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美国第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度研究
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摘要
美国法语境下,第三人精神损害赔偿责任(bystander liability)指的是,与受到严重身体损害的直接受害人具有密切亲属关系的第三人(原告),可以就因知悉事故的发生而蒙受的严重精神损害,向有过失的侵权行为人(被告)主张的金钱损害赔偿责任。
     第三人精神损害赔偿责任具有两大突出特点。一方面,第三人精神损害赔偿责任大大拓展了被告应负的保护性义务的范围。在典型的第三人精神损害赔偿责任案件中,存在两重侵权之债和三方当事人:行为人、直接受害人和原告,由于行为人的过失行为直接侵害的是直接受害人,原告是在事故发生后才蒙受的精神损害,对于行为人和直接受害人之间第一重的侵权之债而言,原告即为“第三人”,故在第二重侵权之债中,行为人需要直接向原告承担的责任被称为第三人精神损害赔偿责任。另一方面,第三人精神损害赔偿责任的赔偿对象是纯粹的精神损害,不包括原告本人蒙受的任何身体损害,也不包括原告因蒙受精神损害而导致的其它身体损害。
     美国侵权法体系中,第三人精神损害赔偿责任由于具有特殊的规范性逻辑和独立的救济对象,从而享有独立的基本侵权责任形式的地位,并未被与其相类似的因过失直接造成他人精神损害赔偿责任、向直接受害人承担的损害赔偿责任、向直接参加者承担的损害赔偿责任、向配偶承担的抚慰责任以及不当死亡责任所涵盖。
     历史上,美国法曾经基于特定理由拒绝救济一切纯粹精神损害,随后在认可向被告故意造成的纯粹精神损害提供救济之后,又基于相同或相似的理由拒绝向第三人精神损害提供救济,这些否定第三人精神损害赔偿责任的大同小异的理由,相应的,随后又被美国各州以与支持向被告故意造成的纯粹精神损害提供救济的理由之间具有高度的相似性的、支持第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度的理据所一一驳斥。随着科学技术的发展,特别是与科学技术的发展相适应的司法审判技术的发展,对于可救济性问题的判断技术日臻成熟,侵权法的救济范围随之不断扩张,并最终囊括第三人精神损害。在美国法向第三人精神损害提供救济之后,又以高度精密的法学技术,在一个个复杂的个案中设计和规划了精巧的运行机制,从而在案之后的半个多世纪时间的丰富司法实践中,成功预防了所有否定第三人精神损害赔偿责任时所顾忌的不利结果,并以成熟和完善的第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度充分印证了支持这一制度的正当性基础理论的正确性。
     一方面,美国第三人精神损害赔偿责任通过设计精密的构成要件,不仅确保了第三人精神损害本身满足具有可救济性的规范性纯粹精神损害所要求的严重性和可预见性,而且无论通过可预见性规则还是“危险区域”理论,都要求被告的行为是违反法律义务的不法行为,并以此依托维护了被告的不法行为与第三人精神损害之间的规范性联系,从而使第三人精神损害赔偿责任具有侵权法规范所固有的连贯性,具备了民法的内源性正当性基础。另一方面,美国法院又遵循其实用主义传统以第三人精神损害赔偿责任实现了维护正常家庭关系、传统婚姻家庭观念和司法效率的功利主义目的,并且援引汉德公式证成了第三人精神损害赔偿责任的法经济学正当性基础,第三人精神损害赔偿责任也因此具有了民法的外源性正当性基础。
     美国法通过构成要件的特殊要求确保原告享有的真实诉权的功能在于,保证原告蒙受的损害与被告的侵权行为之间具有关联性,进而确保侵权责任的可预见性。本文进行实证考察的目的在于论证下述三个结论:(1)同时性知悉要件和紧密的亲属关系要件本身与是否客观存在精神损害并无必然联系;(2)美国法通过宽严相济的构成要件成功维护了侵权责任的可预见性;(2)美国法中惩罚性赔偿制度成功在被告具有故意和不计后果心态的案件中有效填补损害。
     我国的司法实践中,虽然依据最高人民法院的司法解释和指导意见,在十余年间救济这种损害,但是这种侵权责任制度并没有为《侵权责任法》所认可。这就导致责任成立和责任承担两方面的规定含混不清,不仅不利于完善地救济受害人,也可能迫使行为人承担不公平的侵权责任。美国法在近半个世纪的时间里,几经探索,终于形成了体系完整,逻辑清晰,具体规则具有极高的确定性和可操作性的、完善的第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度。通过实证研究方法对美国第三人精神损害赔偿责任进行研究,完整地展现该制度的全貌和历史沿革过程,结合我国实际情况进行批判性借鉴,不仅有利于构建体系完备、逻辑统一的中国第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度,也为进一步完善《侵权责任法》铺平了道路。
     本文以美国第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度的实然状态为研究中心。通过对于大量判例的实证考察,完整地展现美国各州中第三人精神损害赔偿责任构成要件的全貌;通过历史考察的方法,揭示美国第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度的发展脉络和一般规律;通过对于大量判例的实证考察,分析和解答美国司法实践中确立第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度的正当性基础问题。在对美国法进行细致研究的基础上,本文将结合我国司法实践和理论研究的最新成果,立足于我国国情,设计和论证符合我国现实需要的第三人精神损害赔偿责任制度,重点解决侵权责任成立阶段构成要件的设计,并为侵权责任承担阶段具体责任的计算提供参考因素。
In American tort law, bystander liability refers to a form of pecuniary liabilitywhich defendant incurs for the reason that he inflicted serious physical injuries to thevictim, to whom the plaintiff that simultaneously perceived the accident and receivedserious emotional distress accordingly is closely related.
     There are two salient characteristics in bystander liability, namely, the expansionof legal duty and pure emotional loss. One aspect could be safely observed in a typicalbystander case, in which two levels of torts and three parties are involved, in contrastto a common tort case, in which only one level of tort and two parties. This bizarremodel of bystander liability could be dissembled into two levels of torts. For one level,the defendant tortuously hurts the victim, which results in serious physical injury. Theplaintiff is a total bystander, the safety of whom normally does not concern him.However, it is the other level that actually matters, for the bystander liability is thenormative relation between the defendant and the plaintiff in essence. The otheraspect depicts that neither physical injury nor physical injury resulted from emotionaldistress of the plaintiff is required or recovered.
     Thanks to its peculiar formalism and independent function, bystander liabilityenjoys the status of a basic tort liability, which manifests its particular normative logicand distinguished method of remedy that is not covered by any other torts alike, suchas negligent conduct directly inflicting emotional harm on another, direct victim,active participant, action by one spouse for harm caused by tort against other spouseand wrongful death.
     Historically, American courts used to deny any remedy to any pure emotionaldistress, let alone bystander liability. Not until the intentional infliction of emotionaldistress retained its legitimate title in the hierarchy of tort law, did courts give aserious consideration to the possibility that the bystander could qualify herself for adecent plaintiff as appropriate as those who were directly affected by tortuous act, ifnot more than. Unfortunately, it was the same or at least similar justifications,towhich courts had resorted in order to support their denial of all pure emotional distress,that played as formidable foes in front of bystander liability. Eventually, due to theprosperity of science especially the rapid development of psychology, the judicialtechnology grasped a golden chance to evolve accordingly, which gave a rise to thelong due expansion the scope of duty that included the bystander liability with reliable and practical means of evaluation. In more than half a century since the Dillon case in1968, American courts devised and adopted miscellaneous ingenious mechanism tosuccessfully ensure that the remedy to plaintiffs not rendered at the cost of thefreedom of defendants, which itself suffices a good case in point that bystanderliability is not a chimera that cannot be leashed.
     On one hand, the coherence of bystander liability, which is strictly required bythe internal justification of tort law, is safely guaranteed by the highly sophisticatedprima facie elements. To be specific, the normative requirement of severity andforeseeability of injury and wrongfulness of the act of defendant are all thoroughlyaccommodated within the institution of bystander liability. On the other hand, with thedeeply rooted background of legal pragmatism, American courts activate bystanderliability to achieve several utilitarian goals like to maintain normal familialrelationship, to preserve the traditional concept of marriage and family and to servethe efficiency need of judicial branch. Some courts even adopt Hand formula topresent bystander liability a law and economics stand. All those attempts function asthe external justification of bystander liability in comparison to its internalcounterpart.
     The prima facie elements of bystander liability serve with a single purpose, thatis, to test plaintiff’s substantive claim, which labours to satisfy the requirement ofcoherence that is the prerequisite to the foreseeability of liability. A empirical researchof American cases would reveal:(1) the simultaneous perception and close relativerequirement have nothing to do with the objectivity and truthfulness of emotionaldistress;(2) the foreseeability of liability is well ensured by elaborate patterns ofinstitutional designs;(3) punitive damages is a much better alternative tocompensatory damages in cases that defendants act being malicious, wanton orreckless.
     As for the Chinese legal practice of bystander liability, although over decadeslower courts granted remedy to plaintiff according to the interpretation and instructiveopinions from the Supreme Court, this kind of tort liability has not been officiallyrecognized by the Chinese Tort Liability Law yet, which could not be commented asnothing else but a pity. Not only dose the blankness of Chinese tort law lead to thetragedy of genuine plaintiff being deliberately ignored, but also probably set themistreatment towards defendant in motion whenever courts decide to exploit theirdiscretion. A comparative study on the American bystander liability can be of constructive value to reverse the current distortion and perfect the Chinese TortLiability Law.
     This dissertation is concentrated on the actual status of American bystanderliability,which is conducted in order to offer a brief view of the picture as a whole bymeans of empirical study of real cases, with the purpose to ascertain the actualjustifications acknowledged by American courts relying on historical induction, andaiming at the innovation and optimization of Chinese Tort Liability Lawimplementing a survey both on the newest theoretical accomplishment and judicialtrends. Finally, this dissertation will present the specific institutional design basing onour domestic reality, focusing on the localization of constitutional elements and themethod to reach the amount of damages.
引文
①See In re Smith, Slip Copy(2012),2012WL2341571, at6.
    ②See Shepard v. Superior Court(1977),76Cal.App.3d16,142Cal.Rptr.612, at614.
    ③在欠缺侵权法规范的特殊规定的前提下,即使原告是直接受害人的近亲属,原告也不能以自己的名义、以直接受害人的权益受损为依据提起诉讼,例如,父亲不能因为儿子被美国政府列入了无人机空袭刺杀的恐怖分子名单而以儿子的生命权益受损为由起诉美国总统、国防部长和CIA局长(See Al-Aulaqi v.Obama(2010),727F.Supp.2d1, at33)。
    ①Galgano v. Metropolitan Property and Cas. Ins. Co.(2004),267Conn.512,838A.2d993, at998.
    ②Ilene Durst,“Re-Envisioning The Reach Of Persecution: Recognizing Refugee Status For The Family BystanderWitness”,34Whittier Law Review (2012)1, at16.
    ③Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at829.
    ④Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment i(2012).
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    ③Prosser and Keeton, On The Law of Torts, fifth edition, St. Paul, Minn. West Publishing Co.1984, at361。
    ①See Restatement (Second) of Torts§436A (1965).
    ②See Restatement (Second) of Torts§436(1965).
    ③See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47(a)(2012).
    ④Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47, comment e(2012).
    ①See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47(b)(2012).
    ②Richard·A·Epstein, Torts,影印本,中信出版社2003年版,at279.
    ③Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47, comment f(2012).
    ④Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall and Carlisle(1994),1994WL379098(U.S.), at16.
    ⑤Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall and Carlisle(1994),1994WL379098(U.S.), at17.
    ⑥Eric C Surette, J.D.,38American Jurisprudence,2d Fright, Shock, Etc.§15.
    ①Kelly v. Brigham&Women's Hosp.,51Mass.App.Ct.297,745N.E.2d969, at978.
    ②See Lacy v. Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center(1990),745F.Supp.1029, at1030.
    ③Lacy v. Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center(1990),745F.Supp.1029, at1035.
    ④Lacy v. Cooper Hospital/University Medical Center(1990),745F.Supp.1029, at1035.
    ⑤See Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall and Carlisle(1994),1994WL379098(U.S.), at15.
    ①See Althoff v. Consolidated Rail Corp.(1988), F. Supp.,1988WL61734(E.D.Pa.), at1.
    ②Althoff v. Consolidated Rail Corp.(1988), F. Supp.,1988WL61734(E.D.Pa.), at1.英国法中却存在类似案例,see Bernadette Lynch: A victory for pragmatism? Nervous shock reconsidered.108(Jul) Law QuarterlyReview367, at368.1992.
    ③See Althoff v. Consolidated Rail Corp.(1988), F. Supp.,1988WL61734(E.D.Pa.), at2.
    ④Althoff v. Consolidated Rail Corp.(1988), F. Supp.,1988WL61734(E.D.Pa.), at2.
    ⑤Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment f (2012).
    ⑥Restatement (Second) of Torts§693(1)(1977).
    ⑦Restatement (Second) of Torts§693, comment f(1977).
    ⑧Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48(a)(2012).
    ①See Rodriguez v. Bethlehem Steel Corp.(1974),12Cal.3d382,525P.2d669, at670.
    ②Rodriguez v. Bethlehem Steel Corp.(1974),12Cal.3d382,525P.2d669, at675.
    ③Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48(b)(2012).
    ④Charles J. Nagy, J.D.,86Corpus Juris Secundum TORTS§83, Database updated December2012.
    ⑤See Restatement (Second) of Torts§707A (1977).
