以色列工党的衰落及其原因分析
摘要
作为犹太复国运动的重要领导力量、以色列国家的建立者和建设者,以色列工党曾经是无可置疑的领导者,长期控制着以色列政权。但是在历经半个世纪的主导之后,工党一夕下台,至今已经沦为议会排名第三的政党。工党的衰落是多重复杂因素合力促成的结果：
以色列国家意识形态从劳工犹太复国主义向宗教犹太复国主义和修正犹太复国主义转变,工党所信奉的劳工犹太复国主义与时代脱节,难以适应发展需要；以色列多党制政治体制的牵制和掣肘以及该体制发展完善带来的选票平均化趋势是工党选票流失的一个原因；经济社会多元化发展消解了社会主义和集体主义,工党作为国家象征的地位动摇；主要支持工党的阿什肯纳兹犹太人在人口构成中比例下降,东方犹太人和前苏联犹太移民大批涌入,以色列人口结构发生了极大变化,工党的支持力量大幅度减少；复杂的外部环境以及工党“土地换和平"政策的失败导致工党失去了大量选票,这些选民支持在被占领土以及巴以和平问题上持强硬立场的右翼政党；工党在经过长时间的主政之后,官僚主义盛行,内斗、腐化事件频发是加速其衰落的催化剂。
以色列建国之后政治、经济、社会发生了巨大变化,而工党未能适应这种变化并做出调整是导致自身衰落的基础性因素。工党的衰落产生了很大的影响,但是至今,导致工党衰落的因素还在延续和发展,工党在短期内复苏的迹象并不明显。
As the leader of the Zionism, the power that founded and built Israel, the Labor Party was once a dominant power of the country for five decades. But after that, the party surprisingly experienced a sudden decline and was reduced to the third largest party in Knesset. There are complicated reasons for that.
The ideology conversion from Labor Zionism to Religious Zionism and Revisionist Zionism, the negative influence of a multi-party system and its development all restricted the power of the Labor Party and distributed its votes to other parties. Besides, the economic and social pluralism undermined socialism and collectivism, which led to the collapse of the Labor Party as the symbol of the country. Moreover, having outnumbered the Ashkenazi Jews, the Sephardic population became a majority and displayed tendencies to vote in large numbers against the Labor Party. What's worse, the dovish foreign policies and the failure of Land for Peace policy disappointed Israeli people, shifting their support to hawkish parties. Also many intra-party problems should be taken into consideration in dealing with the decline of the party.
In a word, the basic reason why the Israeli Labor Party declines is that Israel has undergone great economic, social and political changes, but the Labor party fails to adapt to the changes. And the decline of the party influences many spheres of the country. Up to now, the factors resulting in the decline of the party have remained unsettled, so it is hard for the Labor Party to revive.
以色列国家意识形态从劳工犹太复国主义向宗教犹太复国主义和修正犹太复国主义转变,工党所信奉的劳工犹太复国主义与时代脱节,难以适应发展需要；以色列多党制政治体制的牵制和掣肘以及该体制发展完善带来的选票平均化趋势是工党选票流失的一个原因；经济社会多元化发展消解了社会主义和集体主义,工党作为国家象征的地位动摇；主要支持工党的阿什肯纳兹犹太人在人口构成中比例下降,东方犹太人和前苏联犹太移民大批涌入,以色列人口结构发生了极大变化,工党的支持力量大幅度减少；复杂的外部环境以及工党“土地换和平"政策的失败导致工党失去了大量选票,这些选民支持在被占领土以及巴以和平问题上持强硬立场的右翼政党；工党在经过长时间的主政之后,官僚主义盛行,内斗、腐化事件频发是加速其衰落的催化剂。
以色列建国之后政治、经济、社会发生了巨大变化,而工党未能适应这种变化并做出调整是导致自身衰落的基础性因素。工党的衰落产生了很大的影响,但是至今,导致工党衰落的因素还在延续和发展,工党在短期内复苏的迹象并不明显。
As the leader of the Zionism, the power that founded and built Israel, the Labor Party was once a dominant power of the country for five decades. But after that, the party surprisingly experienced a sudden decline and was reduced to the third largest party in Knesset. There are complicated reasons for that.
