变迁的眼光—欧美学界对非洲艺术的认知与研究方法
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摘要
西方学界对非洲艺术的研究已有百年的历史。人类学家最初关注这一领域，并以不同的理论方法，尤其是功能论、象征—结构论和历史特殊论，来进行解读，他们的根本目标在于关注社会或文化结构，而且对后来的非洲艺术研究有着重要的影响。从上世纪50年代开始，艺术界学者才真正研究非洲艺术，尽管20世纪初期非洲雕刻的形式已经被西方现代艺术界广泛欣赏和接受。
非洲艺术研究进入艺术史的视野经历了一个变迁的过程，从不被接纳到艺术史界开拓者的努力，欧美对非洲艺术的研究逐渐丰富。这些开拓者如道格拉斯·弗雷泽、罗伯特·汤普森和罗伊·西贝尔，既有学院艺术史的背景，又受到了人类学的影响，以自己独特的方式开创了非洲艺术研究从人类学到艺术史领域的转变。他们培养了一批去非洲做田野研究的学生，其影响延续至今天。同时，非洲艺术研究进入艺术史的视野也折射出20世纪50年代以来艺术史的方法不断丰富、视野逐步拓展的趋势，如体现在视觉人类学领域。
欧美对非洲艺术的研究有着鲜明的方法论色彩，而且不断变化，学者们从最初试图拼力了解非洲到最后发现自身思维定式的问题，经历了从走进非洲到反思自身的过程，如体现在从产生“部族—风格”范式到打破这一范式的种种讨论，以及从鉴别“真实”的非洲艺术到发现一切只是自己的想象与文化霸权问题。反映出欧美学界在不断反思与推翻中前进的特点。
国内对非洲艺术的认知来自欧美，同时又不了解这一研究过程，往往是断片式的同时接收欧美百年的研究成果，而不知其演变顺序，由此造成了千篇一律、断章取义以及认知滞后的现状。了解欧美研究非洲艺术的情况，不仅能为国内对相关领域的认知与研究在方法上提供借鉴，而且也展现出艺术史学科的一片热闹景象。
The West has conducted researches on African art for one hundred years. African artis firstly studied in the field of anthropology where anthropologists adopt differentparadigms—particularly functionalist, symbolic and structural approachs andhistorical particularism—to interpret African art and their goal is to look at the socialor cultural structure. Although at the beginning of20th century, the form of Africansculpture has been widely appreciated and accepted by Western modern art circle, it isnot until1950s that scholars from the art field started to research African art.
African art research being included into art history is a changing process. Frombeing unaccepted to academic leaders striving forward in early times, the West hasgradually enriched their researches. The academic leaders, such as Douglas Fraser,Robert Farris Thompson and Roy Sieber, acquired profound academic art historybackgrounds, and also were influenced by anthropology. They have initiated thetransformation of African art research from the field of anthropology to that of arthistory. Moreover, they trained a group of students who did field researches in Africa,and its impact continues to this day. Meanwhile, including African art in art historyalso reflects a constant enriching of methods and extending of perspectives in arthistory since1950s, like the rise of visual anthropology.
The research conducted by the West on African art embraces a distinctivecharacter of methodology and experiences continuous development. The scholarsattempt to interpret Africa but finally discovered their own problems existing in theirown concepts, undergoing the course of “entering Africa” to “rethinking themselves”.For example, they held “one tribe-one style” model at first but then broke it graduallyin various discussions; they identify “authentic” African art but finally discovered thatthey were just immersed in their own imagination and cultural hegemony. All ofwhich reveal the academic characteristics of continuous reflection and overturnconducted by Western African art researchers.
By contrast, domestic awareness of African art comes from the West; however,we are not fully understanding of western research process on African art, and havereceived a century of western research findings of African art with fragments at onetime, without knowing the changing sequence, therefore resulting in monotonous,segmented and hysteretic cognition status quo. Recognizing western research processcan not only provide reference of cognition and research methods for related researchfields in domestic, but also demonstrate a lively scene of art history.
非洲艺术研究进入艺术史的视野经历了一个变迁的过程，从不被接纳到艺术史界开拓者的努力，欧美对非洲艺术的研究逐渐丰富。这些开拓者如道格拉斯·弗雷泽、罗伯特·汤普森和罗伊·西贝尔，既有学院艺术史的背景，又受到了人类学的影响，以自己独特的方式开创了非洲艺术研究从人类学到艺术史领域的转变。他们培养了一批去非洲做田野研究的学生，其影响延续至今天。同时，非洲艺术研究进入艺术史的视野也折射出20世纪50年代以来艺术史的方法不断丰富、视野逐步拓展的趋势，如体现在视觉人类学领域。
欧美对非洲艺术的研究有着鲜明的方法论色彩，而且不断变化，学者们从最初试图拼力了解非洲到最后发现自身思维定式的问题，经历了从走进非洲到反思自身的过程，如体现在从产生“部族—风格”范式到打破这一范式的种种讨论，以及从鉴别“真实”的非洲艺术到发现一切只是自己的想象与文化霸权问题。反映出欧美学界在不断反思与推翻中前进的特点。
国内对非洲艺术的认知来自欧美，同时又不了解这一研究过程，往往是断片式的同时接收欧美百年的研究成果，而不知其演变顺序，由此造成了千篇一律、断章取义以及认知滞后的现状。了解欧美研究非洲艺术的情况，不仅能为国内对相关领域的认知与研究在方法上提供借鉴，而且也展现出艺术史学科的一片热闹景象。
The West has conducted researches on African art for one hundred years. African artis firstly studied in the field of anthropology where anthropologists adopt differentparadigms—particularly functionalist, symbolic and structural approachs andhistorical particularism—to interpret African art and their goal is to look at the socialor cultural structure. Although at the beginning of20th century, the form of Africansculpture has been widely appreciated and accepted by Western modern art circle, it isnot until1950s that scholars from the art field started to research African art.