    ⑥See Restatement (Second) of Torts§703(1977).
    ⑦Laura M. Raisty,“Bystander Distress And Loss Of Consortium: An Examination Of The RelationshipRequirements In Light Ofromer v. Evans”,65Fordham Law Review (1997)2647, at2657.
    ①Maloney v. Conroy(1988),208Conn.392,545A.2d1059, at1062.
    ②See Auto Club Ins. Ass'n v. Hardiman(1998),228Mich.App.470,579N.W.2d115, at116.
    ③Auto Club Ins. Ass’n v. Hardiman(1998),228Mich.App.470,579N.W.2d115, at118.
    ④Auto Club Ins. Ass’n v. Hardiman(1998),228Mich.App.470,579N.W.2d115, at118.
    ⑤See Matthews v. Hicks(1955),197Va.112, at113.
    ⑥Matthews v. Hicks(1955),197Va.112, at119.
    ①Prosser and Keeton, On The Law of Torts, fifth edition, St. Paul, Minn. West Publishing Co.1984, at947。
    ②See Schmidt v. Boardman Co.(2011),608Pa.327,11A.3d924, at927.
    ③Schmidt v. Boardman Co.(2011),608Pa.327,11A.3d924, at950.
    ①Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, And Corrective Justice”,39Florida StateUniversity Law Review (2011)299, at304.
    ①Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, And Corrective Justice”,39Florida StateUniversity Law Review (2011)299, at304.
    ①See Brown v. Kendall(1850),60Mass.(6Cush.)292, at294.
    ②Brown v. Kendall(1850),60Mass.(6Cush.)292, at295.
    ③Brown v. Kendall(1850),60Mass.(6Cush.)292, at295.
    ①Brown v. Kendall(1850),60Mass.(6Cush.)292, at297.
    ②Dan B. Dobbs, Paul T. Hayden and Ellen M. Bublick, The Law of Torts§17(2d ed.), Part I, Chapter2, Topic B,Database updated June2013.
    ③Dan B. Dobbs, Paul T. Hayden and Ellen M. Bublick, The Law of Torts§122(2d ed.), Part III, Chapter11,Database updated June2013.
    ④See Renner v. Canfield(1886),36Minn.90,30N.W.435, at435.
    ⑤Renner v. Canfield(1886),36Minn.90,30N.W.435, at436.
    ①Renner v. Canfield(1886),36Minn.90,30N.W.435, at436.
    ②Jeremiah Smith,“Legal Cause in Actions of Tort”,25Harvard Law Review (1911)103, at109.
    ③Joseph H. Beale,“The Proximate Consequences Of An Act”,33Harvard Law Review (1920)633, at640.
    ④Jeremiah Smith,“Legal Cause in Actions of Tort”,25Harvard Law Review (1911)103, at109.
    ⑤Patrick J. Kelley,“Proximate Cause In Negligence Law: History, Theory, And The Present Darkness”,69Washington University Law Quarterly (1991)49, at51.
    ⑥See Patrick J. Kelley,“Proximate Cause In Negligence Law: History, Theory, And The Present Darkness”,69Washington University Law Quarterly (1991)49, at51.
    ⑦Jessie Allen,“The Persistence Of Proximate Cause: How Legal Doctrine Thrives On Skepticism”,90DenverUniversity Law Review (2012)77, at86.
    ①See Haile’s Curator v. Texas&P. Ry. Co.(1894),60F.557, at557.
    ②Haile’s Curator v. Texas&P. Ry. Co.(1894),60F.557, at560.
    ③Johnson v. Wells, Fargo&Co.(1870),6Nev.224,1870WL2474, at6.
    ④Johnson v. Wells, Fargo&Co.(1870),6Nev.224,1870WL2474, at6.
    ①Johnson v. Wells, Fargo&Co.(1870),6Nev.224,1870WL2474, at6.
    ②See Johnson v. Wells, Fargo&Co.(1870),6Nev.224,1870WL2474, at1.
    ③Johnson v. Wells, Fargo&Co.(1870),6Nev.224,1870WL2474, at11.
    ④Chapman v. Western Union Telegraph Co.(1892),88Ga.763,15S.E.901, at904.
    ①Chapman v. Western Union Telegraph Co.(1892),88Ga.763,15S.E.901, at904.
    ②See Chapman v. Western Union Telegraph Co.(1892),88Ga.763,15S.E.901, at901.
    ③Chapman v. Western Union Telegraph Co.(1892),88Ga.763,15S.E.901, at904.
    ④Chapman v. Western Union Telegraph Co.(1892),88Ga.763,15S.E.901, at904.
    ⑤Keyes v. Minneapolis&St. L. Ry. Co.(1886),36Minn.290,30N.W.888, at889.
    ①Indianapolis&St. L.R. Co. v. Stables(1872),62Ill.313,1872WL8042, at4.
    ②See Indianapolis&St. L.R. Co. v. Stables(1872),62Ill.313,1872WL8042, at1.
    ③Indianapolis&St. L.R. Co. v. Stables(1872),62Ill.313,1872WL8042, at1.
    ④See Ewing v. Pittsburgh, C., C.&St. L. Ry. Co.(1892),147Pa.40,23A.340, at340.
    ⑤Ewing v. Pittsburgh, C., C.&St. L. Ry. Co.(1892),147Pa.40,23A.340, at340.
    ⑥Ewing v. Pittsburgh, C., C.&St. L. Ry. Co.(1892),147Pa.40,23A.340, at340.
    ⑦Ewing v. Pittsburgh, C., C.&St. L. Ry. Co.(1892),147Pa.40,23A.340, at341.
    ①Ewing v. Pittsburgh, C., C.&St. L. Ry. Co.(1892),147Pa.40,23A.340, at340.
    ②Braun v. Craven(1898),175Ill.401,51N.E.657, at662.
    ③See Braun v. Craven(1898),175Ill.401,51N.E.657, at658.
    ④Braun v. Craven(1898),175Ill.401,51N.E.657, at662.
    ⑤Mitchell v. Rochester Ry. Co.(1896),5E.H. Smith107,45N.E.354, at355.
    ⑥See Mitchell v. Rochester Ry. Co.(1896),5E.H. Smith107,45N.E.354, at354.
    ①Mitchell v. Rochester Ry. Co.(1896),5E.H. Smith107,45N.E.354, at355.
    ②Mitchell v. Rochester Ry. Co.(1896),5E.H. Smith107,45N.E.354, at355.
    ③Calvert Magruder,“Mental And Emotional Disturbance In The Law Of Torts”,49Harvard Law Review (1936)1033, at1035.
    ④Stanley Ingber,“Rethinking Intangible Injuries: A Focus On Remedy”,73California Law Review (1985)772, at772.
    ①See Lawrence M. Friedman, American Law in the20th Century, Yale University Press,2002, at29.
    ②Aikens v. State of Wisconsin(1902),195U.S.194,25S.Ct.3, at5.
    ③See Hill v. Kimball(1890),76Tex.210,13S.W.59, at59.
    ④Hill v. Kimball(1890),76Tex.210,13S.W.59, at59.
    ⑤Hill v. Kimball(1890),76Tex.210,13S.W.59, at59.
    ①Hill v. Kimball(1890),76Tex.210,13S.W.59, at59.
    ②Hill v. Kimball(1890),76Tex.210,13S.W.59, at59.
    ③Joseph N. Blumberg,“Pleading Panic: Pure Emotional Damages As ‘Sickness Or Disease’ For Bodily InjuryClaims”,76Missouri Law Review (2011)867, at876.
    ④Baltimore City Pass. Ry. Co. v. Kemp(1883),61Md.74,1883WL4145, at4.
    ⑤See Wilson v. Wilkins(1930),181Ark.137,25S.W.2d428, at428.
    ①Wilson v. Wilkins(1930),181Ark.137,25S.W.2d428, at429.
    ②See Chicago&A. Ry. Co. v. Tracey(1903),109Ill.App.563,1903WL1693, at1.
    ①Chicago&A. Ry. Co. v. Tracey(1903),109Ill.App.563,1903WL1693, at4.
    ②Head v. Georgia Pac. Ry. Co.(1887),79Ga.358,7S.E.217, at218.
    ③See Jacobus v. Congregation of Children of Israel(1899),107Ga.518,33S.E.853, at854.
    ④Jacobus v. Congregation of Children of Israel(1899),107Ga.518,33S.E.853, at854.
    ⑤Jacobus v. Congregation of Children of Israel(1899),107Ga.518,33S.E.853, at855.
    ⑥Jacobus v. Congregation of Children of Israel(1899),107Ga.518,33S.E.853, at855.
    ⑦Jacobus v. Congregation of Children of Israel(1899),107Ga.518,33S.E.853, at855.
    ①Pavesich v. New England Life Ins. Co.(1905),122Ga.190,50S.E.68, at76.
    ②See Sloane v. Southern Cal. Ry. Co.(1896),111Cal.668,44P.320, at321.
    ③Sloane v. Southern Cal. Ry. Co.(1896),111Cal.668,44P.320, at322.
    ①Holdorf v. Holdorf(1918),185Iowa838,169N.W.737, at739.
    ②See Ammons v. Southern Ry. Co.(1905),140N.C.196,52S.E.731, at732.
    ③Ammons v. Southern Ry. Co.(1905),140N.C.196,52S.E.731, at733concurring.
    ④Archibald H. Throckmorton: Damages For Fright.34Harvard Law Review260, at275. January,1921.
    ⑤See Green v. T.A. Shoemaker&Co.(1909),111Md.69,73A.688, at689.
    ①Green v. T.A. Shoemaker&Co.(1909),111Md.69,73A.688, at692.
    ②See Gulf, C.&S.F. Ry. Co. v. Hayter(1908),93Tex.239,54S.W.944, at944.
    ③Gulf, C.&S.F. Ry. Co. v. Hayter(1908),93Tex.239,54S.W.944, at945.
    ①See Alabama Fuel&Iron Co. v. Baladoni(1916),15Ala.App.316,73So.205, at206.
    ②Alabama Fuel&Iron Co. v. Baladoni(1916),15Ala.App.316,73So.205, at207.
    ③Alabama Fuel&Iron Co. v. Baladoni(1916),15Ala.App.316,73So.205, at207.
    ④See Clough v. Steen(1934),3Cal.App.2d392,39P.2d889, at889.
    ①Clough v. Steen(1934),3Cal.App.2d392,39P.2d889, at890.
    ②Clough v. Steen(1934),3Cal.App.2d392,39P.2d889, at890.
    ③Kline v. Kline(1902),158Ind.602,64N.E.9, at10.
    ④Waube v. Warrington(1935),216Wis.603,258N.W.497, at501.
    ⑤See Reed v. Moore(1957),156Cal.App.2d43,319P.2d80, at81.
    ①Reed v. Moore(1957),156Cal.App.2d43,319P.2d80, at82.
    ②See Waube v. Warrington(1935),216Wis.603,258N.W.497, at497.
    ③Waube v. Warrington(1935),216Wis.603,258N.W.497, at501.
    ①Waube v. Warrington(1935),216Wis.603,258N.W.497, at501.
    ②See Spearman v. McCrary(1912),4Ala.App.473,58So.927, at928.
    ③Spearman v. McCrary(1912),4Ala.App.473,58So.927, at930.
    ④Spearman v. McCrary(1912),4Ala.App.473,58So.927, at931.
    ⑤Spade v. Lynn&B.R. Co.,168Mass.285,47N.E.88, at89.
    ①Amaya v. Home Ice, Fuel&Supply Co.(1963),59Cal.2d295,379P.2d513, at523.
    ②Amaya v. Home Ice, Fuel&Supply Co.(1963),59Cal.2d295,379P.2d513, at535dissenting.
    ③Waube v. Warrington(1935),216Wis.603,258N.W.497, at501.
    ①See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment a(2012).
    ②Lawrence M. Friedman, American Law in the20th Century, Yale University Press,2002, at460.
    ③参见李响编著:《美国侵权法原理及案例研究》,中国政法大学出版社2004年版,第4页。
    ④See Jack Berman,“The Function of State of the Art Evidence in Strict Products Liability”,10American Journalof Law&Medicine (1984)93, at97.
    ⑤参见李响编著:《美国侵权法原理及案例研究》,中国政法大学出版社2004年版,第4页。
    ⑥具体完成时间为1965年4月22日,see Restatement (Second) of Torts Introduction.(1965).
    ①See William L. Prosser,“Privacy”,48Carlifornia Law Review (1960)383, at388.
    ②[爱]凯利:《西方法律思想简史》,王笑红译,法律出版社2010年版,第365页。
    ③See Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at914.
    ④See Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at916.
    ⑤Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at916.
    ①Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at919.
    ②Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at919.
    ③Palsgraf v. Long Island R.R. Co.(1928),248N.Y.339,344,162N.E.99, at100。
    ④Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ⑤Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ⑥Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ①Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ②Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ③Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at914.
    ④Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at917.
    ⑤Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at917.
    ①Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at917.
    ②Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at917.
    ③Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at917.
    ④Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ①Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ②Kenneth B. Baren,“Should Third Parties Recover Regardless of the Negligent Tort?”25Journal of LegalMedicine (2004)351, at356.
    ③[德]茨威格特,[德]克茨:《比较法总论》。潘汉典等译,北京,法律出版社,2003年1月第1版,第178页。
    ④[德]茨威格特,[德]克茨:《比较法总论》。潘汉典等译,北京,法律出版社,2003年1月第1版,第178页。
    ⑤徐婧译注:《最新路易斯安那州民法典》,法律出版2007年10版,第267页。
    ①See Cullen J. Dupuy,“Negligent Infliction Of Emotional Distress: The Effect Of Article2315.6”,53LouisianaLaw Review (1992)555, at556.