The ideology conversion from Labor Zionism to Religious Zionism and Revisionist Zionism, the negative influence of a multi-party system and its development all restricted the power of the Labor Party and distributed its votes to other parties. Besides, the economic and social pluralism undermined socialism and collectivism, which led to the collapse of the Labor Party as the symbol of the country. Moreover, having outnumbered the Ashkenazi Jews, the Sephardic population became a majority and displayed tendencies to vote in large numbers against the Labor Party. What's worse, the dovish foreign policies and the failure of Land for Peace policy disappointed Israeli people, shifting their support to hawkish parties. Also many intra-party problems should be taken into consideration in dealing with the decline of the party.
In a word, the basic reason why the Israeli Labor Party declines is that Israel has undergone great economic, social and political changes, but the Labor party fails to adapt to the changes. And the decline of the party influences many spheres of the country. Up to now, the factors resulting in the decline of the party have remained unsettled, so it is hard for the Labor Party to revive.
引文
① Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press,1997
② Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology, Party Change, and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003
①dam Garfinkle, Politics and Society in Modern Israel:Myths and Realities, M.E. Sharpe, Inc, New York,1997
②harles Liebman, Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics in Israel, Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1984
③ Rael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981
④Efraim Inbar, The Decline of the Labor Party, Begin-Sadat (BESA) Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
⑤ Wurmser David, "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995
⑥Eva Etzioni-Halevy, Rina Shapira, Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3
⑦Jonathan Mendilow Party Clustering in Multiparty Systems:The Example of Israel 1965-1981, American Journal of Political Science, Vol.27, No.1
⑧Kenneth D.Wald,Samuel Shye, Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel, The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2
①Stephen Sharot, Judaism and the Secularization Debate, Sociological Analysis, Vol.52, No.3
①马帕伊,Mapai,为巴勒斯坦工人党希伯来语名称的首字母缩写。
①fraim Inbar, War and Peace in Israeli Politics:Labor Party Position on National Security, Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc,1991,p.18.
①himson Bichler, "Political Power Shifts in Israel,1977 and 1992:Unsuccessful Electoral Economics or Long Range Realignment?" Science& Society, Vol.58, No.4.
②以色列中央统计局http://wwwl.cbs.gov.il/reader/?MIval=cw usr view SHTML&ID=445
② Efraim Inbar, War and Peace in Israeli Politics:Labor Party Position on National Security, Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc,1991,p.23.
①[以]施罗默·桑德著,王岽兴、张蓉译：《虚构的犹太民族》,2012年,第11页。
①[英]诺亚·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年,第53页。
① Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.66.
② Robert O. Freedman, Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges, Westview Press,2008.
① Shye Samuel, Kenneth Wald, "Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel", The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2 (May,1995).
②以色列国家档案馆http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov Eng/Publications/ElectronicPirsum/RabbiHerzog/
①宗教犹太复国主义者们处于政府和极端正统派之间的地位,也让他们饱受诟病。世俗主义的政府认为他们(如赫尔佐克大拉比)太过保守,在维护宗教利益上太过顽固,而极端正统派则批评他们太过自由和激进,损害了犹太教的利益。
② Garfinkle, Adam, Politics and Society in Modern Israel:Myths and Realities, M.E. Sharpe, Inc, New York,1997, p.137.
①刘精忠：《宗教与犹太复国主义》,中国社会科学出版社,第409页
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社2008年第1版,第203页。
② Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.37.
③ael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981.
① 张倩红、宋静静：《“六日战争”对以色列社会的影响》,《世界历史》2009年第1期。
①[以]尤兹·本茨曼著,刘洁华译：《沙龙——以色列的凯撒》,新华出版社,1990年版,第113页。
①戴康生、彭耀：《宗教社会学》,社会科学文献出版社,2007年第2版,第144页。
②在以色列这样一个明显的犹太属性的国家中,国家意识形态更多的表现为犹太民族的意识形态。
① Wurmser David, "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995.
①[意]乔万尼·萨托利著,王明进译：《政党与政党体制》,商务印书馆,2006年,第32页。
②最新一届的议会大选已经把这一标准提高到2%。
③Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000,p.11.
④ Robert O. Freedman, Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges, Westview Press,2008.