African art research being included into art history is a changing process. Frombeing unaccepted to academic leaders striving forward in early times, the West hasgradually enriched their researches. The academic leaders, such as Douglas Fraser,Robert Farris Thompson and Roy Sieber, acquired profound academic art historybackgrounds, and also were influenced by anthropology. They have initiated thetransformation of African art research from the field of anthropology to that of arthistory. Moreover, they trained a group of students who did field researches in Africa,and its impact continues to this day. Meanwhile, including African art in art historyalso reflects a constant enriching of methods and extending of perspectives in arthistory since1950s, like the rise of visual anthropology.
The research conducted by the West on African art embraces a distinctivecharacter of methodology and experiences continuous development. The scholarsattempt to interpret Africa but finally discovered their own problems existing in theirown concepts, undergoing the course of “entering Africa” to “rethinking themselves”.For example, they held “one tribe-one style” model at first but then broke it graduallyin various discussions; they identify “authentic” African art but finally discovered thatthey were just immersed in their own imagination and cultural hegemony. All ofwhich reveal the academic characteristics of continuous reflection and overturnconducted by Western African art researchers.
By contrast, domestic awareness of African art comes from the West; however,we are not fully understanding of western research process on African art, and havereceived a century of western research findings of African art with fragments at onetime, without knowing the changing sequence, therefore resulting in monotonous,segmented and hysteretic cognition status quo. Recognizing western research processcan not only provide reference of cognition and research methods for related researchfields in domestic, but also demonstrate a lively scene of art history.
引文
1Fry, Roger.1923."Negro Sculpture," in Vision and Design. London: Chatto&Windus.
2关于西方对非洲艺术的发现、记载，非洲艺术进入西方艺术界与公众视野的过程，参见Leiris, Michel.1968.African art (The Arts of mankind). New York: Golden Press. P1-34.
2关于人类学与非洲研究，参见：Aidan Southall.1983.“The Contribution ofAnthropology toAfrican Studies.”African Studies Review26/3/4:63-76.
3“African Art and Modern Western Art”. in Robbins, Warren M and Nooter, Nancy Ingram.2004. African art inAmerican collections: survey1989. Schiffer Pub.Ltd.pp.22-26.
1关于这个事实的论述很常见，如“African Art and Modern WesternArt”第22页。
2W.MacGaffey,‘The Eyes of Understanding: Kongo Minkisi’, Astonishment and Power (exh.cat., Washington,DC, N.Mus.Afr.A.,1993-4), pp.21-103
3[澳]罗伯特·休斯（Robert Hughes）：《新的冲击——写给大众的西方现代艺术的百年历史》，欧阳昱译，百花文艺出版社，2003年，第14页。
4Fry, Roger.1933.“Negro Sculpture at the Lefevre Gallery.” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs,62/363,1933-06-01:289-290.
1Fry, Roger.1923."Negro Sculpture," in Vision and Design. London: Chatto&Windus.
2[澳]罗伯特·休斯（Robert Hughes）：《新的冲击——写给大众的西方现代艺术的百年历史》，欧阳昱译，百花文艺出版社，2003年，第14页。
3Fry, Roger.1933.“Negro Sculpture at the Lefevre Gallery.” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs,62/363:289-290.
4同上。
1Thompson, Robert Farris.1973."Yoruba Artistic Criticism", pp.19-61in Warren L.d'Azevedo(ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.James W. Fernandez,'Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics', The Journal ofAesthetics and Art Criticism,25:1,1966-10-011966,53-64.
1李彩：《20世纪以来中国对非洲艺术的认知》，硕士学位论文，浙江师范大学2010年。
1W.MacGaffey,‘The Eyes of Understanding: Kongo Minkisi’, Astonishment and Power (exh.cat., Washington,DC, N.Mus.Afr.A.,1993-4), pp.21-103
2Jan Vansina.1984. Art History in Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.
3P. Guillaume and T.Munro, Primitive Negro Sculpture (London,1926)
4W.Gillon: A Short History of African Art (Harmondsworth,1984)
1Guillaume,Paul. and Munro,Thomas.1926. Primitive Negro Sculpture. London: Harcourt, Brace.
2Willett, Frank.1971. African Art: An Introduction. New York: Thames and Hudson. P27.
1关于人类学与非洲研究，参见：Aidan Southall.1983.“The Contribution ofAnthropology toAfrican Studies.”African Studies Review26/3/4:63-76.