    ②See Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at561.
    ③See Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at566.
    ④Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at566.
    ⑤Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at569.
    ①See Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at566.
    ②Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at563.
    ③Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at563.
    ④Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at570.
    ①See Cullen J. Dupuy,“Negligent Infliction Of Emotional Distress: The Effect Of Article2315.6”,53LouisianaLaw Review (1992)555, at557.
    ②Lousiana Civil Code Article2315.6.
    ③Jessica Coco,“The Status Of Bystander Damage Claims In Louisiana: A Less-Than-Perfect Fit In The TortPuzzle”,66Louisiana Law Review (2005)261, at261.
    ①Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ②Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ③Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ①Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at760.
    ②Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at760.
    ③See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at767.
    ④James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at115.
    ⑤James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at116.
    ①James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at116.
    ②James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at116.
    ③Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at815.
    ④Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at815.
    ⑤Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at815.
    ①Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at819.
    ②Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2405.
    ③Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at847.
    ①Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at850.
    ②Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at847.
    ③Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at847.
    ④Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at847.
    ⑤Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at848.
    ⑥Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at168.
    ⑦See Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2400.
    ①Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2407.
    ②Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2407.
    ③Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2408.
    ④Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2410.
    ①Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2410.
    ②Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2411.
    ③Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2411.
    ④Norfolk Southern Ry. Co. v. Sorrell(2007),549U.S.158,127S.Ct.799, at801.
    ⑤See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment a.
    ⑥Cox v. Pearl Investment Co.(1969),168Colo.67,450P.2d60, at64.
    ①[美]托马斯·潘恩:《常识》。何实译,北京,华夏出版社,2004年1月第一版,第41页。
    ②[美]腓特烈·坎平:《盎格鲁——美利坚法律史》。屈文生翻译,北京,法律出版社,2010年版,第182页。
    ①[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第12页。
    ②大陆法系国家学者也承认私法中存在这种体现为法律形式主义要求的内源性正当性基础。德国学者拉德布鲁赫就认为所有的法律规范都具有一个支撑其自身存在的规范性目的,“法律规范一旦离开创制它的立法者之手,即出现一个显著转变:它为一个目的创智,但却不是为此目的,而是纯粹为着其自身存在目的而适用”([德]拉德布鲁赫:《法学导论》,米健译,法律出版社2012年版,第120页)。民法领域,德国学者弗卢梅将其具体界定为一种规范性联系,他将之称为“法律秩序的内在关联性”。不仅只有当侵权事故符合法律秩序的要求时才产生损害赔偿的结果,甚至以创设权利为表面特征的债权,也只有在符合体现为债权相对性的法律秩序性规范要求时才发生私法效力,“个体只能通过私法自治形成构成法律秩序典型法律制度的法律关系,且仅能以为法律秩序所认可的法律行为设权类型形成法律关系”([德]维尔纳·弗卢梅:《法律行为论》,迟颖译,法律出版社2013年版,第2页)。我国有学者将之称为“制度利益”,即“一项法律制度所固有的根本性利益”(梁上上:《利益的层次结构与利益衡量的展开》载于《法学研究》2002年第1期,第57页)。
    ③[加拿大]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》。徐爱国译,北京大学出版社,2007年版,第40页。
    ①[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第35页。
    ②[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第36页。
    ③[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第38页。
    ④John C.P. Goldberg,“Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law”,42Valparaiso University Law Review (2008)1221, at1263.
    ⑤[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第151页。
    ⑥[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第37页。
    ⑦[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第37页。
    ①See Philip Ackerman,“Comment: Some Don’t like it: Louisiana Eliminates Punitive Damages for EnvironmentTorts”,72Tulane Law Review (1997)327, at343.
    ②Philip Ackerman,“Comment: Some Don’t like it: Louisiana Eliminates Punitive Damages for EnvironmentTorts”,72Tulane Law Review (1997)327, at348.
    ③[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第37页。
    ④[美]理查德·A·爱泼斯坦:《普通法规则的社会效果,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,徐爱国译,法律出版社2005年版,第487页。
    ⑤[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第47页。
    ⑥John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at946.
    ①John C.P. Goldberg,“Two Conceptions of Tort Damages: Fair V. Full Compensation”,55DePaul Law Review(2006)435, at436.
    ②[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第122页。
    ③[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第121页。
    ④[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第122页。
    ⑤[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第65页。
    ⑥Richard A. Posner,“The Concept Of Corrective Justice In Recent Theories Of Tort Law”,10Journal Of LegalStudies (1981)187.载于《侵权行为法基础》,北京,法律出版社,2005年版,第64页。
    ⑦Jules Coleman,“Corrective Justice And Wrongful Gain”,11The Journal Of Legal Studies (1982)421, at426.
    ⑧[德]康德:《法的形而上学原理——权利科学》,沈叔平译,商务印书馆1991年版,第50页。
    ①[德]康德:《法的形而上学原理——权利科学》,沈叔平译,商务印书馆1991年版,第50页。
    ②Peter Benson,“External Freedom According To Kant”,87Columbia Law Review (1987)559, at560.
    ③Peter Benson,“External Freedom According To Kant”,87Columbia Law Review (1987)559, at560.
    ④B. Sharon Byrd, Joachim Hruschka,“Kant On ‘Why Must I Keep My Promise?’”81Chicago-Kent Law Review(2006)47, at49.
    ⑤Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at13.
    ⑥John C.P. Goldberg,“Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law”,42Valparaiso University Law Review (2008)1221, at1256.
    ①George P. Fletcher,“Why Kant”,87Columbia Law Review (1987)421, at424.
    ②[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第11页。
    ③[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第41页。
    ④John C.P. Goldberg,“Tort In Three Dimensions”,38Pepperdine Law Review (2011)321, at329.
    ⑤George P. Fletcher,“Fairness And Utility In Tort Theory”,85Harvard Law Review (1972)537, at538.
    ⑥Michael L. Rustad, Thomas H. Koenig,“Taming The Tort Monster: The American Civil Justice System As ABattleground Of Social Theory”,68Brooklyn Law Review (2002)1, at12.
    ①[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第11页。
    ②George P. Fletcher,“Fairness And Utility In Tort Theory”,85Harvard Law Review (1972)537, at542.
    ③George P. Fletcher,“Fairness And Utility In Tort Theory”,85Harvard Law Review (1972)537, at559.
    ④John C.P. Goldberg,“Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law”,42Valparaiso University Law Review (2008)1221, at1256.
    ⑤[美]理查德·A·爱泼斯坦:《普通法规则的社会效果》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,徐爱国译,法律出版社2005年版,第486页。
    ⑥[美]理查德·A·爱泼斯坦:《普通法规则的社会效果》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,徐爱国译,法律出版社2005年版,第486页。
    ⑦George P. Fletcher,“Fairness And Utility In Tort Theory”,85Harvard Law Review (1972)537, at560.
    ①阻却功能与分配正义的关联不仅体现在典型的危险责任和严格责任的案件中,此类被告承担更重的法律义务的原因就在于法律特许他们获得了更多的利益,“危险责任的目的,在于使一项虽然危险但为法所不禁止之行为的行为人,在享受其利益的同时,负担其相应的风险:允许行为人为该项行为人,则对因此所致他人之损害即须赔偿;此项赔偿义务,就如获得行为许可所需支付的代价”([德]梅迪库斯:《请求权基础》。陈卫佐等译,法律出版社2012年版,第161页);也体现在那些因初级社会分配导致原告和被告之间在专业知识、技能、经验和经济实力等方面出现巨大差异的案件中,这些占优势地位的被告承担更重的法律义务的原因不在于他们从事了何种具体行为,而在于他们拥有更多的社会资源,具有能力预防事故或者承担损失,“多数侵权行为也出现在一方比另一方面更加脆弱的社会关系之中”(Jason M.Solomon,“Civil Recourse As Social Equality”,39Florida State University Law Review (2011)243, at258)。
    ②Jason M. Solomon,“Civil Recourse As Social Equality”,39Florida State University Law Review (2011)243, at246.
    ③Jason M. Solomon,“Civil Recourse As Social Equality”,39Florida State University Law Review (2011)243, at246.
    ④John C.P. Goldberg,“Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law”,42Valparaiso University Law Review (2008)1221, at1249.
    ⑤John C.P. Goldberg,“Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law”,42Valparaiso University Law Review (2008)1221, at1240.
    ⑥See Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at11.
    ①Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at12.
    ②Richard A. Posner,“The Concept Of Corrective Justice In Recent Theories Of Tort Law”,10Journal Of LegalStudies (1981)187.载于《侵权行为法基础》,法律出版社2005年版,第65页。
    ③Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at48.
    ④See Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, And Corrective Justice”,39Florida StateUniversity Law Review (2011)299, at312.
    ⑤Richard A. Posner,“The Concept Of Corrective Justice In Recent Theories Of Tort Law”,10Journal Of LegalStudies (1981)187.载于《侵权行为法基础》,法律出版社2005年版,第66页。
    ⑥Michael L. Rustad, Thomas H. Koenig,“Taming The Tort Monster: The American Civil Justice System As ABattleground Of Social Theory”,68Brooklyn Law Review (2002)1, at12.
    ⑦Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, And Corrective Justice”,39Florida StateUniversity Law Review (2011)299, at312.
    ①参见[美]理查德·A·爱泼斯坦:《普通法规则的社会效果》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,徐爱国译,法律出版社2005年第1版,第507页。
    ②[美]A·米切尔·波林斯基:《潜在缺陷产品的经济分析:一份波斯纳<法律的经济分析>的购物指南》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,明辉译,法律出版社2005年版,第339页。
    ③[意]吉多·卡拉布雷西,[美]A·道格拉斯·梅拉米德:《财产规则、责任规则与不可让与性:一个权威的视角》。载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,明辉译,法律出版社2005年版,第300页。
    ①[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第49页。
    ②[意]吉多·卡拉布雷西,[美]A·道格拉斯·梅拉米德:《财产规则、责任规则与不可让与性:一个权威的视角》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,明辉译,法律出版社2005年版,第285页。
    ③Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at49.
    ④Stanley Ingber,“Rethinking Intangible Injuries: A Focus On Remedy”,73California Law Review (1985)772, at775.
    ⑤[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第50页。
    ⑥[美]罗伯特·E·基顿:《侵权法中有条件过错》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,林海译,法律出版社2005年版,第181页。
    ⑦参见[美]罗伯特·E·基顿:《侵权法中有条件过错》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,林海译,法律出版社2005年版,第181页。
    ①John C.P. Goldberg,“Ten Half-Truths About Tort Law”,42Valparaiso University Law Review (2008)1221, at1239.
    ②Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at49.
    ③Jules Coleman,“Corrective Justice And Wrongful Gain”,11The Journal Of Legal Studies (1982)421, at423.
    ④Ernest J. Weinrib,“Civil Recourse And Corrective Justice”,39Florida State University Law Review (2011)273,at275.
    ①John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at926.
    ②John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at926.
    ③[美]罗伯特·E·基顿:《侵权法中有条件过错》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,林海译,法律出版社2005年版,第160页。
    ④[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第123页。
    ⑤Jean Thomas,“Which Interests Should Tort Protect?”61Buffalo Law Review (2013)1, at56.
    ①John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at965.
    ②See John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at966.
    ③[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第140页。
    ①[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第141页。
    ②[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第141页。
    ③[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第140页。
    ④See Norwest, By and Through Crain v. Presbyterian Intercommunity Hosp.,293Or.543,652P.2d318, at319.
    ⑤Norwest, By and Through Crain v. Presbyterian Intercommunity Hosp.,293Or.543,652P.2d318, at332.
    ⑥Norwest, By and Through Crain v. Presbyterian Intercommunity Hosp.,293Or.543,652P.2d318, at333.
    ⑦John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at939.
    ①Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48.
    ②Ilene Durst,“Re-Envisioning The Reach Of Persecution: Recognizing Refugee Status For The Family BystanderWitness”,34Whittier Law Review (2012)1, at16.
    ③See Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at561.
    ④Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at570.
    ⑤Lejeune v. Rayne Branch Hosp.(1990),556So.2d559, at570.
    ①Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment g.
    ②See Barnhill v. Davis(1981),300N.W.2d104, at105.
    ③Barnhill v. Davis(1981),300N.W.2d104, at106.
    ④Barnhill v. Davis(1981),300N.W.2d104, at107.
    ⑤[加拿大]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》。徐爱国译,北京大学出版社,2007年版,第154页。
    ①John C.P. Goldberg,“Duty and The Structure of Negligence”,10Kan. J.L.&Pub. Pol'y (2000)149, at151.
    ②[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第154页。
    ③Ernest J. Weinrib,“Causation And Wrongdoing”,63Chicago-Kent Law Review (1987)439, at440.
    ④[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第154页。
    ⑤See Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at522.
    ①Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at527.
    ②Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at527.
    ③Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at527.
    ④Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at850.
    ⑤Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at847.
    ①[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第173页。
    ②[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第166页。
    ③John C.P. Goldberg,“Duty and The Structure of Negligence”,10Kan. J.L.&Pub. Pol'y (2000)149, at151.
    ④See Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at919.
    ⑤[加]欧内斯特·J·温里布:《私法的理念》,徐爱国译,北京大学出版社2007年版,第167页。
    ①Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at919.
    ②See D’Amicol v. Alvarez Shipping Co., Inc.(1973),31Conn.Supp.164,326A.2d129, at129.