① Stephen Sharot, "Judaism and the Secularization Debate", Sociological Analysis, Vol.52, No.3.
②Wurmser David, "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995.
③张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第301页。
①以色列国家档案馆http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov Eng/Publications/ElectronicPirsum/SixDayWar/
②242号决议关于被占领土的内容主要是以色列武装部队撤出在目前的冲突中所占领的领土。
③ Shye Samuel, Kenneth Wald, "Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel", The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2 (May,1995).
④以色列国家档案馆http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov Eng/Publications/EIectronicPirsum/SixDayWar/
⑤ Robert O. Freedman, Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges,Westview Press.2008.
⑥Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press.2000, p.58.
⑦Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000, p.45.
① Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000, p.46.
①[英]艾伦·韦尔著,谢峰译：《政党与政党制度》,北京大学出版社,2011年,第4页。
②[英]诺亚·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年,第179页。
① Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.192.
②在2013年以色列大选中前进党的急删衰落并不能说明中间道路的式微。分析可以发现,前进党的衰落一个最主要的原因是其内部的分裂,例如齐皮·利夫尼在2012年竞选党魁失败后,组建了运动党,在大选中获得了6席。而前进党的地位已经完全被2012年成立的未来党所取代,这个被认为是以色列中间力量新领袖的政党赢得19席,并如愿加入内塔尼亚胡的新内阁。
① Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press, January 1,1997 First Ddition, p.267.
① Raphael Cohen-Almagor, "Cultural Pluralism and the Israeli Nation-Building Ideology", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.27, No.4 (Nov.,1995), pp.461-484
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第265页。
② Charles S. Liebman, Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion in ISrael.Tradition Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983.
③即visionary-democratic model,其他三种分别是服务性民主模式(service-democratic model)愿景式集权模式(visionary-authoritarian model)和服务性集权模式(service-authoritarian) 。
④ Charles S. Liebman, Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion in Iraet.Tradition Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983,p.42.
① Myron J. Aronoff, The "Americanization" of Israeli Politics:Political and Cultural Change, Indiana University Press.2000, p.97.
①陈义平：《论人口变动对政治发展的影响》,《中国人口科学》,1999年第3期。
① http://wwwl.cbs.gov. il/reader/?MIval=cwusr view SHTML&ID=705.
②va Etzioni-Halevy& Rina Shapira, "Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews", Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3, May 1979.
①①Eva Etzioni-Halevy& Rina Shapira, "Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews", Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3,May 1979.
② Gregory Mahler, Politics and Government in Israel:The Maturation of a Modern State, Rowman&Littlefield Publishers,Inc,2010,p.77.
③ Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.37.
① Rael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981, p.194.
② Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.38.
①[英]诺瑄·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年,第294-295页。
① Asher Arian, Politics in Israel.The Second Generation,Chatam House Publishers,Inc,1989, p.222.
②Asher Arian, Politics in Israel.The Second Generation,Chatham House Publishers,Inc,1989, p.224.
③Dani Ben Simhon, The Unmaking of the Histadrut, http://www.workersadvicecenter.org/Challenge88-Histadrut.htm.
① [意]乔万尼·萨托利著,王明进译：《政党与政党体制》,商务印书馆,2006年,第46页。
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第249-250页。
①ael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981, p.99
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第326页。
① Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.68.
①Efraim Inbar,War and peace in Israeli Politics: Labor party Position on National Security ,Lyne Rienner Publisher,Inc,1991,p.1.
① Efraim Inbar, The Decline of the Labor Party, Begin-Sadat (BESA) Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.
② Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press,1997, p.268.
① Rael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel, Longman Inc, New York,1981, p.205.
② Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press,1997, p.59.