2Tessman, Günter.1913. Die Pangwe: v lkerkundliche monographie eines West-Afrikanische Negerstammes.Berlin: E. Wasmuth, A.G.Torday, Emil and Joyce, T.A.1911. Notes ethnographiques sur les peuples communément appelés Bakuba, ainsique sur les peuplades apparentées, Les Bushongo. Brussels: Librairie Falk.Frobenius, Leo.1912-1919. Und Afrika sprach. Berlin: Vita.
3见比耶比克、赫布兰德、万斯那对这一时期研究情况的评述：Biebuyck, Daniel P.1983."AfricanArt StudiesSince1957: Achievements and Directions." African Studies Review26/3,4:99-118.P101-03；Gerbrands, A.A.1957. Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill.P66-121；Vansina, Jan.1984. ArtHistory in Africa. London: Longman.P19.
1Mudimbe, V.Y.1986."African Art as a Question Mark." African Studies Review29/1:3-4.
2埃米尔·涂尔干与卡尔·马克思及马克斯·韦伯并列为社会学的三大奠基人，《社会学年鉴》创刊人，是法国学院社会学的创始人和古代或原始社会研究方面最有影响的早期理论家，法国首位社会学教授。受教于巴黎高等师范学校，获哲学教师学位和博士学位。1887年在波尔多的一所大学任教，1902年移居到巴黎索邦大学，直至1917年逝世。涂尔干的突出贡献在于他对社会学研究的科学性的确立，尤其是其“社会事实”概念的提出，实际是使社会学超出个人因素的困扰，而在一个更为广泛的意义上使社会学无论在理论还是方法上都更加明确。涂尔干的理论观点和社会学方法对民族学研究有重要的价值和影响。第一，他强调客观地研究现象本身，用客观考察、对比事实的方法研究社会现象。第二，涂尔干提出的“集体表象”概念，在说明社会条件对个人意识的作用上，有积极的一面。同一社会的成员的共同行为方式、思维方式和感觉方式的特征是从该社会自觉或不自觉地接受的。第三，涂尔干提出了各种研究方法，提出社会环境决定因果关系。他对象征—结构论的影响将在下文述及。
1迪尔凯姆（涂尔干）：《社会学研究方法论》，胡伟译，华夏出版社，1988年。
2马林诺夫斯基1884年生于波兰，其父亲是一名语言学教授。先后学习过数学、物理学和哲学，本科毕业后去伦敦经济学院学习人类学，1914年去澳大利亚进行田野调查。1922—1938年在伦敦经济学院任教，二战时期居住在美国，接受耶鲁大学终身教职后不久便去世。他最著名的著作是《西太平洋的航海者》（1922），具体描述了库拉交换规则以及一些仪式的细节。他培养了雷蒙德·弗斯、菲利普·卡伯里、艾琳·克里格、莫尼卡·威尔森和希尔达·库珀等著名的学生，他们都带有“马林诺夫斯基的”特点。他鼓励人类学家进行长期的田野工作，与报道人保持很长时间的密切联系。拉德克利夫-布朗，1881年生于伯明翰。1901年进入剑桥三一学院学习人类学，然后继续在该校攻读硕士学位，两次留学法国，深受法国社会学尤其是涂尔干著作的影响。1906—1910年期间先后在安达曼群岛和西澳大利亚进行田野调查。从1909年开始在三一学院讲授社会人类学，并先后在开普敦、悉尼、芝加哥和牛津等大学讲授该课程。1935年曾应燕京大学的邀请来中国讲学。30年代在美国芝加哥大学任教，1937年后主持牛津大学人类学系。二战期间曾任英国皇家人类学学会会长。他对人类学的贡献主要表现在方法论上。他系统地提出了结构和功能的理论，被称为“结构—功能论”（structural functionalism）。他提倡比较的观点，推崇归纳法，认为人类学可以通过比较发现“社会的自然法则”，他提出社会人类学的任务不是构拟各族的具体历史，而是“运用某种逻辑方法来发现和证明某些普遍规律”，“社会人类学一词用来表示力求形成贯穿于文化现象的一般规律的研究”。（参见A. R.拉德克利夫—布朗：《社会人类学方法》，夏建中译，山东人民出版社，1988，第4页。）作为经验论者，他反对推测构成社会的体系或制度起源，并认为人类学家只应该研究他们所发现的东西。他注重事实，认为将事实联系起来的最简单的方法就是将社会视为一个由活生生的、由互动的各部分组成的单位进行研究。在《论社会科学的功能概念》（1935）一文中他还提出了社会结构的概念，并且把结构和功能联系在一起，反对那些不与社会结构相联系的功能定义。他的结构论以及对结构主义的影响将在下文述及。拉德克利夫-布朗和马林诺夫斯基通力合作，促使英联邦几乎每一位人类学家意识到旧有的人类学进化论和传播伦不再适宜作为人类学的研究领域。大多数英国人类学家及许多美国人类学家，都遵循着拉德克利夫-布朗的思路，他们设想，人类学作为填补田野民族志细节的学科，要概况具体社会，并对这些社会与其它社会进行比较；不对过去进行臆测，而是着眼于阐述社会体系如何发挥功能；不强调个体行为，而寻求更宽泛的模式；最重要的是，将部分组合在一起，以理解社会结构要素如何在彼此关系中发挥功能。马林诺夫斯基的影响主要在英国，特别是他创立“参与观察”传统方面。拉德克利夫-布朗在南非和澳大利亚有很大的影响力，也传播到美国。总之，功能主义源自进化论思想，作为人类学的观点与范式盛行起来，部分地来源于涂尔干，后由马林诺夫斯基和拉德克利夫-布朗继续推进，而且他们两位和他们的继承者为全球范围的学科建立了制度化的基础。