    ③D’Amicol v. Alvarez Shipping Co., Inc.(1973),31Conn.Supp.164,326A.2d129, at132.
    ④Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at848.
    ①Michael L. Rustad,“Twenty-First-Century Tort Theories: The Internalist/Externalist Debate”,88Indiana LawJournal (2013)419, at427.
    ②See Michael L. Rustad, Thomas H. Koenig,“Taming The Tort Monster: The American Civil Justice System AsA Battleground Of Social Theory”,68Brooklyn Law Review (2002)1, at9.
    ①Lucero v. Salazar(1994),117N.M.803,877P.2d1106, at1109.
    ②See Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at823.
    ③Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at526.
    ④Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at825.
    ⑤Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at825.
    ⑥See Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at827.
    ⑦Lucero v. Salazar(1994),117N.M.803,877P.2d1106, at1108.
    ①Paul Montoya, v. Maxine Garduno, et al.,2002WL33957012(Trial Order).
    ②Laura M. Raisty,“Bystander Distress And Loss Of Consortium: An Examination Of The RelationshipRequirements In Light Ofromer V. Evans”,65Fordham Law Review (1997)2647, at2648.
    ③Leonard v. John Crane, Inc.(2012),206Cal.App.4th1274,142Cal.Rptr.3d700, at707.
    ④See Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at582.
    ①Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at586.
    ②Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at586.
    ③Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at586.
    ④Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at586.
    ⑤Mitchell v. Rochester Ry. Co.(1896),5E.H. Smith107,45N.E.354, at355.
    ①Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at422.
    ②Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at422.
    ③Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at422.
    ④Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at422.
    ⑤Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at422.
    ①Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at849.
    ②Bovsun v. Sanperi(1984),61N.Y.2d219,461N.E.2d843, at849.
    ③Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at917.
    ④John J. Kircher,“The Four Faces Of Tort Law: Liability For Emotional Harm”,90Marquette Law Review
    (2007)789, at838.
    ①Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at826.
    ②Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at826.
    ③R.H. Coase,“The Problem of Social Cost”,3J.L.&Econ.(1960)1.载于《侵权行为法基础》,法律出版社2005年版,第12页。
    ④R.H. Coase,“The Problem of Social Cost”,3J.L.&Econ.(1960)1.载于《侵权行为法基础》,法律出版社2005年版,第2页。
    ⑤Guido Calabresi,“The Decision For Accidents: An Approach To Nonfault Allocation Of Costs”,78HarvardLaw Review (1965)713, at713.
    ⑥See Guido Calabresi,“The Decision For Accidents: An Approach To Nonfault Allocation Of Costs”,78HarvardLaw Review (1965)713, at714.
    ⑦See Guido Calabresi,“Some Thoughts On Risk Distribution And The Law Of Torts”,70Yale Law Journal (1961)499, at499.
    ①John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at926.
    ②[美]A·米切尔·波林斯基:《潜在缺陷产品的经济分析:一份波斯纳<法律的经济分析>的购物指南》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,明辉译,法律出版社2005年版,第336页。
    ③John C.P. Goldberg, Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Torts As Wrongs”,88Texas Law Review (2010)917, at927.
    ④See United States v. Carroll Towing Co.(1947),159F.2d169, at173.
    ⑤[美]罗伯特·考特,托马斯·尤伦:《法和经济学》(第5版),史晋川等译,格致出版社、上海人民出版社2010年版,第326页。
    ⑥Thomas T. Uhl,“Bystander Emotional Distress: Missing An Opportunity To Strengthen The Ties That Bind”,61Brooklyn Law Review (1995)1399, at1442.
    ⑦Perodeau v. City of Hartford(2002),259Conn.729,792A.2d752, at770.
    ⑧Lourcey v. Estate of Scarlett(2004),146S.W.3d48, at50.
    ①Lourcey v. Estate of Scarlett(2004),146S.W.3d48, at54.
    ②Lourcey v. Estate of Scarlett(2004),146S.W.3d48, at54.
    ①Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, And Corrective Justice”,39Florida StateUniversity Law Review (2011)299, at304.
    ②Benjamin C. Zipursky,“Substantive Standing, Civil Recourse, And Corrective Justice”,39Florida StateUniversity Law Review (2011)299, at304.
    ③Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),1994WL379098(U.S.), at9.
    ④Thomas T. Uhl,“Bystander Emotional Distress: Missing An Opportunity To Strengthen The Ties That Bind”,61Brooklyn Law Review (1995)1399, at1464.
    ⑤See D’Amicol v. Alvarez Shipping Co., Inc.(1973),31Conn.Supp.164,326A.2d129, at129.
    ①D’Amicol v. Alvarez Shipping Co., Inc.(1973),31Conn.Supp.164,326A.2d129, at132.
    ②Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at830.
    ③Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment b(2012).
    ④Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§45, comment b(2012).
    ⑤Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment i(2012).
    ⑥Mendillo v. Board of Educ. of Town of East Haddam(1998),246Conn.456,717A.2d1177, at1189.
    ①See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment k(2012).
    ②Scott D. Marrs,“Mind over Body: Trends regarding the Physical Injury Requirement in Negligent Infliction ofEmotional Distress and Fear of Disease Cases”,28Tort&Insurance Law Journal (1992)1, at3.
    ③Corso v. Merrill(1979),119N.H.647,406A.2d300, at304.
    ④Clark v. Estate of Rice ex rel. Rice(2002),653N.W.2d166, at170.
    ⑤Clark v. Estate of Rice ex rel. Rice(2002),653N.W.2d166, at172.
    ⑥See Aldridge v. D.W. Newcomer’s Sons, Inc.(2003),669N.W.2d260(Table), at1.
    ①Aldridge v. D.W. Newcomer’s Sons, Inc.(2003),669N.W.2d260(Table), at1.
    ②Corgan v. Muehling(1991),143Ill.2d296,574N.E.2d602, at608.
    ③Wallace v. Coca-Cola Bottling Plants, Inc.(1970),269A.2d117, at121.
    ④Wallace v. Coca-Cola Bottling Plants, Inc.(1970),269A.2d117, at121.
    ⑤Garrett by Kravit v. City of New Berlin(1985),122Wis.2d223,362N.W.2d137, at144.
    ①See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ②Corgan v. Muehling(1991),143Ill.2d296,574N.E.2d602, at609.
    ③Culbert v. Sampson’s Supermarkets Inc.(1982),444A.2d433, at437.
    ④See Knierim v. Izzo(1961),22Ill.2d73,174N.E.2d157, at164.
    ⑤Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at815.
    ⑥Knierim v. Izzo(1961),22Ill.2d73,174N.E.2d157, at164.
    ⑦See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at760.
    ⑧Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at760.
    ⑨Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at760.
    ①See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at767.
    ②See Laxton v. Orkin Exterminating Co., Inc.(1982),639S.W.2d431, at432.
    ③Laxton v. Orkin Exterminating Co., Inc.(1982),639S.W.2d431, at434.
    ④Corgan v. Muehling(1991),143Ill.2d296,574N.E.2d602, at609.
    ⑤Charles J. Nagy, J.D.,86Corpus Juris Secundum TORTS§83, Database updated December2012.
    ⑥See Flores v. EMC Mortg. Co.(2014), F.Supp.2d,2014WL641097, at30.
    ②Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment m(2012).
    ③Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ④Vosburg v. Cenex-Land O’Lakes Agronomy Co.(1994),245Neb.485,513N.W.2d870, at874.
    ⑤Moore v. Kroger Co.(2010),800F.Supp.429,at433.
    ⑥See Jansen v. Children’s Hospital Medical Center(1973),31Cal.App.3d22,106Cal.Rptr.883, at884.
    ①Jansen v. Children’s Hospital Medical Center(1973),31Cal.App.3d22,106Cal.Rptr.883, at885.
    ②Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment l(2012).
    ③Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at528.
    ④I.C.A.§702.18.
    ⑤Barnhill v. Davis(1981),300N.W.2d104, at108.
    ⑥See Malinguaggio v. Ryder Student Trans. Services, Inc.(1996), A.2d,1996WL500952, at1.
    ①See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment l(2012).
    ②Malinguaggio v. Ryder Student Trans. Services, Inc.(1996), A.2d,1996WL500952, at1
    ③See Ritchie v. Gerber Products Co.(1998), A.2d,1998WL845898, at1.
    ④Ritchie v. Gerber Products Co.(1998), A.2d,1998WL845898, at2.
    ⑤See Trisuzzi v. Tabatchnik(1995),285N.J.Super.15,666A.2d543.
    ⑥Trisuzzi v. Tabatchnik(1995),285N.J.Super.15,666A.2d543
    ⑦State Farm Mut. Auto. Ins. Co. v. Ramsey(1988),295S.C.349,368S.E.2d477, at478.
    ①Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment e(2012).
    ②Routh v. Quinn(1942),20Cal.2d488,127P.2d1, at3.
    ③Prosser and Keeton, On The Law of Torts, fifth edition, St. Paul, Minn. West Publishing Co.,1984, at366.
    ④Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ⑤Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ⑥Corso v. Merrill(1979),119N.H.647,406A.2d300, at306.
    ①Charles J. Nagy, J.D.,86Corpus Juris Secundum TORTS§83, Database updated December2012.
    ②See Fineran v. Pickett(1991),465N.W.2d662, at663.
    ③Fineran v. Pickett(1991),465N.W.2d662, at663.
    ④See Ra v. Superior Court(2007),154Cal.App.4th142,64Cal.Rptr.3d539, at540.
    ⑤Ra v. Superior Court(2007),154Cal.App.4th142,64Cal.Rptr.3d539, at547.
    ⑥See Andrade v. Chojnacki(2003),65F.Supp.2d431, at444.
    ⑦Andrade v. Chojnacki(2003),65F.Supp.2d431, at465.
    ①Tommy’s Elbow Room, Inc. v. Kavorkian(1988),727P.2d1038, at1043.
    ②See Ortiz v. John D. Pittenger Builder, Inc.(2004),382N.J.Super.552,889A.2d1135, at1137.
    ③Ortiz v. John D. Pittenger Builder, Inc.(2004),382N.J.Super.552,889A.2d1135, at1142.
    ④Ortiz v. John D. Pittenger Builder, Inc.(2004),382N.J.Super.552,889A.2d1135, at1142.
    ⑥D'Ambra v. U. S.(1975),354F.Supp.810, at819.
    ⑦D’Ambra v. U. S.(1975),354F.Supp.810, at820.
    ⑧See D’Ambra v. U. S.(1975),354F.Supp.810, at821.
    ⑨See D’Ambra v. U. S.(1975),354F.Supp.810, at812.
    ①D’Ambra v. U. S.(1975),354F.Supp.810, at822.
    ①Ernest J. Weinrib,“Does Tort Law Have A Future?”34Valparaiso University Law Review (1999-2000)561, at563.
    ②Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at422.
    ③Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at423.
    ①Scarf v. Koltoff(1976),242Pa.Super.294,363A.2d1276, at1279.
    ②See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, reporters’ note to comment a(2012).其中,如印第安纳州中承认冲击规则这一一般规则之外存在着遵循可预见性判断方法的、较为宽泛的第三人过失精神损害赔偿责任的例外,实质上废弃了冲击规则的严格要求。See Atlantic Coast Airlines v. Cook(2006),857N.E.2d989, at997.
    ③See Keck v. Jackson(1979),122Ariz.114,593P.2d668, at668.
    ④Keck v. Jackson(1979),122Ariz.114,593P.2d668, at670.
    ⑤See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, reporters’ note to comment a(2012).
    ⑥See Snavely ex rel. Snavely v. Wilmington Medical Center, Inc.(1985), A.2d,1985WL552277, at1.
    ⑦Snavely ex rel. Snavely v. Wilmington Medical Center, Inc.(1985), A.2d,1985WL552277, at4.
    ⑧Snavely ex rel. Snavely v. Wilmington Medical Center, Inc.(1985), A.2d,1985WL552277, at4.
    ①See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, reporters’ note to comment a(2012).
    ②Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at168.
    ③Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at173.
    ④Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at173.
    ⑤See Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at165.
    ⑥Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at169.
    ⑦Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at169.
    ①Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at169.
    ②Stewart v. Gilliam(1972),271So.2d466, at472.
    ③Amaya v. Home Ice, Fuel&Supply Co.(1963),59Cal.2d295,379P.2d513, at523.
    ④Amaya v. Home Ice, Fuel&Supply Co.(1963),59Cal.2d295,379P.2d513, at523.
    ⑤Saechao v. Matsakoun(1986),78Or.App.340,717P.2d165, at169.
    ①Battalla v. State(1961),10N.Y.2d237,176N.E.2d729, at731.
    ②Battalla v. State(1961),10N.Y.2d237,176N.E.2d729, at731.
    ③Battalla v. State(1961),10N.Y.2d237,176N.E.2d729, at731.
    ④Battalla v. State(1961),10N.Y.2d237,176N.E.2d729, at731.
    ⑤Daley v. LaCroix(1970),384Mich.4,179N.W.2d390, at394.
    ⑥Gonzalez v. Metropolitan Dade County Public Health Trust(1995),651So.2d673, at675.
    ⑦See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, reporters’ note to comment a(2012).
    ⑧See Squeo v. Norwalk Hosp.(2012), A.3d,2012WL1592139, Conn.Super., at1.
    ①Clohessy v. Bachelor(1996),237Conn.31,675A.2d852, at865.
    ②See Squeo v. Norwalk Hosp.(2012), A.3d,2012WL1592139, Conn.Super., at5.