【1】安维华：《以色列党派的离合与分野》,《西亚非洲》2002年第4期
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【15】阎瑞松：《以色列政治》,西北大学出版社,1995年
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【17】[英]艾伦·韦尔著,谢峰译：《政党与政党制度》,北京大学出版社,2011年
【18】[英]诺亚·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年
【19】[以]施罗默·桑德著,王岽兴、张蓉译：《虚构的犹太民族》,2012年
【20】[以]尤兹·本茨曼著,刘洁华译：《沙龙—以色列的凯撒》,新华出版社,1990年
【21】张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年
【22】张倩红、宋静静：《六日战争对以色列社会的影响》,《世界历史》2009年第1期
【23】周承：《以色列新一代俄裔犹太移民的形成及影响》,时事出版社,2010年
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② Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology, Party Change, and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003
①dam Garfinkle, Politics and Society in Modern Israel:Myths and Realities, M.E. Sharpe, Inc, New York,1997
②harles Liebman, Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics in Israel, Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1984
③ Rael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981
④Efraim Inbar, The Decline of the Labor Party, Begin-Sadat (BESA) Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
⑤ Wurmser David, "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995
⑥Eva Etzioni-Halevy, Rina Shapira, Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3
⑦Jonathan Mendilow Party Clustering in Multiparty Systems:The Example of Israel 1965-1981, American Journal of Political Science, Vol.27, No.1
⑧Kenneth D.Wald,Samuel Shye, Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel, The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2
①Stephen Sharot, Judaism and the Secularization Debate, Sociological Analysis, Vol.52, No.3
①马帕伊,Mapai,为巴勒斯坦工人党希伯来语名称的首字母缩写。
①fraim Inbar, War and Peace in Israeli Politics:Labor Party Position on National Security, Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc,1991,p.18.
①himson Bichler, "Political Power Shifts in Israel,1977 and 1992:Unsuccessful Electoral Economics or Long Range Realignment?" Science& Society, Vol.58, No.4.
②以色列中央统计局http://wwwl.cbs.gov.il/reader/?MIval=cw usr view SHTML&ID=445
② Efraim Inbar, War and Peace in Israeli Politics:Labor Party Position on National Security, Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc,1991,p.23.
①[以]施罗默·桑德著,王岽兴、张蓉译：《虚构的犹太民族》,2012年,第11页。
①[英]诺亚·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年,第53页。
① Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.66.
② Robert O. Freedman, Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges, Westview Press,2008.
① Shye Samuel, Kenneth Wald, "Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel", The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2 (May,1995).
②以色列国家档案馆http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov Eng/Publications/ElectronicPirsum/RabbiHerzog/
①宗教犹太复国主义者们处于政府和极端正统派之间的地位,也让他们饱受诟病。世俗主义的政府认为他们(如赫尔佐克大拉比)太过保守,在维护宗教利益上太过顽固,而极端正统派则批评他们太过自由和激进,损害了犹太教的利益。
② Garfinkle, Adam, Politics and Society in Modern Israel:Myths and Realities, M.E. Sharpe, Inc, New York,1997, p.137.
①刘精忠：《宗教与犹太复国主义》,中国社会科学出版社,第409页
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社2008年第1版,第203页。
② Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.37.
③ael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981.
① 张倩红、宋静静：《“六日战争”对以色列社会的影响》,《世界历史》2009年第1期。
①[以]尤兹·本茨曼著,刘洁华译：《沙龙——以色列的凯撒》,新华出版社,1990年版,第113页。
①戴康生、彭耀：《宗教社会学》,社会科学文献出版社,2007年第2版,第144页。
②在以色列这样一个明显的犹太属性的国家中,国家意识形态更多的表现为犹太民族的意识形态。
① Wurmser David, "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995.
①[意]乔万尼·萨托利著,王明进译：《政党与政党体制》,商务印书馆,2006年,第32页。
②最新一届的议会大选已经把这一标准提高到2%。
③Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000,p.11.
④ Robert O. Freedman, Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges, Westview Press,2008.
① Stephen Sharot, "Judaism and the Secularization Debate", Sociological Analysis, Vol.52, No.3.
②Wurmser David, "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995.
③张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第301页。
①以色列国家档案馆http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov Eng/Publications/ElectronicPirsum/SixDayWar/
②242号决议关于被占领土的内容主要是以色列武装部队撤出在目前的冲突中所占领的领土。
③ Shye Samuel, Kenneth Wald, "Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel", The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2 (May,1995).
④以色列国家档案馆http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov Eng/Publications/EIectronicPirsum/SixDayWar/
⑤ Robert O. Freedman, Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges,Westview Press.2008.
⑥Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press.2000, p.58.
⑦Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000, p.45.
① Asher Cohen&Bernard Susser, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000, p.46.
