] Fu Haley, Tisdale Stephen, Rausch Martin, et al. iNEMI HFR-free program report. 2009 International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology and High Density Packaging, ICEPT-HDP 2009, 627-632
[82] ITRI. HDP User Group Halogen-Free Project. [online]. Available: http://impact.itri.org.tw/2007/Files/NewsFile/2007101618818.ppt
[83] HDPUG- HF Product Properties Database Project. [online]. Available: http://content.onlineagency.com/sites/38788/pdf/3hfdatabaseprojecthdp907.pdf
[84] Reliability of Halogen-free Printed Circuit Board Assembly, ITRI, Taiwan. [online]. Available: http://content.onlineagency.com/sites/38788/pdf/9reliabilityofhalogen-freepcbahdp907.pdf
[85] EPA. Flame Retardants in Printed Circuit Boards. [online]. Available: http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/projects/pcb/index.htm
[86] Neil Patton. Lead/halogen-free laminates and their effect on desmearing and metallization. Circuit World, 2007, 33(2): 28-35
[87] Krishna Jonnalagadda, Fangjuan Qi, and Jim Liu. Mechanical bend fatigue reliability of lead-free and halogen-free PBGA Assemblies. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 2005, 28(3): 430-434
[88] Fangjuan Qi and Jim Liu. Research on failure modes of BGA assemblies with lead-free solder on different PCB materials. Electronic Packaging Technology Proceedings2003, ICEPT 2003, Fifth International Conference on, 28-30 Oct. 2003, 396-400
[89] Dongji Xie, J. Wang, Him Yu, et al. Impact Performance of Microvia and Buildup Layer Materials and Its Contribution to Drop Test Failures. Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 2007. ECTC '07. Proceedings. 57th, May 29 2007-June 1 2007, 391-399
[90] Yu Chi-Ko, Chang Graver, Shao Tina, et al. The impact investigation of CSP IC packaging on Halogen-free board level performance. IMPACT Conference 2009 International 3D IC Conference - Proceedings, 2009, 666-669
[91] Lili Ma, Shengxiang Bao, Dechun Lv, et al. Application of C-mode Scanning Acoustic Microscopy in Packaging. 2007 8th International Conference on Electronics Packaging Technology, ICEPT 2007, 591-596
[92] Lili Ma, Shengxiang Bao, Dechun Lv, et al. IC surface corrosion inspection by scanning acoustic microscopy. Journal of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 2007, 5(4): 336-339
[93] IPC-TM-650 2.4.24. Glass transition temperature and z-axis thermal expansion by TMA. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[94] IPC-TM-650 2.5.5.9. Permittivity and Loss Tangent, Parallel Plate, 1 MHz to 1.5 GHz. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[95] IPC-TM-650 2.5.17.1. Volume and Surface Resistivity of Dielectric Materials. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[96] UL 94. Tests for flammability of plastic materials for parts in devices and appliances. Underwriters Laboratories, June 1990
[97] IPC-TM-650 2.4.25. Glass transition temperature and cure factor by DSC. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[98] T. Y. Wu, Y. Guo, and W. T. Chen. Thermal-Mechanical Strain Characterization for Printed Wiring Boards. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 1993, 37 (5): 621-634
[99] J. Yuan, and L. A. Falanga. The In-Plane Thermal Expansion of Glass Fabric Reinforced Epoxy Laminates. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 1993, 12: 489-496
[100] IPC-TM-650 2.4.24.6. Decomposition temperature of laminate material using TGA. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Bannockburn, IL, April 2006
[101] IPC-TM-650 2.4.24.1. Time to delamination by TMA. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, December 1994
[102] IPC TM-650 2.6.2.1. Water Absorption, Metal Clad Plastic Laminates. The Institute for Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits, Northbrook, IL, May 1986
[103] Y. Diamant, G. Marom, and L. Broutman. The effect of network structure on moisture absorption of epoxy resins. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1981, 26: 3015-3025