    ③Sinn v. Burd(1979),486Pa.146,404A.2d672, at681.
    ④Sinn v. Burd(1979),486Pa.146,404A.2d672, at682.
    ①Dziokonski v. Babineau(1978),375Mass.555,380N.E.2d1295, at1302.
    ②Sinn v. Burd(1979),486Pa.146,404A.2d672, at681.
    ③Dziokonski v. Babineau(1978),375Mass.555,380N.E.2d1295, at1300.
    ④See Dziokonski v. Babineau(1978),375Mass.555,380N.E.2d1295, at1296.
    ⑤Dziokonski v. Babineau(1978),375Mass.555,380N.E.2d1295, at1300.
    ①See Chavez v. Estate of Chavez(2009),148Wash.App.580,201P.3d340, at341.
    ②Chavez v. Estate of Chavez(2009),148Wash.App.580,201P.3d340, at342.
    ③Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at199.
    ④Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at199.
    ⑤Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at199.
    ①Ochoa v. Superior Court(1985),39Cal.3d159,703P.2d1, at5.
    ②Bowen v. Lumbermens Mut. Cas. Co.(1994),183Wis.2d627,517N.W.2d432, at445.
    ③See Deboe v. Horn(1971),16Cal.App.3d221,94Cal.Rptr.77, at79.
    ④Deboe v. Horn(1971),16Cal.App.3d221,94Cal.Rptr.77, at79.
    ⑤See Rosin v. Fort Howard Corp.(1998),222Wis.2d365,588N.W.2d58, at60.
    ⑥Rosin v. Fort Howard Corp.(1998),222Wis.2d365,588N.W.2d58, at62.
    ⑦See Saunders v. Air Florida, Inc.(1983),558F.Supp.1233, at1237.
    ⑧Saunders v. Air Florida, Inc.(1983),558F.Supp.1233, at1237.
    ⑨Acosta v. Castle Const., Inc.(1994),117N.M.28,868P.2d673, at675.
    ①See Corso v. Merrill(1979),119N.H.647,406A.2d300, at302.
    ②Corso v. Merrill(1979),119N.H.647,406A.2d300, at307.
    ③See Fife v. Astenius(1991),232Cal.App.3d1090,284Cal.Rptr.16, at17.
    ④Fife v. Astenius(1991),232Cal.App.3d1090,284Cal.Rptr.16, at18.
    ⑤See Wilks v. Hom(1992),2Cal.App.4th1264,3Cal.Rptr.2d803, at804.
    ⑥Wilks v. Hom(1992),2Cal.App.4th1264,3Cal.Rptr.2d803, at807.
    ①Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, reporters’ note to comment e(2012).
    ②See O'Cain v. Harvey Freeman and Sons, Inc. of Mississippi(1991),603So.2d824, at825.
    ③O'Cain v. Harvey Freeman and Sons, Inc. of Mississippi(1991),603So.2d824, at830.
    ④Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at199.
    ⑤See Krouse v. Graham(1977),19Cal.3d59,562P.2d1022, at1024.
    ⑥Krouse v. Graham(1977),19Cal.3d59,562P.2d1022, at1031.
    ⑦Krouse v. Graham(1977),19Cal.3d59,562P.2d1022, at1031.
    ⑧Krouse v. Graham(1977),19Cal.3d59,562P.2d1022, at1031.
    ⑨See Bowen v. Lumbermens Mut. Cas. Co.(1994),183Wis.2d627,517N.W.2d432, at434.
    ①Bowen v. Lumbermens Mut. Cas. Co.(1994),183Wis.2d627,517N.W.2d432, at445.
    ②See Hoover v. Recreation Equipment Corp.(1991),792F.Supp.1484, at1487.
    ③Hoover v. Recreation Equipment Corp.(1991),792F.Supp.1484, at1501.
    ④Hoover v. Recreation Equipment Corp.(1991),792F.Supp.1484, at1501.
    ⑤See Fortman v. Forvaltningsbolaget Insulan AB(2013),212Cal.App.4th830,151Cal.Rptr.3d320, at322.
    ⑥See Justus v. Atchison(1977),19Cal.3d564,565P.2d122, at135.
    ①Justus v. Atchison(1977),19Cal.3d564,565P.2d122, at135.
    ②See Ledford v. Delta Airlines, Inc.(1987),658F.Supp.540, at541.
    ③Ledford v. Delta Airlines, Inc.(1987),658F.Supp.540, at543.
    ④See Golstein v. Superior Court(1990),223Cal.App.3d1415,273Cal.Rptr.270, at271.
    ⑤Golstein v. Superior Court(1990),223Cal.App.3d1415,273Cal.Rptr.270, at271.
    ⑥See Golstein v. Superior Court(1990),223Cal.App.3d1415,273Cal.Rptr.270, at272.
    ⑦See Beanland v. Chicago(1973), R. I.&P. Ry. Co.,480F.2d109, at111.
    ①Beanland v. Chicago(1973), R. I.&P. Ry. Co.,480F.2d109, at114.
    ②See Ortiz v. HPM Corp.(1991),234Cal.App.3d178,285Cal.Rptr.728, at729.
    ③Ortiz v. HPM Corp.(1991),234Cal.App.3d178,285Cal.Rptr.728, at732.
    ④See Amodio v. Cunningham(1980),182Conn.80,438A.2d6, at7.
    ⑤Amodio v. Cunningham(1980),182Conn.80,438A.2d6, at11.
    ⑥See Mobaldi v. Regents of University of California(1976),55Cal.App.3d573,127Cal.Rptr.720, at722.
    ⑦Mobaldi v. Regents of University of California(1976),55Cal.App.3d573,127Cal.Rptr.720, at727.
    ①Mobaldi v. Regents of University of California(1976),55Cal.App.3d573,127Cal.Rptr.720, at727.
    ②See Barnes v. Geiger(1983),15Mass.App.Ct.365,446N.E.2d78, at79.
    ③Barnes v. Geiger(1983),15Mass.App.Ct.365,446N.E.2d78, at81.
    ①Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§48, comment f(2012).
    ②Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at829.
    ③Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at223.
    ④Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at825.
    ⑤See Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at223.
    ⑥Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at828.
    ①Shoemaker v. St. Joseph Hosp. and Health Care Center(1990),56Wash.App.575,784P.2d562, at565.
    ②West's RCWA4.20.020.
    ③Grotts v. Zahner(1999),115Nev.339,989P.2d415, at416.
    ④Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution§2.03, comment a(2002).
    ⑤Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution§3.03(2002).
    ⑥路易斯安那州存在例外,该州法院认为:合法婚姻中的丈夫被法律推定为该婚姻关系中所有孩子的亲生父亲,“母亲的丈夫被法律推定为该段婚姻存续期间出生或怀孕的所有孩子的父亲”。Demery v. HousingAuthority of New Orleans(1997),689So.2d659, at665.
    ⑦Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution§2.03(1)(b)(ii)(2002).
    ①Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution§2.03(1)(b)(iii)(2002).
    ②Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution§2.03(1)(b)(iv)(2002).
    ③Principles of the Law of Family Dissolution§2.03(c)(2002).
    ④See Johnson v. Ruark Obstetrics and Gynecology Associates, P.A.(1990),327N.C.283,395S.E.2d85, at87.
    ⑤Johnson v. Ruark Obstetrics and Gynecology Associates, P.A.(1990),327N.C.283,395S.E.2d85, at98.
    ⑥Johnson v. Ruark Obstetrics and Gynecology Associates, P.A.(1990),327N.C.283,395S.E.2d85, at98.
    ①Mobaldi v. Regents of University of California(1976),55Cal.App.3d573,127Cal.Rptr.720, at726.
    ②Mobaldi v. Regents of University of California(1976),55Cal.App.3d573,127Cal.Rptr.720, at726.
    ③See Bayer v. Monroe County Child&Youth Services(2007), F.Supp.2d,2007WL3034009, at6.
    ④See Daigrepont v. Louisiana State Racing Com'n,(1995),663So.2d840, at840.
    ⑤Daigrepont v. Louisiana State Racing Com'n,(1995),663So.2d840, at841.
    ⑥Eskin v. Bartee(2008),262S.W.3d727, at740.
    ①Eskin v. Bartee(2008),262S.W.3d727, at740.
    ②See Marla H. v. Knox County(2011),361S.W.3d518, at521.
    ③Marla H. v. Knox County(2011),361S.W.3d518, at530.
    ④See Marla H. v. Knox County(2011),361S.W.3d518, at534.
    ⑤Lousiana Civil Code Art.2315.6(4).
    ⑥See Genzer v. City of Mission(1983),666S.W.2d116, at118.
    ⑦Genzer v. City of Mission(1983),666S.W.2d116, at122.
    ①See Fernandez v. Walgreen Hastings Co.(1998),126N.M.263,968P.2d774, at776.
    ②Fernandez v. Walgreen Hastings Co.(1998),126N.M.263,968P.2d774, at777.
    ③Fernandez v. Walgreen Hastings Co.(1998),126N.M.263,968P.2d774, at784.
    ④See Fernandez v. Walgreen Hastings Co.(1998),126N.M.263,968P.2d774, at784.
    ⑤See Wachocki v. Bernalillo County Sheriff's Dept.(2011),150N.M.650,265P.3d701, at704.
    ⑥Lozoya v. Sanchez(2003),133N.M.579,66P.3d948, at954.
    ⑦See Garrett by Kravit v. City of New Berlin(1985),122Wis.2d223,362N.W.2d137, at139.
    ①Garrett by Kravit v. City of New Berlin(1985),122Wis.2d223,362N.W.2d137, at143.
    ②1Lousiana Practice Personal Injuries§5:244(2012ed.).
    ③See Croteau v. Olin Corp.(1989),704F.Supp.318, at318.
    ④Croteau v. Olin Corp.(1989),704F.Supp.318, at321.
    ⑤Kriventsov v. San Rafael Taxicabs, Inc.(1986),186Cal.App.3d1445,229Cal.Rptr.768, at770.
    ⑥See Kriventsov v. San Rafael Taxicabs, Inc.(1986),186Cal.App.3d1445,229Cal.Rptr.768, at770.
    ①See Trapp v. Schuyler Construction(1983),149Cal.App.3d1140,197Cal.Rptr.411, at412.
    ②See Guzman v. Kirchhoefel(2005), Cal.Rptr.3d,2005WL1684978, at3.
    ③See Guzman v. Kirchhoefel(2005), Cal.Rptr.3d,2005WL1684978, at1.
    ④Guzman v. Kirchhoefel(2005), Cal.Rptr.3d,2005WL1684978, at3.
    ⑤Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at222.
    ⑥Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at223.
    ①Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at230.
    ②Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at223.
    ③See Hegel v. McMahon(1998),136Wash.2d122,960P.2d424, at425.
    ④Hegel v. McMahon(1998),136Wash.2d122,960P.2d424, at431.
    ⑤Dale Joseph Gilsinger, J.D.,98American Law Reports ALR5th609,§15. Bystander's sister–or brother–in–law.2002.
    ⑥Colbert v. Moomba Sports, Inc.(2008),132Wash.App.916,135P.3d485, at494.
    ①See In re Smith, Slip Copy(2012),2012WL2341571, at2.
    ②In re Smith, Slip Copy(2012),2012WL2341571, at5.
    ③In re Smith, Slip Copy(2012),2012WL2341571, at6.
    ④See Milberger v. KBHL, LLC(2007),486F.Supp.2d1156, at1158.
    ①Milberger v. KBHL, LLC(2007),486F.Supp.2d1156, at1167.
    ②Milberger v. KBHL, LLC(2007),486F.Supp.2d1156, at1167.
    ③Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at586.
    ④Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at587.
    ⑤Graves v. Estabrook(2003),149N.H.202,818A.2d1255, at1260.
    ⑥See Childers v. Shannon(1982),183N.J.Super.591,444A.2d1141, at1143.
    ⑦Childers v. Shannon(1982),183N.J.Super.591,444A.2d1141, at1143.
    ①Elden v. Sheldon(1988),46Cal.3d267,758P.2d582, at588.
    ②West's Ann.California Civil Code§1714.01.
    ③West's Ann.California Family Code§297.
    ④See St. Onge v. MacDonald(2007),154N.H.768,917A.2d233, at236.
    ⑤See Drew v. Drake(1980),110Cal.App.3d555,168Cal.Rptr.65, at66.
    ⑥See Graves v. Estabrook(2003),149N.H.202,818A.2d1255, at1262.
    ⑦See Arnott v. Liberty Mut. Fire Ins. Co.(2010),2010WL8544209(Trial Order).
    ⑧See Lozoya v. Sanchez(2003),133N.M.579,66P.3d948, at958.
    ⑨See Yovino v. Big Bubba’s BBQ, LLC(2006),49Conn.Supp.555,896A.2d161, at162.
    ⑩Yovino v. Big Bubba’s BBQ, LLC(2006),49Conn.Supp.555,896A.2d161, at565.11See St. Onge v. MacDonald(2007),154N.H.768,917A.2d233, at236.
    ①Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),136N.J.99,642A.2d372, at379.
    ②Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),136N.J.99,642A.2d372, at379.
    ③Graves v. Estabrook(2003),149N.H.202,818A.2d1255, at1260.
    ④Graves v. Estabrook(2003),149N.H.202,818A.2d1255, at1261.
    ⑤Marvin v. Marvin(1976),18Cal.3d660,557P.2d106, at110.
    ⑥See Hedlund v. Superior Court(1983),34Cal.3d695,669P.2d41, at41.