1在《文化论》中，马林诺夫斯基把文化分为物质设备、精神文化、语言和社会组织四个方面，认为人类学是研究文化的特殊科学，文化要素的动态性质揭示了人类学的重要工作就是研究文化的功能，而文化的意义就在文化要素的关系中。并认为文化的真正要素是社会制度，比如任何一个物品，只有将它放在社会制度的文化布局中去解释它所处的地位，才能得到它的文化意义。费孝通认为，自功能学派开始，才重视文化对于人类社会生活的效用及功能，确认文化为人类生活的手段，这是功能学派在理论上对于人类学的基本贡献。参见B. K.马林诺夫斯基：《文化论》，费孝通等译，第2，15—23页，中国民间文艺出版社，1987。
2雷蒙德·弗斯[Raymond Firth，1901—2002]，生于新西兰，曾担任伦敦经济学院人类学教授，他被认为独立创建了英国经济人类学的形式。1921年毕业于奥克兰大学经济学专业，1922年在那里攻读硕士学位，1923年获得社会科学类硕士学位。1924年他在伦敦经济学院开始做博士论文的研究计划，一开始打算研究经济，但当他偶遇著名的社会人类学家马林诺夫斯基时，受马林诺夫斯基的影响，他将研究领域改为“太平洋地区经济和人类学理论的结合”。可能就是在英国期间他是《金枝》的作者——詹姆斯·弗雷泽爵士[Sir JamesG Frazer]的助理。1927年获得博士学位，1929年他的博士论文《新西兰毛利人的原始经济学》出版。1927年他去悉尼大学工作，1928年首次去所罗门群岛最南边的提克皮亚岛做调查，研究那里未与外界接触的波利尼西亚社会，其仍然保持着原始的宗教习俗和经济，从那时起弗斯出版了相当多的研究文献，首部著作是1936年出版的《我们，提克皮亚岛：原始波利尼西亚亲属关系的社会学研究》（We, the Tikopia: ASociological Study of Kinship in Primitive Polynesia），70年后，在很多大学里这部著作依然被用作大洋洲相关课程的基础读物。1930年他开始在悉尼大学教课，拉德克利夫-布朗离开后，他继任代理教授以及澳大利亚国家研究委员会人类学研究委员会的代理主任。1939—1940年他在马来西亚从事田野工作。1944年弗斯继马林诺夫斯基后成为伦敦政治经济学院的社会人类学教授，1968年后他先后在夏威夷大学、不列颠哥伦比亚大学、康奈尔大学、芝加哥大学、纽约大学、加州大学戴维斯分校任太平洋人类学访问教授。其研究著作多集中于太平洋地区经济、社会的人类学研究。
3Firth, Raymond.1951."The Social Framework of Primitive Art," pp.155-182in Raymond Firth. Elements ofSocial Organization. London: Watts.
4同上，第179页。
1Haselberger, H.1961.“Methods of studying ethnological art.” Current Anthropology,2:341-384.
2Balandier, Georges.1966.“Les Conditions sociologiques de l’art noir,” pp.59-67in L’Art Nègre. Paris:PrésenceAfricaine.巴朗迪耶，法国民族学家，索邦大学名誉退休教授，法国高等社会科学院非洲研究中心主任。
3Adandé，Alexandre.1955."Fonctions et significations sociales des masques en Afrique noire." PrésenceAfricaine, n.s.1/1,2:24-38；Mveng, Engelbert.1968."The Function and Significance of Negro Art in the Life ofthe Peoples of Black Africa," pp,11-27in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Présence Africaine.
4Trowell, Kathleen Margaret.1954. Classical African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.
5Gerbrands, A.A.1957. Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill.格布兰兹[AdriaanAlexander Gerbrands，1917-1997]，1917年生于当时荷属东印度群岛的美娜多。在莱顿大学学习印度学，期间对人类学产生兴趣。1947—1966年在莱顿市的民族学国家博物馆工作，后成为非洲和美洲部的主管，还策划展览和制作民族学电影，1956年以《作为文化要素的艺术，尤以黑非洲为例》获得莱顿大学的哲学和语言学博士学位。1960—1961年在新几内亚做田野调查，并借此扩充了扩充了博物馆的藏品。1966年接受了莱顿大学的文化人类学席位的教授一职。
6Brain, Robert.1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman.
7Himmelheber, Hans.1935. Negerkünstler. Strecker und Schr der, pp.49.