①[英]艾伦·韦尔著,谢峰译：《政党与政党制度》,北京大学出版社,2011年,第4页。
②[英]诺亚·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年,第179页。
① Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.192.
②在2013年以色列大选中前进党的急删衰落并不能说明中间道路的式微。分析可以发现,前进党的衰落一个最主要的原因是其内部的分裂,例如齐皮·利夫尼在2012年竞选党魁失败后,组建了运动党,在大选中获得了6席。而前进党的地位已经完全被2012年成立的未来党所取代,这个被认为是以色列中间力量新领袖的政党赢得19席,并如愿加入内塔尼亚胡的新内阁。
① Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press, January 1,1997 First Ddition, p.267.
① Raphael Cohen-Almagor, "Cultural Pluralism and the Israeli Nation-Building Ideology", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.27, No.4 (Nov.,1995), pp.461-484
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第265页。
② Charles S. Liebman, Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion in ISrael.Tradition Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983.
③即visionary-democratic model,其他三种分别是服务性民主模式(service-democratic model)愿景式集权模式(visionary-authoritarian model)和服务性集权模式(service-authoritarian) 。
④ Charles S. Liebman, Eliezer Don-Yehiya, Civil Religion in Iraet.Tradition Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983,p.42.
① Myron J. Aronoff, The "Americanization" of Israeli Politics:Political and Cultural Change, Indiana University Press.2000, p.97.
①陈义平：《论人口变动对政治发展的影响》,《中国人口科学》,1999年第3期。
① http://wwwl.cbs.gov. il/reader/?MIval=cwusr view SHTML&ID=705.
②va Etzioni-Halevy& Rina Shapira, "Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews", Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3, May 1979.
①①Eva Etzioni-Halevy& Rina Shapira, "Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews", Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3,May 1979.
② Gregory Mahler, Politics and Government in Israel:The Maturation of a Modern State, Rowman&Littlefield Publishers,Inc,2010,p.77.
③ Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.37.
① Rael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981, p.194.
② Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.38.
①[英]诺瑄·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年,第294-295页。
① Asher Arian, Politics in Israel.The Second Generation,Chatam House Publishers,Inc,1989, p.222.
②Asher Arian, Politics in Israel.The Second Generation,Chatham House Publishers,Inc,1989, p.224.
③Dani Ben Simhon, The Unmaking of the Histadrut, http://www.workersadvicecenter.org/Challenge88-Histadrut.htm.
① [意]乔万尼·萨托利著,王明进译：《政党与政党体制》,商务印书馆,2006年,第46页。
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第249-250页。
①ael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981, p.99
①张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年,第326页。
① Jonathan Mendilow, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003, p.68.
①Efraim Inbar,War and peace in Israeli Politics: Labor party Position on National Security ,Lyne Rienner Publisher,Inc,1991,p.1.
① Efraim Inbar, The Decline of the Labor Party, Begin-Sadat (BESA) Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel.
② Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press,1997, p.268.
① Rael Jean Isaac, Party and Politics in Israel, Longman Inc, New York,1981, p.205.
② Neil Lochery, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press,1997, p.59.