[104] Marsh L., Lasky R., Seraphim D., et al. Moisture solubility and diffusion in epoxy and epoxy-glass composites. IBM Journal of Research and Development, 1984, 28(6): 655-661
[105] C. Maggana and P. Pissis. Water sorption and diffusion studies in an epoxy resin system. Journal of Polymer Science: Part B: Polymer Physics, 1999, 37(11): 1165-1182
[106] P.C. Liu, D.W. Wang, E.D. Livingston,et al. Moisture Absorption Behavior of Printed Circuit Laminate Materials. Advances in Electronic Packaging, 1993, 4: 435-442
[107] M. Pecht, H. Ardebili, and Anand A. Shukla, et al. Moisture ingress into organic laminates. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 1999, 22(1): 104-110
[108] E.H. Wong and R. Rajoo. Moisture absorption and diffusion characterisation of packaging materials - Advanced treatment. Microelectronics Reliability, 2003, 43(12): 2087-2096
[109] M. Akay, S.K.A Mun, and A. Stanley. Influence of Moisture on the Thermal and Mechanical Properties of Autoclaved and Oven-Cured Kevlar-49/Epoxy Laminates. Composites Science and Technology, 1997,57: 565-571
[110] J. Lundgren and P. Gudmundson. Moisture Absorption in Glass-Fiber/Epoxy Laminates with Transverse Matrix Cracks. Composites Science and Technology, 1999,59: 1983-1991
[111] E.H. Wong and R. Rajoo. Trends and challenges of environmentally friendly laminates. Printed Circuit Fabrication, 2003, 3: 26-29
[112] C. Maggana and P. Pissis. Water Sorption and Diffusion Studies in an Epoxy Resin System. Journal of Polymer Science: Part B: Polymer Physics, 1999, 37: 1165-1182
[113] P. Hamilton, G. Brist, B. Guy, et al. Humidity-Dependent Loss in PCB Substrates. Proceedings of IPC Printed Circuit Expo, February 2007
[114] H. Zhao and Robert K.Y. Li. Effect of water absorption on the mechanical and dielectric properties of nano-alumina filled epoxy nanocomposites. Composites: Part A, Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2008, 39(4): 602-611
[115] H. Ardebili, E. H. Wong, and M. Pecht. Hygroscopic swelling and sorption characteristics of epoxy molding compounds used in electronic packaging. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, 2003, 26(1): 206-204
[116] T.S. Hsu. Water and moisture absorption of laminates. Printed Circuit Fabrication, 1991, 7: 52
[117] A. Apicella, L. Egiziano, L. Nicolais, et al. Environmental degradation of the electrical and thermal properties of organic insulating materials. Journal of Material Science, 1988, 23:729-735
[118] T. Kumazawa, M. Oishi, and M. Todoki. High-humidity deterioration and internal structure change of epoxy resin for electrical insulation. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 1994, 1: 133-138
[119] S. Kumagai, N. Yoshimura. Impacts of thermal aging and water absorption on the surface electrical and chemical properties of cycloaliphatic epoxy resin. IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation, 2000, 7(3): 424-431
[120] D.B. Singh, A. Kumar, V.P. Tayal, et al. Effect of moisture and electronic packaging exhalates on the electrical conductivity of epoxy laminate. Journal of Material Science, 1988, 23: 3015
[121] P. Thomas, K. Dwarakanath, and P. Sampathkumaran, et al. Influence of moisture absorption on electrical characteristics of glass-epoxy polymer composite system. Electrical Insulating Materials, (ISEIM 2005), Proceedings of 2005 International Symposium on, vol. 3, June 2005, 612-615
[122] S. Khan. Comparison of the dielectric constant and dissipation factors of non-woven aramid/FR4 and glass/FR4 laminates. Circuit World, 2007, 26(2): 33-37
[123] K.H. Lu, B. Chao, Zhiquan Luo, et al. Moisture transport and its effects on fracture strength and dielectric constant of underfill materials. Electronic Components and Technology Conference, 2007. ECTC '07. Proceedings, May 29 2007-June 1 2007, 1040-1044
[124] P. Gonon, A. Sylvestrea, J. Teysseyreb, et al. Combined effects of humidity and thermal stress on the dielectric properties of epoxy-silica composites. Materials Science and Engineering B, 2001, 83(1-3): 158-164