    ①Hedlund v. Superior Court(1983),34Cal.3d695,669P.2d41, at47.
    ②See Cicchino v. Biarsky(1948),61A.2d163, at164.
    ③Cicchino v. Biarsky(1948),61A.2d163, at304.
    ④Cicchino v. Biarsky(1948),61A.2d163, at304.
    ⑤See Brokenbaugh v. New Jersey Mfrs. Ins. Co.(1978),158N.J.Super.424,386A.2d433, at436.
    ⑥Kratzer v. Unger(1981),17Pa. D.&C.3d771, at774.
    ①Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at222.
    ②See Thompson v. Dhaiti(2013),103A.D.3d711, N.Y.S.2d,2013WL518720, at1.
    ③Thompson v. Dhaiti(2013),103A.D.3d711, N.Y.S.2d,2013WL518720, at2.
    ④See West's RCWA4.20.020。
    ⑤See Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at222.
    ⑥See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at165.
    ①Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at172.
    ②See Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at220.
    ③Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, at224.
    ④See Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, dissenting at
    227.
    ⑤Rodriguez v. Kirchhoefel(2005),128Cal.App.4th427,26Cal.Rptr.3d891, at894.
    ①Moon v. Guardian Postacute Services, Inc(2002).,95Cal.App.4th1005,116Cal.Rptr.2d218, dissenting at227
    ②See Strickland v. Deaconess Hosp.(1987),47Wash.App.262,735P.2d74, at75.
    ③Strickland v. Deaconess Hosp.(1987),47Wash.App.262,735P.2d74, at78.
    ④Strickland v. Deaconess Hosp.(1987),47Wash.App.262,735P.2d74, at78.
    ⑤See Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at823.
    ①Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at825.
    ②See Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at827.
    ③Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),136N.J.99,642A.2d372, at380.
    ④Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ⑤James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at115.
    ①James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at115.
    ②See Thomas v. Schwegmann Giant Supermarket, Inc.(1990),561So.2d992, at993.
    ③Thomas v. Schwegmann Giant Supermarket, Inc.(1990),561So.2d992, at997.
    ④See Vasquez-Gonzalez v. Superior Court (Stewart)(1986),231Cal.Rptr.458, at461.
    ⑤Vasquez-Gonzalez v. Superior Court (Stewart)(1986),231Cal.Rptr.458, at461.
    ⑥Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ①See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ②See Vasquez-Gonzalez v. Superior Court (Stewart)(1986),231Cal.Rptr.458, at459.
    ③See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at759.
    ④See Dickerson v. Lafferty(2000),750So.2d432, at433.
    ⑤Dickerson v. Lafferty(2000),750So.2d432, at435.
    ⑥Dickerson v. Lafferty(2000),750So.2d432, at435.
    ⑦See Idemudia v. Consolidated Rail Corp.,895F.Supp.162, at163.
    ⑧Idemudia v. Consolidated Rail Corp.,895F.Supp.162, at165.
    ⑨See Sullivan v. Ford Motor Co., F.Supp.2d(2000),2000WL343777, at11.
    ①See Kriventsov v. San Rafael Taxicabs, Inc.(1986),186Cal.App.3d1445,229Cal.Rptr.768, at770.
    ②See Shelley Mcdaniel v. St. Francis Medical(2012),2012WL894673, at2。
    ③Shelley Mcdaniel V. St. Francis Medical(2012),2012WL894673, at8。
    ④Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at826.
    ⑤Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2408.
    ⑥See Eyrich for Eyrich v. Dam(1984),193N.J.Super.244,473A.2d539, at547.
    ①See Hislop v. Salt River Project Agr. Imp. and Power Dist.(2000),197Ariz.553,5P.3d267, at272.
    ②See Lewis v. U.S., F.Supp.2d(2006),2006WL902176, at4.
    ③See Rodriguez v. Kirchhoefel(2005),128Cal.App.4th427,26Cal.Rptr.3d891, at433.
    ④See Everett Associates, Inc. v. Transcontinental Ins. Co.(1999),141F.Supp.2d989, at998.
    ⑤See Y.G. v. Board of Educ. for Tp. of Teaneck(2011), A.3d,2011WL1466277, at3.
    ⑥Straub v. Fisher and Paykel Health Care(1999),990P.2d384, at389.
    ⑦Consolidated Rail Corp. v. Gottshall(1994),512U.S.532,114S.Ct.2396, at2408.
    ①See Borough of Glassboro v. Vallorosi(1990),117N.J.421,568A.2d888, at891.
    ②See Borough of Glassboro v. Vallorosi(1990),117N.J.421,568A.2d888, at890.
    ③Borough of Glassboro v. Vallorosi(1990),117N.J.421,568A.2d888, at894.
    ④Borough of Glassboro v. Vallorosi(1990),117N.J.421,568A.2d888, at895.
    ⑤Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),261N.J.Super.110,617A.2d1248, at1254.
    ①See Hardwicke v. American Boychoir School(2006),188N.J.69,902A.2d900, at915.
    ②See Hardwicke v. American Boychoir School(2006),188N.J.69,902A.2d900, at904.
    ③Hardwicke v. American Boychoir School(2006),188N.J.69,902A.2d900, at914.
    ④Hardwicke v. American Boychoir School(2006),188N.J.69,902A.2d900, at915.
    ⑤See D.T. v. Hunterdon Medical Center(2012), A.3d,2012WL4448774, at3.
    ①See Resolution Trust Corp. v. Associated Gulf Contractors, Inc.(1993),263N.J.Super.332,622A.2d1324, at1329.
    ②See Resolution Trust Corp. v. Associated Gulf Contractors, Inc.(1993),263N.J.Super.332,622A.2d1324, at1327.
    ③Resolution Trust Corp. v. Associated Gulf Contractors, Inc.(1993),263N.J.Super.332,622A.2d1324, at1330.
    ④See Storch v. Sauerhoff(2000),334N.J.Super.226,757A.2d836, at840.
    ⑤See Storch v. Sauerhoff(2000),334N.J.Super.226,757A.2d836, at837.
    ①N.J.S.A.2C:25-18.
    ②Storch v. Sauerhoff(2000),334N.J.Super.226,757A.2d836, at841.
    ①See Arnott v. Liberty Mut. Fire Ins. Co.(2010),2010WL8544209(Trial Order).
    ②See Michaud v. Great Northern Nekoosa Corp.(1998),715A.2d955, at959.
    ③Arnott v. Liberty Mut. Fire Ins. Co.(2010),2010WL8544209(Trial Order).
    ①Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),261N.J.Super.110,617A.2d1248, at1254.
    ②See In re Baby T.(1999),160N.J.332,734A.2d304, at305.
    ③In re Baby T.(1999),160N.J.332,734A.2d304, at314.
    ④Thurmon v. Sellers(2001),62S.W.3d145, at164.
    ⑤See Thurmon v. Sellers(2001),62S.W.3d145, at149.
    ①Thurmon v. Sellers(2001),62S.W.3d145, at164.
    ②See Lourcey v. Estate of Scarlett(2004),146S.W.3d48, at53.
    ③Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),136N.J.99,642A.2d372, at378.
    ①Catron v. Lewis(2006),271Neb.416,712N.W.2d245, at250.
    ②See Iacona v. Schrupp(1994),521N.W.2d70, at71.
    ③Iacona v. Schrupp(1994),521N.W.2d70, at73.
    ①Restatement (Third) of Torts: Apportionment Liability.§6(a)(2000).
    ②See Estate of Barrera v. Rosamond Village Ltd. Partnership(1998),983S.W.2d795, at796.
    ③Estate of Barrera v. Rosamond Village Ltd. Partnership(1998),983S.W.2d795, at798.
    ①Estate of Barrera v. Rosamond Village Ltd. Partnership(1998),983S.W.2d795, at799.
    ②Estate of Barrera v. Rosamond Village Ltd. Partnership(1998),983S.W.2d795, at800.
    ③See Kosieradzki ex rel. Kosieradzki v. Mathys(2002),256Wis.2d839,649N.W.2d717, at721.
    ④See Estate of Gocha by Gocha v. Shimon(1997),215Wis.2d586,573N.W.2d218, at219.
    ①Estate of Gocha by Gocha v. Shimon(1997),215Wis.2d586,573N.W.2d218, at221.
    ②Estate of Gocha by Gocha v. Shimon(1997),215Wis.2d586,573N.W.2d218, at221.
    ③Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47, comment d(2012).
    ④Indiana Patient’s Compensation Fund v. Winkle(2007),863N.E.2d1, at6.
    ⑤See Maldonado v. Walmart Store No.2141(2011), F.Supp.2d,2011WL1790840, at1.
    ①Maldonado v. Walmart Store No.2141(2011), F.Supp.2d,2011WL1790840, at16.
    ②See Draper v. DeFrenchi-Gordineer(2011),282P.3d489, at497.
    ①Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ②Dillon v. Legg(1968),68Cal.2d728,441P.2d912, at920.
    ③Restatement (Third) of Torts: Apportionment Liability.§6(a)(2000).
    ④See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Apportionment Liability.§6comment c and comment e(2000).
    ⑤Restatement (Third) of Torts: Apportionment Liability.§6comment f.
    ⑥Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47, comment d(2012).
    ①Portee v. Jaffee(1980),84N.J.88,417A.2d521, at528.
    ②Spangler v. Bechtel(2011),958N.E.2d458,at466.
    ③Charles J. Nagy, J.D.:86Corpus Juris Secundum TORTS§83, Database updated December2012.
    ④See Kosieradzki ex rel. Kosieradzki v. Mathys(2002),256Wis.2d839,649N.W.2d717, at719.
    ①Kosieradzki ex rel. Kosieradzki v. Mathys(2002),256Wis.2d839,649N.W.2d717, at721.
    ②See Meredith v. Hanson(1985),40Wash.App.170,697P.2d602, at603.
    ③Meredith v. Hanson(1985),40Wash.App.170,697P.2d602, at604.
    ①See Shuamber v. Henderson(1991),579N.E.2d452, at453.
    ②Shuamber v. Henderson(1991),579N.E.2d452, at456.
    ③See Sorrells v. M.Y.B. Hospitality Ventures of Asheville(1993),108N.C.App.668,424S.E.2d676, at669.
    ①Sorrells v. M.Y.B. Hospitality Ventures of Asheville(1993),108N.C.App.668,424S.E.2d676, at671.
    ②Sorrells v. M.Y.B. Hospitality Ventures of Asheville(1993),108N.C.App.668,424S.E.2d676, at671.
    ③Sorrells v. M.Y.B. Hospitality Ventures of Asheville(1993),108N.C.App.668,424S.E.2d676, at671.
    ④See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47, reporters’ note to comment d(2012).
    ⑤Sorrells v. M.Y.B. Hospitality Ventures of Asheville(1993),332N.C.645,648,423S.E.2d72, at73.
    ⑥See Restatement (Third) of Torts: Phys.&Emot. Harm§47, reporters’ note to comment d(2012).
    ⑦See Auto Club Ins. Ass’n v. Hardiman(1998),228Mich.App.470,579N.W.2d115, at118.
    ①See Anthem Cas. Ins. Co. v. Miller(1999),729A.2d1227, at1227.
    ②Anthem Cas. Ins. Co. v. Miller(1999),729A.2d1227, at1228.
    ③Anthem Cas. Ins. Co. v. Miller(1999),729A.2d1227, at1229.
    ④See Elliott v. Allstate Ins. Co.(2007),859N.E.2d696, at698.
    ①Elliott v. Allstate Ins. Co.(2007),859N.E.2d696, at706.
    ②See Indiana Patient’s Compensation Fund v. Winkle(2007),863N.E.2d1, at3.
    ③Indiana Patient’s Compensation Fund v. Winkle(2007),863N.E.2d1, at6.
    ④Indiana Patient’s Compensation Fund v. Winkle(2007),863N.E.2d1, at7.
    ⑤Indiana Code34-18-2-22.
    ①See John L. Ropiequet, J.D.:16Am. Jur. Proof of Facts3d189.
    ②See Tracy Bateman Farrell, J.D.:23Ind. Law Encyc. Physicians and Surgeons§16.30.
    ③See Tabieros v. Clark Equipment Co.(1997),85Hawai'i336,944P.2d1279, at1292.
    ④Tabieros v. Clark Equipment Co.(1997),85Hawai'i336,944P.2d1279, at1304.
    ①Tabieros v. Clark Equipment Co.(1997),85Hawai'i336,944P.2d1279, at1304.
    ②Restatement (Second) of Torts§905, comment c (1979).
    ③Ponce v. Butts(1986),104N.M.280,720P.2d315, at322.
    ①[意]吉多·卡拉布雷西,[美]A·道格拉斯·梅拉米德:《财产规则、责任规则与不可让与性:一个权威的视角》。载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,明辉译,法律出版社2005年版,第296页。
    ②[意]吉多·卡拉布雷西,[美]A·道格拉斯·梅拉米德:《财产规则、责任规则与不可让与性:一个权威的视角》。载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,明辉译,法律出版社2005年版,第300页。
    ③See Damages, Interest and Attorney Fees in Massachusetts Litigation, Chapter1,§1.2.4Psychological Injury.
    ①Sinn v. Burd(1979),486Pa.146,404A.2d672, at678.
    ②Rodriguez v. Cambridge Housing Authority(2005),443Mass.697,823N.E.2d1249, at1254.
    ③Sanchez v. U.S.(2011),803F.Supp.2d1066, at1074.