【1】安维华：《以色列党派的离合与分野》,《西亚非洲》2002年第4期
【2】陈双庆：《以色列政治生态右倾与中东局势》,《现代国际关系》2009年第3期
【3】陈义平：《论人口变动对政治发展的影响》,《中国人口科学》1999年第3期
【4】戴康生、彭耀：《宗教社会学》,社会科学文献出版社,2007年
【5】冯基华：《犹太文化与以色列社会政治发展》,社会科学文献出版社,2010年
【6】高奇琦：《国外政党与公民社会的关系：以欧美和东亚为例》,中央编译出版社,2011年
【7】顾肃：《宗教与政治》,译林出版社,2010年
【8】黄民兴：《工党统治时期(1948—1977)以色列价值观念的演变》,《西北大学学报》,1995年第4期
【9】雷钰：《以色列比例选举制的利弊探析》,《西亚非洲》1993年第2期
【10】刘精忠：《宗教与犹太复国主义》,中国社会科学出版社,2010年
【11】[法]尼古拉·萨科奇著,方晓华译：《人口和政治》,原载法国《行动》杂志
【12】[意]乔万尼·萨托利著,王明进译：《政党与政党体制》,商务印书馆,2006年
【13】王彤：《当代中东政治制度》,中国社会科学出版社,2005年
【14】汪舒明、缪开金：《信仰者集团崛起及其对以色列社会的影响》,《西亚非洲》2006年第6期
【15】阎瑞松：《以色列政治》,西北大学出版社,1995年
【16】杨军、敖军：《工党和利库德集团对1991年以来中东和平问题的政策分歧》,《同济大学学报(社会科学版)》1998年第9卷第4期
【17】[英]艾伦·韦尔著,谢峰译：《政党与政党制度》,北京大学出版社,2011年
【18】[英]诺亚·卢卡斯著,杜先菊、彭艳译：《以色列现代史》,商务印书馆,1997年
【19】[以]施罗默·桑德著,王岽兴、张蓉译：《虚构的犹太民族》,2012年
【20】[以]尤兹·本茨曼著,刘洁华译：《沙龙—以色列的凯撒》,新华出版社,1990年
【21】张倩红：《以色列史》,人民出版社,2008年
【22】张倩红、宋静静：《六日战争对以色列社会的影响》,《世界历史》2009年第1期
【23】周承：《以色列新一代俄裔犹太移民的形成及影响》,时事出版社,2010年
[1]Arian, Asher, Politics in Israeel:The Second Generation, Chatham House Publishers,Inc,1989
[2]Aronoff, Myron J, Power and Ritual in the Israel Labor Party:A Study in Political Antropology, M. E. Sharpe Inc,1993
[3]Aronoff, Myron J, The "Americanization " of Israeli Politics:Political and Cultural Change, Indiana University Press,2000
[41 Cohen, Asher&Susser, Bernard, Israel and the Politics of Jewish Identity, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2000
[5]David Wurmser. "Israel's Collapsing Labor Party", Middle East Quarterly, September,1995
[6]Etzioni-Halevy. Eva&Shapira, Rina, "Political Culture in Israel:Cleavage and Integration Among Israeli Jews", Contemporary Sociology, Vol.8, No.3
[7]Freedman, Robert O., Contemporary Israel:Domestic Politics, Foreign Policy, and Security Challenges, Westview Press,2008
[8]Garfinkle, Adam, Politics and Society in Modern Israel:Myths and Realities, M.E. Sharpe, Inc, New York,1997
[9]Inbar, Efraim, The Decline of the Labor Party, Begin-Sadat (BESA) Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Han University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
[10]Inbar, Efraim,War and Peace in Israeli Politics:Labor Party Position on National Security, Lynne Rienner Publisher, Inc,1991
[11]Isaac, Rael Jean, Party and Politics in Israel:Three Visions of a Jewish State, Longman Inc, New York,1981
[12]Liebman, Charles S.&Eliezer, Don-Yehiya,Civil/Religion in Israel:Tradition Judaism and Political Culture in the Jewish State, Berkeley:University of California Press,1983
[13]Liebman, Charles S.&Eliezer, Don-Yehiya, Religion and Politics in Israel, Bloomington:Indiana University Press,1984
[14]Lochery, Neil, The Israeli Labour Party:In the Shadow of the Likud, Ithaca Press,1997
[15]Mahler, Gregory S., Politics and Government in Israel:The Maturation of a Modern State, Rowman&Littlefield Publishers,Inc,2010
[16]Mendilow, Jonathan, "Party Clustering in Multiparty Systems:The Example of Israel 1965-1981", American Journal of Political Science, Vol.27, No.1 (Feb.,1983)
[17]Mendilow, Jonathan, Ideology Party Change and Electoral Campaigns in Israel,1965-2001, State University of New York Press,2003
[18]Sharot, Stephen, "Judaism and the Secularization Debate", Sociological Analysis, Vol.52, No.3
[19]Wald, Kenneth D.& Samuel, Shye, "Religious Influence in Electoral Behavior:The Role of Institutional and Social Forces in Israel", The Journal of Politics, Vol.57, No.2
[20]Zameret, Zvi& Tlamim, Moshe, "Judaism in Israel:Ben-Gurion's Private Beliefs and Public Policy", Israel Studies, Vol.4, No.2