8Bascom, William R.1962."African Arts and Social Control." African Studies Bulletin5/2:22-5.Biebuyck, Daniel P.1954."Function of a Lega Mask." International Archives of Ethnography47/1:108-20；1968."Art as a Didactic Device in African Initiation Systems." African Forum3/4,4；1972."The Kindi Aristocrats andTheir Art Among the Lega," pp.7-20in Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership.Madison: University of Wiscons in Press；1973. Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among aCentral African People. Berkeley: University of California Press.Cory, Hans.1956. African Figurines: Their Ceremonial Use in Puberty Rites in Tanganyika. London:Faber and Faber.Harley, George W.1950. Masks as Agents of Social Control in Northeast Liberia. Cambridge,Mass.: PeabodyMuseum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.Holas, Bohumil.1952. Les masques Kono. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner.Le Moal, Guy.1980. Les Bobo: nature etfonction des masques. Paris: ORSTOM.Mesquitela, Lima A.G.1978."L'Artiste en Afrique noire: quelques remarques sur le statut de l'artistee n AfriqueBantoue traditionnelle."Arts d'Afrique Noire25:14-20.Messenger, John C.1962."Anang Art, Drama, and Social Control."African Studies Bulletin5/2:29-35.Ottenberg, Simon.1972."Humorous Masks and Serious Politics Among the Afikpo Ibo," pp.99-121in DouglasFraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Sieber, Roy.1962b."Masks as Agents of Social Control."African Studies Bulletin5/2:8-13.Twala, Regina G.1951."Beads as Regulating the Social Life of the Zulu and Swazi." African Studies10:113-23.Van Geertruyen, Godelieve.1976."La fonction de la sculpture dans une société africaine: les Baga,Nalu etLanduman (Guinée)." Africana Gandensia1:63-113.Weil, Peter M.1971."The Masked Figure and Social Control: The Mandinka Case." Africa41/4:279-93.
1奥滕伯格[Simon Ottenberg]，华盛顿大学的人类学教授，1957年在西北大学获得博士学位，他的导师是赫斯科维茨。奥滕伯格以非洲艺术研究闻名，尤其是对尼日利亚艺术的研究。
2Ottenberg, Simon.1972.第119页。
3Trowell, Kathleen Margaret.1954. Classical African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.
4同上，第32页。
1Baumann, Hermann.1969. Afrikanische Plastik und sakrales Kbnigtum: ein sozialer Aspekt traditionellerafrikanisher Kunst. Munich: Verlag des Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenshaften.Brain, Robert.1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman.Dittmer, Kunz.1968."Medieval Art in the Royal Courts of West Africa," pp.67-72in Colloquium on Negro Art.Dakar: Editions Presence Africaine.Dark, Philip J.1973. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Geary, Christraud M.1981."The Idiom of War in the Bamum Court Arts." African Studies CenterWorking Papers (Boston), No.51.Vansina, Jan.1968."Kuba Art and Its Cultural Context." African Forum3/4,4/1:12-27；1972."Ndop: RoyalStatues Among the Kuba," pp.41-55in Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership.
2Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.弗雷泽和科尔师徒是美国研究非洲艺术的艺术史家，将在下一章详细介绍其背景。
3Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M.(eds.)1972.第305页。
4迪尔凯姆（涂尔干）：《社会学研究方法论》，胡伟译，华夏出版社，1988年，第108页
5例如Fischer, John L.1961."Art Styles as Cultural Cognitive Maps." American Anthropologist63/1:79-93.
6Wolfe, Alvin W.1969."Social Structural Bases of Art."Current Anthropology10/1:3-44.
1涂尔干：《社会学研究方法论》，第110页。
2Faris, James C.1978.“The Productive Basis of Aesthetic Traditions: Some African Examples,” pp.317-339inMichael Greenhalgh and Vincent Megaw (eds.) Art in Society. New York: St. Martin's Press.
3人类学家本-阿莫斯[Ben-Amos]和比耶比克分别在“African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective”和“AfricanArt Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions”中提出这一问题。
4Siegmann, William C.1980."Spirit Manifestation and the Poro Society." Ethnologische Zeitschrift Ziirich1:89-95.
5Firth, Raymond. ed.1980. Man and Culture, An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski. London:Routledge and Kega Paul. P.89.
1Firth, Raymond.1951."The Social Framework of Primitive Art," pp.155-82in Raymond Firth. Elements ofSocial Organization. London: Watts.第167页。
2Siroto, Leon.1972."Gon: A Mask Used in Competition for Leadership Among the Bakwele," pp.57-77inDouglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison:University of Wisconsin Press.
3Janzen, John M.1977."The Tradition of Renewal in Kongo Religion," pp.69-115in Newell S.Booth (ed.)African Religions: A Symposium. New York: Nok Publishers.
4比耶比克，1925年生于比利时，非洲中部艺术研究的权威人物，非洲艺术语境研究的开创者之一。曾学习古典哲学、法律和民族志，并在伦敦大学研究社会人类学，1949—1961年期间在现在称为刚果民主共和国中做田野调查，对莱加等部族做了大量的研究。作为人类学教授在特拉华州退休，也是鲁汶大学、耶鲁等大学的客座教授，讲授文化和社会人类学、非洲艺术和口头文献。
5Biebuyck, Daniel.1973. Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among a Central AfricanPeople.Berkeley: University of California Press. P.170,173.