[125] T.J. Bosma, T. Lebey, V. Pouillres, et al. The use of mixing laws for modelling the climatic aging of dielectric materials. Journal of Physics D. Applied Physics, 1995, 28: 1180
[126] Richard Pangier and Michael J. Gay. Making sense of laminate dielectric properties. Printed Circuit Design & Fab, January 2009
[127] P. Moy and F. E. Karasz. Epoxy-water interactions. Polymer Engineering Science, 1980, 20: 315-319
[128] S. Luo, J. Leisen, C. P. Wong. Study on Mobility of Water and Polymer Chain in Epoxy and Its Influence on Adhesion. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 2002, 85: 1-8
[129] E. L. Jr. McKague, J. D. Reynold, J. E. Halkias. Swelling and glass transition relations for epoxy matrix materials in humid environments. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1978, 22: 1643-1654
[130] E. S. W. Kong, M. J. Adamson. Physical ageing and its effect on the moisture sorption of amine cured epoxy, Polymer Comm., 1983, 24: 171-173
[131] J. M. Zhou and J. P. Lucas. Hygrothermal effects of epoxy resin Part I: the nature of water in epoxy. Polymer, 1999, 40(20): 5505-5512
[132] S. Ganesan and M. Pecht. Lead-free electronics. IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience, A. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey, USA, 2006.
[133] W. Christiansen, D. Shirrell, B. Aguirre,et al. Thermal stability of electrical grade laminates based on epoxy resins. Proceedings of IPC Printed Circuits EXPO, Anaheim, CA, 2001: S03-1-1-S03-1-7
[134] Y. Peng, X. Qi, and C. Chrisafides. The influence of curing systems on epoxide-based PCB laminate performance. Circuit World, 2005, 31(4): 14-20
[135] J. Paterson-Jones, V. Percy, R. Giles, et al. The thermal degradation of model compounds of amine-cured epoxide resins II. The thermal degradation of 1,3-diphenoxypropan-2-ol and 1,3-diphenoxypropene. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 1973, 17(6): 1877-1887
[136] Z. Brito and G. Sanchez. Influence of metallic fillers on the thermal and mechanical behavior in composites of epoxy matrix. Composite Structures, 2000, 48(1-3): 79-81
[137] G. Sanchez, Z. Brito, V. Mujica, et al. The thermal behavior of cured epoxy-resins: The influence of metallic fillers. Polymer Degradation Stability, 1993, 40(1): 109-114
[138] P. Jain, V. Choudhary, and I. Varma. Flame retarding epoxies with phosphorous. Journal of Macromolecular Science-Polymer Reviews, 2002, 42(2): 139-183
[139] J. Chang, Y. Sheen, R. Chang, et al. The thermal degradation of phosphorous-containing copolyesters. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 1996, 54(2-3): 365-371
[140] W. Liu, R. Varley, and G. Simon. Understanding the decomposition and fire performance processes in phosphorus and nanomodified high performance epoxy resins and composites. Polymer, 2007, 48(8): 2345-2354
[141] M Iji, and Y. Kiuchi. Flame resistant glass-epoxy printed wiring boards with no halogen or phosphorous compounds. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics, 2004, 15: 175-182
[142] R. Lambert. The impact of materials on the flammability of printed wiring board products. 43rd Proceedings of Electronic Components and Technology Conference, June 1993, 134-142
[143] S. Levchik and E. Weil. Thermal decomposition, combustion and flameretardancy of epoxy resins-a review of the recent literature. Polymer International, 2004, 53: 1901-1929
[144] K. Wondraczek, J. Adams, and J. Fuhrmann. Effect of thermal degradation on glass transition temperature of PMMA. Macromolecular Chemistry and Physics, 2004, 205(14): 1858-1862
[145] G. Sala. Composition degradation due to fluid absorption. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2000, 31(5): 357-373
[146] C. Smith. Water absorption in glass fiber-epoxide resin laminates. Circuit World, 1988, 14(3): 22-26
[147] G. Flor, G. Campari-Vigano, and R. Feduzi. A thermal study on moisture absorption by epoxy composites. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 1989, 35(7): 2255-2264