    ④See Sanchez v. U.S.(2011),803F.Supp.2d1066, at1068.
    ⑤Sanchez v. U.S.(2011),803F.Supp.2d1066, at1074.
    ①See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at767.
    ②Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at767.
    ③[美]沃伦·A·西维:《过错:主观抑或客观》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,林海译,法律出版社2005年版,第117页。
    ①Bowen v. Lumbermens Mut. Cas. Co.(1994),183Wis.2d627,517N.W.2d432, at445.
    ②See Damages, Interest and Attorney Fees in Massachusetts Litigation, Chapter1,§1.2.4Psychological Injury.
    ③See Reilly v. U.S.(1939),547A.2d894, at894.
    ④Ga. Code Ann.,§51-12-6.
    ⑤See Sletto v. Hospital Authority(1999),239Ga.App.203,521S.E.2d199, at204.
    ⑥See Ga. Code Ann.,§51-12-5.1.
    ⑦See Alternative Health Care Systems, Inc. v. McCown(1999),237Ga.App.355,514S.E.2d691, at694.
    ①Alternative Health Care Systems, Inc. v. McCown(1999),237Ga.App.355,514S.E.2d691, at699.
    ②Restatement (Second) of Torts§904(1)(1979).
    ③Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at759.
    ④Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at200.
    ①See Duke v. Cochise County(1996),189Ariz.35,938P.2d84, at85.
    ②Duke v. Cochise County(1996),189Ariz.35,938P.2d84, at88.
    ③Duke v. Cochise County(1996),189Ariz.35,938P.2d84, at87.
    ④Watson-Nance v. City of Phoenix(2009), F.Supp.2d,2009WL792497, at5.
    ⑤Barnhill v. Davis(1981),300N.W.2d104, at107.
    ①Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at200.
    ②Tomczyk v. Jocks&Jills Restaurants, LLC(2007),513F.Supp.2d1351, at1362.
    ③See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at165.
    ④Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at166.
    ①See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at166.
    ②See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at172.
    ③Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, dissenting at173.
    ④Restatement (Second) of Torts§46, comment i (1965).
    ①Restatement (Second) of Torts§500(1965).
    ②See Restatement (Second) of Torts§46, comment i (1965).
    ③许传玺等译:《侵权法重述——纲要》,法律出版社2006年版,第5页。
    ④[美]文森特·约翰逊:《美国侵权法》,赵秀文等译,中国人民大学出版社2004年版,第7页。
    ⑤See Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at597.
    ①Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at606.
    ②Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at608.
    ③Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at607.
    ④See N.C.G.S.A.§1D-15(a).
    ⑤Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at609.
    ⑥See2009WL4897203(E.D.N.C.)(Trial Pleading).
    ①[日]大木雅夫:《比较法》,范愉译,法律出版社2006年版,第73页。
    ②王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第11页。
    ①苏永钦:《寻找新民法》,北京大学出版社2012年版,第36页。
    ②See Ugo Mattei,“Efficiency In Legal Transplants: An Essay In Comparative Law And Economics”,14International Review of Law&Economics (1994)3, at8.
    ③Ugo Mattei,“Efficiency In Legal Transplants: An Essay In Comparative Law And Economics”,14InternationalReview of Law&Economics (1994)3, at6.
    ④Ugo Mattei,“Efficiency In Legal Transplants: An Essay In Comparative Law And Economics”,14InternationalReview of Law&Economics (1994)3, at16.
    ⑤王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第15页。
    ①参见[德]布吕格迈耶尔,朱岩:《中国侵权责任法学者建议稿及其立法理由》,北京大学出版社2009年版,第158页。
    ②[美]罗伯特·考特,托马斯·尤伦:《法和经济学:第5版》。史晋川等翻译,上海,格致出版社,上海人民出版社,2010年7月第1版,第303页。
    ③[美]罗伯特·考特,托马斯·尤伦:《法和经济学:第5版》。史晋川等翻译,上海,格致出版社,上海人民出版社,2010年7月第1版,第304页。
    ①王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第16页。
    ②张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第271页。
    ③参见人民网:《联防员强奸案受害人丈夫:盼孩子长大不再受欺负》。http://health.people.com.cn/GB/16289511.html,最后访问日期:2013年8月22日。
    ①张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第273页。
    ②张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第272页。
    ③参见[西晋]陈寿:《三国志》,蜀书十,刘彭廖李刘魏杨传第十。
    ④参见祝利东因其妻在野力酒家就餐后走出走廊时倚靠酒家虚掩的门时摔伤致死诉野力酒家人身损害赔偿案,吉林省高级人民法院(司法公开示范法院),法宝引证码CLI.C.24982。
    ⑤张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第276页。
    ①郑成良:《论法治理念与法律思维》,载于《吉林大学社会科学学报》2000年第4期,第9页。
    ②奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第25页。
    ③Stanley Ingber,“Rethinking Intangible Injuries: A Focus On Remedy”,73California Law Review (1985)772, at817.
    ①巫昌祯,夏吟兰:《民法典·婚姻家庭编之我见》。载于《政法论坛》(《中国政法大学学报》)2003年第1期,第31页。
    ②王利明:《民法总论》,中国人民大学出版社2009年版,第151页。
    ③王利明:《民法总论》,中国人民大学出版社2009年版,第151页。
    ①Catherine M. Sharkey: Punitive Damages as Societal damages.113Yale Law Journal347, at392.2003.
    ②See Catherine M. Sharkey: Punitive Damages as Societal damages.113Yale Law Journal347, at392.2003.
    ③See Catherine M. Sharkey: Punitive Damages as Societal damages.113Yale Law Journal347, at392.2003.
    ④See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at165.
    ⑤Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at166.
    ①See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at166.
    ②See Grandstaff v. City of Borger, Tex.(1985),767F.2d161, at172.
    ③See Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at597.
    ④Russ v. Causey(2012),732F.Supp.2d589, at609.
    ⑤参见人民网:《长春盗车杀婴案罪犯周喜军昨被执行死刑》,http://legal.people.com.cn/n/2013/1123/c42510-23632752.html,最后访问日期:2013年12月15日。
    ⑥我国学者已经指出:“刑事案件的受害人无权请求精神损害赔偿。这正是对刑法惩罚功能和精神损害赔偿基本功能的混淆”(张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第45页)。
    ⑦参见张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第44页。
    ①谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》。载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第112页
    ②王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第12页。
    ③张新宝:《侵权责任法原理》,中国人民大学出版社2005年版。第22页。
    ①[澳]凯恩:《侵权法解剖》,汪志刚译,北京大学出版社2010年版,第19页。
    ②奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版2010年版,第18页。
    ③[德]克雷斯帝安·冯·巴尔:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下),焦美华译,法律出版社2004年版,第156页。
    ④张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第45页。
    ⑤参见杨立新:《侵权责任法:条文背后的故事与难题》,法律出版社2011年版,第79页。
    ⑥杨立新:《侵权责任法》,法律出版社2010年版,第154页。
    ①张新宝:《从司法解释到侵权责任法草案:精神损害赔偿制度的建立与完善》,载于《暨南学报(哲学社会科学版)》2009年第2期,第10页。
    ②参见马新彦,邓冰宁:《论惩罚性赔偿制度的损害填补功能》,载于《吉林大学社会科学学报》2012年第
    3期,第123页。
    ③王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第11页。
    ④奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第19页。
    ⑤奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第19页。
    ①奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第19页。
    ②王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第11页。
    ③[日]吉村良一:《日本侵权行为法》,张挺译,中国人民大学出版社2013年版,第115页。
    ④张新宝:《侵权责任法原理》,中国人民大学出版社2005年版。第22页。
    ⑤[英]大卫·葛兰:《惩罚与现代社会》,刘宗为,黄煜文译,商周出版社2006年版,第98页。
    ①参见胡红某等诉余某某提供劳务者受害责任纠纷案,(2012)桂民一初字第157号,湖南省桂东县人民法院,法宝引证码CLI.C.1413053。
    ②参见翟玉珍等诉高长社等道路交通事故人身损害赔偿案,(2008)博民初字第564号,山东省淄博市博山区人民法院,法宝引证码CLI.C.240385。
    ③参见祝利东因其妻在野力酒家就餐后走出走廊时倚靠酒家虚掩的门时摔伤致死诉野力酒家人身损害赔偿案,吉林省高级人民法院(司法公开示范法院),法宝引证码CLI.C.24982。
    ④张新宝:《侵权责任法立法:功能定位、利益平衡与制度构建》,载于《中国人民大学学报》2009年第3期,第4页。
    ①参见徐爱国:《英美侵权行为法》,法律出版社1999年版,第8页。
    ②See Stephen D. Sugarman,“Alternative Compensation Schemes And Tort Theory: Doing Away with Tort Law”,73California Law Review (1985)677, at727.
    ③张新宝:《侵权责任法立法:功能定位、利益平衡与制度构建》,载于《中国人民大学学报》2009年第3期,第4页。
    ④张新宝:《侵权责任法立法:功能定位、利益平衡与制度构建》,载于《中国人民大学学报》2009年第3期,第4页。
    ⑤王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社,2012年版,第54页。
    ①王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社,2012年版,第194页。
    ②参见张新宝:《我国侵权责任法中的补充责任》,载于《法学杂志》,2010年第6期,第4页。
    ③奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第20页。
    ①Jason M. Solomon,“Civil Recourse As Social Equality”,39Florida State University Law Review (2011)243, at252.
    ②Howard H. Kestin,“The Bystander's Cause Of Action For Emotional Injury: Reflections On The RelationalEligibility Standard”,26Seton Hall Law Review (1996)512, at535.s
    ③See Johnson v. Jamaica Hosp.(1984),62N.Y.2d523,467N.E.2d502,478N.Y.S.2d838, at838.
    ①Johnson v. Jamaica Hosp.(1984),62N.Y.2d523,467N.E.2d502,478N.Y.S.2d838, at839.
    ②Johnson v. Jamaica Hosp.(1984),62N.Y.2d523,467N.E.2d502,478N.Y.S.2d838, at840.
    ①参见谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第102页。
    ②叶金强:《伦侵权损害赔偿范围的确定》,载于《中外法学》2012年第1期,第159页。
    ③谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第102页。
    ④谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第103页。
    ⑤参见胡文华:《精神安宁权法律地位探析》,载于《河北法学》2009年8月,第96页。
    ①房绍坤:《侵权责任法的理论创新》,载于《中国海洋大学学报》2010年第6期,第39页。
    ②奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第168页。
    ①参见张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第274页。
    ①欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第15页。
    ②See Bernadette Lynch,“A Victory For Pragmatism? Nervous Shock Reconsidered”,108(Jul) Law QuarterlyReview (1992)371, at368.
    ①张新宝,高燕竹:《英美法上“精神打击”损害赔偿制度及其借鉴》,载于《法商研究》2007年第5期,第110页。
    ①李洪祥:《论我国民法典立法之亲属法体系构建的价值取向》,载于《社会科学战线》2012年第12期,第179页。
    ②谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第106页。
    ③参见李洪祥:《论我国民法典立法之亲属法体系构建的价值取向》,载于《社会科学战线》2012年第12期,第178页。
    ①参见李洪祥:《我国民法典亲属法编立法构建研究》。吉林大学2013年博士学位论文,第56页。
    ②郝秀辉:《论空难致第三人的精神损害赔偿》,《当代法学》2012年第1期,第125页。
    ③James v. Lieb(1985),221Neb.47,375N.W.2d109, at115.
    ④Colin E. Flora,“Special Relationship Bystander Test: A Rational Alternative To The Closely RelatedRequirement Of Negligent Infliction Of Emotional Distress For Bystanders”,39Rutgers Law Record(2011-2012)28, at42.
    ⑤Jedediah Purdy, The Meaning of Property, Yale University Press,2010, at35.
    ①参见欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第238页。
    ②郝秀辉:《论空难致第三人的精神损害赔偿》,载于《当代法学》2012年第1期,第125页。
    ③参见张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年第1版,第275页。
    ④Lourcey v. Estate of Scarlett(2004),146S.W.3d48, at50.
    ⑤See Catron v. Lewis(2006),271Neb.416,712N.W.2d245, at250.
    ①Dunphy v. Gregor(1994),136N.J.99,642A.2d372, at378.
    ②See Colin E. Flora,“Special Relationship Bystander Test: A Rational Alternative To The Closely RelatedRequirement Of Negligent Infliction Of Emotional Distress For Bystanders”,39Rutgers Law Record(2011-2012)28, at42.
    ③张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第274页。
    ①潘维大:《第三人精神上损害之研究》,载于《烟台大学学报<哲学社会科学版>》2004年第1期,第31页。
    ②谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第111页。
    ①尽管也有英国学者指出,身处危险区域之内的原告本身也可以被视为直接受害人。See F.A. Trindade,“Nervous Shockand Negligent Conduct”, Law Quarterly Review (1996)22, at26.
    ②See Tobin v. Grossman(1969),24N.Y.2d609,249N.E.2d419, at423.
    ①参见张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第71页。
    ②See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at766.
    ③Corgan v. Muehling(1991),143Ill.2d296,574N.E.2d602, at609.
    ④张新宝,高燕竹:《英美法上“精神打击”损害赔偿制度及其借鉴》,载于《法商研究》2007年第5期,第110页。
    ①Auto Club Ins. Ass’n v. Hardiman(1998),228Mich.App.470,579N.W.2d115, at118.
    ②Anthem Cas. Ins. Co. v. Miller(1999),729A.2d1227, at1228.