6同上，第232页。
1Layton, Robert.1981. The Anthropology of Art. New York: Columbia University Press. P.41.
2Durkheim, Emile.1912. Les formes dlementaires de la vie religieuse: le systeme totimiqueen Australie.Paris: Alcan.[Translated, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology. London:George Allen and Unwin,1915.]
3Ben-Amos, Paula.1981.“There Are Three Things in the Palace That Are Threatening: Royal Ritual Symbolismin Benin.”Paper presented at the Seminar on Visual Art as Social Commentary in Africa, School of Oriental andAfrican Studies, University of London.
4Meyerowitz, Eva.1951. The Sacred State of the Akan. London: Faber and Faber.
5B. K.马林诺夫斯基：《文化论》，费孝通等译，第15—23页，中国民间文艺出版社，1987。
6例如Abíódún, Rowland.1975.“Ifa Art Objects: An Interpretation Based on Oral Traditions”；Arnoldi, Mary Jo.1986.“Puppet Theatre: Form and Ideology in Bamana Performances.”；Bay, Edna G.1985. Asen: Iron Altars ofthe Fon People of Benin；Biebuyck, Daniel P.1977.“Symbolism of the Lega Stool”；Brett-Smith, Sarah C.1982.“Symbolic Blood: Cloths for Excised Women”；Drewal, Henry John.1977.“Art and the Perception of Women inYoruba Culture”；Drewal, Margaret Thompson.1977.“Projections from the Top in Yoruba Art”；Lamp, Frederick.1985.“Cosmos, Cosmetics and the Spirit of Bondo”；Siroto, Leon.1979.“Witchcraft Belief in the Explanation ofTraditional African Iconography”；Wescott, Joan.1962.“The Sculpture and Myths of Eshu-Elegba, the YorubaTrickster: Definition and Interpretationin Yoruba Iconography.”等
7Davenport,William.1973."TheI nterpretationo f Symbolism in Primitive Art." Paper presented at the CollegeArt Association Meeting, New York.
1Hodder, Ian R.(ed.)1982. Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.第4页。
2E.涂尔干：《宗教生活的基本形式》，渠东等译，第17页，上海人民出版社，1999。
3体现在《宗教生活的初级形式》（The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life），尤其是与莫斯（Marcel Mauss）合著的《原始分类》（Primitive Classification）中。
4Durkheim, Emile and Mauss, Marcel.1963(1903). Primitive Classification (translated from the French byRodney Needham). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. E.涂尔干、莫斯：《原始分类》，汲喆译，上海人民出版社，2000。
5涂尔干关注澳大利亚原始部落中的图腾崇拜，其研究目的却是为了“理解现今的人”，为了解释宗教的社会功能和论证共同意识对社会秩序建立的必要性。他批判了早期人类学家对宗教起源的两种解释—万物有灵论和自然崇拜论。他认为，宗教不是要给人们一种对于物质世界的描述，而是服务于社会。图腾是民族的标志、旗帜，图腾原则就是民族本身。人们崇拜图腾实际上是崇拜他们所属的那个团体，图腾是团体的象征，他认为宗教的神圣来自社会，是被实体化、人格化了的团体力量，即道德力量。这些神圣象征物（即宗教）的功能不仅在于帮助人们感到社会实体的存在，更在于维系社会，促进其整合。涂尔干分析了原始宗教中的多种仪式，认为它们起着维系社会、使之一体化的功能。他指出，不仅原始社会需要宗教的这种功能，“社会生活在其每一方面，在其每一个历史时期，都要靠一个大的象征体系才成为可能”，这一点是他晚年思想中的最大转变。（Durkheim, Emile.1915(1912).The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: AStudyin Religious Sociology (translated from the French by Joseph Ward Swain). London: George Allen&Unwin.）“涂尔干关于象征行为的功能理论激发了社会科学领域里的三条发展路径：结构语言学，关于神话与仪式的结构功能，功能主义宗教学说。”参见罗伯特·莱顿：《他者的眼光：人类学理论入门》，蒙养山人译，华夏出版社，2005。
1Mauss, Marcel.1954. The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchage in Archaic Societies. London: Coehn and West,pp.11.马塞尔·莫斯[Marcel Mauss，1872—1950]，法国社会学家和人类学家，涂尔干的学生和外甥，法国民族学的实际开创者。他精通多种语言，包括梵文，因其对不同文化中有关魔术、牺牲和礼物交换的分析而对人类学的多个领域产生了深远的影响。他影响了拉德克里夫—布朗、马林诺夫斯基、埃文斯—普里查德、弗斯、赫斯科维茨等大批学者以及结构人类学的创立者列维-斯特劳斯。1926年与列维—布留尔等人建立巴黎大学的民族研究所。除与涂尔干合著的《原始分类》外，他最有代表性的著作是《礼物》，他指出尽管理论上讲送礼是自愿的，但这源自对礼物接受一方的期望，具有一种偿还因素。即礼物并不是免费的，而是嵌入在一套权利与义务体系中，在任何社会都构成社会结构的部分。他列举的例子包括波利尼西亚人和美拉尼西亚人之间和北美西海岸民族中的仪式性交换。涂尔干与莫斯推进的理论不仅有结构-功能主义的要素，而且还有进化论和结构主义的要素。所有这些理论都建立在公开承认人类心理一致性的基础上。莫斯还主张用统计学的方法以及借鉴心理学和生物学来进行民族学研究。
2受涂尔干与莫斯的影响，拉德克利夫—布朗在《论社会科学的功能概念》（1935）一文中也提出了社会结构的概念，并且把结构和功能联系在一起，反对那些不与社会结构相联系的功能定义。后来指出“结构这个概念是指在某个较大的统一体中，各个部分的配置或相互之间的组合。”（A. R.拉德克利夫—布朗：《社会人类学方法》，夏建中译，山东人民出版社，1988，第140页。）他认为社会结构是社会人类学研究的基本部分。他的结构功能论对以列维—斯特劳斯为代表的结构人类学产生了重要的影响。
1参与的学者有Genevieve Calame-Griaule, Germaine Dieterlen, Solange de Ganay, Michel Leiris, DominiqueZahan等。
1Griaule, Marcel.1938. Masques dogons. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.
2Marcel Griaule的相关文章和著作有：1940. Notes complémentaires sur les masques dogons. Journal de la Société des Africanistes10:79-85;1947. Arts de l'Afrique noire. Paris: Editions du Chène;1952. Réflexions sur desSymboles Soudanais. Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie13/2:8-30;1966. Les symboles des arts africains,pp.25-33in L'Art Nègre. Paris: Présence Africaine.
3Marcel Griaule.1966. Les symboles des arts africains. P33.
1Marcel Griaule.1952. Réflexions sur des Symboles Soudanais. P7.
2仅举几例，建筑：如Dieterlen.1968."A Contribution to the Study of Traditional Architecture in Negro-Africa,"pp.295-306in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Presence Africaine；Lebeuf, Annie and Lebeuf,Jean-Paul.1955."Monuments symboliques de Palais Royal de Logone-Birni (Nord-Cameroun)." Journal de laSociété des Africanistes25/1,2:25-34.疤痕：De Ganay, Solange.1949.“Aspects de mythologie et de symboliquebambara.” Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique42:181-201.服装：Dieterlen, Germaine.1951. Essaisur la religion bambara. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.色彩象征：Zahan, Dominique.1951.“Lescouleurs chez les Bambara du Soudan fran ais.” Notes Africaines50:52-56.面具Zahan, Dominique.1974. TheBambara. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
3见于这些文献中的部分内容，艺术相关：Flam, Jack D.1976."Graphic Symbolism in the Dogon Granary:Grains, Time and a Notion of History"； Klobe, Marguerite.1977."A Dogon Figure of a Koro Player"；Imperato,Pascal J.1971."Contemporary Adapted Dances of the Dogon"；N'Diaye, Francine.1971."Iconologie des pouliesde métier à tisser dogon"；Nesmith, Fisher H.1979."Dogon Bronzes"；Richardson, John Adkins.1977."Speculations on Dogon Iconography"；涉及铁匠的研究：Clément, Pierre.1948."Le forgeron en Afriquenoire: quelques attitudes du groupe a son égard"；De Heusch, Luc.1956."Le symbolisme du forgeron en Afrique"；De Maret, Pierre.1980."Ceux qui jouent avec le feu: la place du forgeron en Afrique centrale"；Makarius, Laura.1968."The Blacksmith's Taboos: From the Man of Iron to the Man of Blood"；Richards, Dona.1981."The Nyamaof the Blacksnith: The Metaphysical Significance of Metallurgy in Africa"；Schwarz, Arturo.1980."Le forgeroncéleste."
4Laude, Jean.1973. African Art of the Dogon: The Myths of the Cliff Dwellers. New York: Viking Press.
5Ben-Amos Paula.1989.“African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective.” African Studies Review32/2. P12.
1费尔南德斯[James Fernandez]，芝加哥大学人类学系教授，1962年博士毕业于西北大学人类学系，师从赫斯科维茨，曾在非洲做民族志研究。
2Fernandez, James W.1966."Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics." The Journal of Aestheticsand Art Criticism25/1:53-64.
3Adams, Marie Jeanne.1973."Structural Aspects of a Village Art." American Anthropologist75/1:265-279.
4Drewal, Henry John.1984."Art, History, and the Individual: A New Perspective for the Study of African VisualTraditions." Iowa Studies in African Art1:88.
5Hardin, Kris L.1987."The Aesthetics of Action: Production and Re-Production in a West African Town." PhDdissertation, Indiana University.
1本-阿莫斯[Paula Ben-Amos]，印第安纳大学人类学系教授，她主要关注尼日利亚贝宁埃多王国的艺术、南非艺术的社会史以及人类学中艺术的历史与理论。
2Biebuyck, Daniel.1979."The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation." Africa-Tervuren25/3:76-84.
3Ben Amos.1976."Men and Animals in Benin Art." Man, n.s.11/2:242.
4Biebuyck, Daniel.1979."The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation." p.77.