    ③Kay Wheat,“Nervous Shock: The Present State of English Law”, Journal of Personal Injury Litigation (1994)
    131, at132..
    ④张新宝,高燕竹:《英美法上“精神打击”损害赔偿制度及其借鉴》,载于《法商研究》2007年第5期,第111页。
    ①Archibald v. Braverman(1969),275Cal.App.2d253,79Cal.Rptr.723, at725.
    ②See Jansen v. Children’s Hospital Medical Center(1973),31Cal.App.3d22,106Cal.Rptr.883, at885.
    ③Gates v. Richardson(1986),719P.2d193, at199.
    ①张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第72页。
    ②张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第36页。
    ③奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第167页。
    ①See Lockett v. New Orleans City(2010),639F.Supp.2d710, at715.
    ②See Atlantic Coast Airlines v. Cook(2006),857N.E.2d989, at991.
    ③参见欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第15页。
    ④杨立新:《侵权责任法:条文背后的故事与难题》,法律出版社2011年版,第80页。
    ⑤欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第15页。
    ①See Malinguaggio v. Ryder Student Trans. Services, Inc.(1996), A.2d,1996WL500952, at1
    ②[德]拉德布鲁赫:《法学导论》。米健翻译,北京,法律出版社,2012年7月第1版,第128页。
    ③See Ramirez v. Armstrong(1983),100N.M.538,673P.2d822, at826.
    ①See Jansen v. Children’s Hospital Medical Center(1973),31Cal.App.3d22,106Cal.Rptr.883, at884.
    ②奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第171页。
    ③参见四川省高级人民法院执行最高人民法院《关于确定民事侵权精神损害赔偿责任若干问题的解释》的意见,2002年5月23日四川省高级人民法院审判委员会第36次会议讨论通过。
    ①参见重庆市高级人民法院关于审理精神损害赔偿案件若干问题的意见(试行)第五条第(一)项,2000年1月13日重庆市高级人民法院审判委员会第121次会议讨论通过。
    ②参见四川省高级人民法院执行最高人民法院《关于确定民事侵权精神损害赔偿责任若干问题的解释》的意见,2002年5月23日四川省高级人民法院审判委员会第36次会议讨论通过。
    ③参见四川省高级人民法院执行最高人民法院《关于确定民事侵权精神损害赔偿责任若干问题的解释》的意见,2002年5月23日四川省高级人民法院审判委员会第36次会议讨论通过。
    ④See Kay Wheat,“Nervous shock: the present state of English law”, Journal of Personal Injury Litigation (1994)
    131, at131.
    ⑤See Knierim v. Izzo(1961),22Ill.2d73,174N.E.2d157, at164.
    ⑥See Thing v. La Chusa(1989),48Cal.3d644,771P.2d814, at815.
    ⑦参见奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第171页。
    ①Laxton v. Orkin Exterminating Co., Inc.(1982),639S.W.2d431, at434.
    ②奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第172页。
    ③谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第105页。
    ④See Culbert v. Sampson’s Supermarkets Inc.(1982),444A.2d433, at437.
    ①参见欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第15页。
    ②Jessica K. Fink,“Protected By Association? The Supreme Court's Incomplete Approach To Defining The ScopeOf The Third-Party Retaliation Doctrine”,63Hastings Law Journal (2012)521, at538.
    ③谢鸿飞:《惊吓损害、健康损害与精神损害》,载于《华东政法大学学报》2012年第3期,第106页。
    ④林玉暖诉张建保等人身损害赔偿纠纷案,福建省厦门市思明区人民法院,(2006)思民初字第5968号。
    ①奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社,2010年版,第198页。
    ②[德]布吕格迈耶尔,朱岩:《中国侵权责任法学者建议稿及其立法理由》,北京大学出版社2009年版,第165页。
    ①奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第203页。
    ①王倩:《论侵权法上抗辩事由的内涵》,载于《现代法学》2013年5月,第89页。
    ②马新彦,邓冰宁:《论惩罚性赔偿制度的损害填补功能》,载于《吉林大学社会科学学报》2012年第3期,第119页。
    ③马新彦,邓冰宁:《现代化通讯工具大规模侵权惩罚性赔偿制度构建》,载于《求是学刊》2013年第1期,第91页。
    ①张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第19页。
    ②See Robert D. Cooter,“Punitive Damages, Social Norms, and Economic Analysis”,60Law&Contemp. Prob.(1997)73, at78.转引自马新彦,邓冰宁:《论惩罚性赔偿制度的损害填补功能》,载于《吉林大学社会科学学报》,2012年第3期,第121页。
    ③屈茂辉,武彬:《受害人近亲属缺位的死亡赔偿法律问题》,载于《法学》,2008年第2期,第154页。
    ④屈茂辉,武彬:《受害人近亲属缺位的死亡赔偿法律问题》,载于《法学》,2008年第2期,第154页。
    ①参见人民网:《最高法回应长春盗车杀婴案判赔低不能二次惩罚》。http://gongyi.people.com.cn/n/2013/0614/c152509-21839509.html,最后访问日期:2013年8月22日。
    ②参见宋学文诉吉化集团公司建设公司等案,(2000)吉民终字第219号,吉林省高级人民法院,法宝印证码CLI.C.229763。
    ③参见人民网:《联防队员强奸受害人丈夫:盼孩子长大不再受欺负》。http://health.people.com.cn/GB/16289511.html,最后访问日期为:2013年8月22日。
    ①王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第12页。
    ②马新彦,邓冰宁:《论惩罚性赔偿制度的损害填补功能》,载于《吉林大学社会科学学报》,2012年5月第3期,第122页。
    ③See Catherine M. Sharkey: Punitive Damages as Societal damages.113Yale Law Journal347, at411.2003.转引自马新彦,邓冰宁:《论惩罚性赔偿制度的损害填补功能》,载于《吉林大学社会科学学报》2012年第3期,第119页。
    ④依据爱荷华州实体法,在科处惩罚性赔偿时,陪审团应当回答两方面问题:a.被告的行为是否对他人的权利莽撞或者不计后果;b.被告的行为是针对原告个人或者针对原告所属的群体。See Iowa Code§668A.1.在2005年1月的Varboncoeur v. State Farm Fire&Cas. Co.案中,爱荷华州南部法院将这一规定解释为,若a和b的回答同时是肯定的,则原告可以获得陪审团所确定的全部数额的惩罚性赔偿;若b的回答是否定的,则原告最多可以获得惩罚性赔偿的四分之一,剩余的数额将归属爱荷华州特殊的民事司法基金。See Varboncoeur v. State Farm Fire&Cas. Co.,356F. Supp.2d935, at950.剩余的四反之三即为在原告以外的其他社会成员中分割惩罚性赔偿的数额。
    ①邓冰宁:《论机动车交通事故侵权惩罚性赔偿制度的确立》,吉林大学2011年硕士论文,第20页。
    ②[德]鲁道夫·冯·耶林:《罗马私法中的过错要素》,柯伟才译,中国法制出版社2009年版,第82页。
    ③王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第412页。
    ①王利明,周友军,高圣平:《侵权责任法疑难问题研究》,中国法制出版社2012年版,第412页。
    ②See Edwin H. Byrd, III,“Reflections on Willful, Wanton, Reckless, and Gross Negligence”,48Louisiana LawReview (1988)1383, at1397.
    ②Howard H. Kestin,“The Bystander's Cause Of Action For Emotional Injury: Reflections On The RelationalEligibility Standard”,26Seton Hall Law Review (1996)512, at532.
    ③S. Claire Swift,“Bystander Liability After Dunphy v. Gregor: A Proposal For A New Definition Of TheBystander”,15Review of Litigation (1997)579, at586.
    ④张新宝:《精神损害赔偿制度研究》,法律出版社2012年版,第38页。
    ⑤[美]罗伯特·E·基顿:《侵权法中有条件的过错》,载于《哈佛法律评论·侵权法学精粹》,林海译,法律出版社2005年版,第145页。
    ①See Leong v. Takasaki(1974),55Haw.398,520P.2d758, at767.
    ②参见朱红蔚申请无罪逮捕国家赔偿案,(2011)法委赔字第4号,最高人民法院赔偿委员会。
    ③欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第237页。
    ①Stanley Ingber,“Rethinking Intangible Injuries: A Focus On Remedy”,73California Law Review (1985)772, at782.
    ②奚晓明主编,最高人民法院侵权责任法研究小组编著:《<中华人民共和国侵权责任法>条文理解与适用》,人民法院出版社2010年版,第173页。
    ③[德]克雷斯帝安·冯·巴尔:《欧洲比较侵权行为法》(下),焦美华译,法律出版社2004年版,第199页。
    ④[日]吉村良一:《日本侵权行为法》,张挺译,中国人民大学出版社2013年版,第115页。
    ①欧洲侵权法小组:《欧洲侵权法原则:文本与评注》,于敏,谢鸿飞译,法律出版社2009年版,第15页。
    ②参见吴丽华与高荣妹等船舶碰撞损害责任纠纷上诉案,(2013)浙湖民终字第82号,浙江省湖州市中级人民法院,法宝引证码CLI.C.1345066。
    ③参见张某华等诉张X等机动车交通事故责任纠纷,(2012)浦民初字第1491号,广西省钦州市浦北县人民法院。
    ④参见祝利东因其妻在野力酒家就餐后走出走廊时倚靠酒家虚掩的门时摔伤致死诉野力酒家人身损害赔偿案,吉林省高级人民法院(司法公开示范法院),法宝引证码CLI.C.24982。
    ⑤参见白城铁路医院与谷秀娟医疗损害赔偿纠纷上诉案,吉林省高级人民法院(司法公开示范法院),法宝引证码CLI.C.183507。
    ①[美]Richard·A·Epstein:《Torts》,影印本,北京,中信出版社,2003年12月第1版,第439页。
    ②[日]吉村良一:《日本侵权行为法》,张挺译,中国人民大学出版社2013年版,第115页。
    ③See Richard·A·Epstein:Torts,影印本,中信出版社,2003年版,at439.
    ①See A. Mitchell Polinsky, Steven Shavell,“Punitive damages: An Economic Analysis”,111Harvard LawReview (1998)869, at902.
    ②Dorsey D. Ellis, JR.,“Punitive Damages: Fairness and Efficiency in the Law of Punitive Damages”,56SouthCalifornia Law Review (1982)1, at10.
    ③王利明:《惩罚性赔偿研究》,载于《中国社会科学》2000年第4期。第122页。
    ④参见程啸:《侵权行为法总论》,中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第507页。
    ①See American Tort Reform Association, http://www.atra.org/issues/index.php?issue=7343.最后访问日期:2010年1月20日。
    ②参见程啸:《侵权行为法总论》,中国人民大学出版社2008年版,第507页。
    ①See Robert D. Cooter,“Punitive Damages, Social Norms, and Economic Analysis”,60Law&Contemp. Prob.(1997)73, at89.
    ②See A. Mitchell Polinsky, Steven Shavell,3700Punitive Damages, From Encyclopedia of Law and Economics,Volume II,Edward Elgar Publishing,2000.
    ③See American Tort Reform Association, http://www.atra.org/issues/index.php?issue=7343.最后访问日期:2010年1月20日.
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    2. Robert L. Rabin,“Emotional Distress In Tort Law: Themes Of Constraint”,44Wake Forest Law Review (2009)1197.
    3. Robert L. Rabin,“Tort Recovery For Negligently Inflicted Economic Loss: AReassessment”,37Stanford Law Review (1985)1513.
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    5. Robert J. Rhee,“A Principled Solution For Negligent Infliction Of EmotionalDistress Claims”,36Arizona State Law Journal (2004)805.
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    9. David Paul Bleisteine,“Foreseeability In Chains: Towards A Rational AnalyticalFramework For Accident And Medical Malpractice Case Of Negligent InflictionOf Emotional Distress In California”,29Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review(1995)343.
    10. Archibald H. Throckmorton,“Damages For Fright”,34Harvard Law Review(1921)260.
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    1.张新宝,高燕竹:《英美法上“精神打击”损害赔偿制度及其借鉴》,载于《法商研究》2007年第5期。
    2.张新宝,郭明龙:《论侵权死亡的精神损害赔偿》,载于《法学杂志》2009年第1期。
    3.张新宝:《从司法解释到侵权责任法草案:精神损害赔偿制度的建立与完善》,载于《暨南学报(哲学社会科学版)》2009年第2期。
    4.张新宝:《侵权死亡赔偿研究》,载于《法学研究》2008年第4期。
    5.张新宝:《侵权责任法立法的利益衡量》,载于《中国法学》2009年第4期。
    6.张新宝:《<侵权责任法>死亡赔偿制度解读》,载于《中国法学》2010年第3期。
    7.潘维大:《第三人精神上损害之研究》,载于《烟台大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》2004年第1期。
    8.王利明:《人格权法的发展与完善》,载于《法律科学(西北政法大学学报)》2012年第4期。
    9.鲁晓明:《论纯粹精神损害赔偿》,载于《法学家》,2010年第1期。
    10.叶金强:《精神损害赔偿制度的解释论框架》,载于《法学家》2011年第5期。
    11.韩松:《人身侵权损害赔偿中的第三人损害及其赔偿请求权》,载于《华东政法学院学报》2006年第3期。
    12.韩赤风:《论精神损害的适用及其排除》,载于《法学》,2006年第10期。
    13.周琼:《论过失导致的纯粹精神损害》,载于《环球法律评论》2010年第5期。
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