5Mack, John.1981."Animal Representations in Kuba Art: An Anthropological Interpretation of Sculpture." TheOxford Art Journal4/2.p.53.
1Biebuyck, Daniel.1979."The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation."p.78.
2McLeod, Malcolm D.1978."Aspects of Asante Images," pp.305-16in Michael Greenhalgh and Vincent Megaw(eds.) Art in Society. New York: St, Martin's Press. p.306,312.
3Douglas, Mary.1966. Purity and Danger. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp.38-39.
4Smith, J. Weldon.1978."African Pragmatism."African Arts11/2:71-5,96；Witte, Hans.1984. Ifa and Esu:Iconography of Order and Disorder. Soest-Holland: Kunsthandel Luttik；Ben-Amos, Paula.1976."Men andAnimals in Benin Art." Man, n.s.11/2:243-52
1Fraser, Douglas.1974. African Art as Philosophy. New York: Interbook；Blier, Suzanne Preston.1976. Beautyand the Beast: A Study in Contrasts. New York: Tribal Arts Gallery Two；Beidelman, T.O.1972."The KaguruHouse." Anthropos67/5,6:690-707.
2Beidelman, T.O.1972."The Kaguru House." Anthropos67/5,6:690-707. p.705.
3Bourdieu, Pierre.1973."The Berber House," pp.98-110in Mary Douglas (ed.) Rules and Meanings. Harmondsworth P: enguin Education. P.100-01.
4Munn, Nancy D.1973."Symbolism in a Ritual Context: Aspects of Symbolic Action," pp.579-612in John J.Honigmann (ed.) Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co. p.591.
1Rubin, Arnold.1974. African Accumulative Sculpture: Power and Display. New York. Pace Editions. P10.
2Cole, Herbert M. and Ross, Doran H.1977. The Arts of Ghana. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History,University of California. P23.
3Maurer, Evan M. and Roberts, Allen F.1985. Tabwa: The Rising of a New Moon: A Century of Tabwa Art. AnnArbor: University of Michigan Museum of Art. P3.
4列维—斯特劳斯，1908年生于布鲁塞尔，父母是犹太血统的法国人，父亲是画家，自己也是位业余音乐家。幼年时随父母由比利时迁居巴黎。早年喜爱地质学，青年时代对哲学感兴趣，曾在巴黎大学主修哲学与法律，自称受到弗洛伊德心理学和马克思主义理论的影响。1934—1937年在巴西圣保罗大学教社会学，期间考察巴西中部印第安人。1939年返回法国，服役两年。二战期间在美国任教，在纽约遇到了流亡的中欧语言学家，并把他们在语言学领域发展的理论借用来分析人类学资料。他的想法很多也直接来源于涂尔干和莫斯，尤其是莫斯的《礼物》中婚姻交换的理论影响了他对亲属制度的认识。他也吸收了博厄斯等美国人类学的传统。二战结束后回到法国，1947年任法国人类学博物馆副馆长，1959年起担任法兰西学院社会人类学教授，并任社会人类学实验室主任。他的论著很多，如《亲属制度的基本结构》（博士论文，1949）、《忧郁的热带》（1955）、《结构人类学》（第一卷1958、第二卷1973）、《今日图腾制度》（1962）、《神话学》（四卷本1964—1972）等等。他还被誉为“人类学结构主义之父”。
1Morris, Brian.1987. Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. P266.
2Lewis, Ioan.1971. Ecstatic Religion. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. P14.
3Charbonnier, G.(ed.)1969. Conversations with Claude Lévi-Strauss. London: Cape. P150-151.
4对发式的研究：Baduel, Céline and Meillassoux, Claude.1975."Modes et codes de la coiffure Ouest-Africaine."African Visual Arts41L'Ethnographie, n.s.69:11-59；Houlberg, Marilyn Hammersley.1979."Social Hair:Tradition and Change in Yoruba Hairstyles in Southwestern Nigeria,"pp.349-97in Justine M. Cordwell andRonald A. Schwarz (eds.) The Fabrics of Culture.关于身体装饰和服装的研究：Biebuyck, Daniel P.1982."Lega Dress as Cultural Artifact."African Arts15/3:59-65,92；Cole, Herbert M.1979."Living Art Among the Samburu," pp.87-102in Justine M. Cordwell andRonald A. Schwarz (eds.) The Fabrics of Culture. The Hague: Mouton；Paulme, Denise and Brosse, Jacques.1956.Parures Africaines. Paris: Hachette. Peek, Philip M.1980."Isoko Artists and Their Audiences." African Arts13/3:58-61,91；Paulme, Denise.1973."Adornment and Nudity in Tropical Africa," pp.11-24in Anthony Forge (ed.)Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press；Poyner, Robin.1975."The Social Significance ofTraditional Textiles in Owo, Nigeria." Paper presented at the18th Annual Meeting of the African StudiesAssociation, San Francisco.
5Battestini, S.P.X.1984."Sémiotique de l'adire." Semiotica49/1,2:73-93.Lagopoulos, Alexander-Phaedon.1975."Semiological Urbanism: An Analysis of the Traditional Western SudaneseSettlement," pp.206-218in Paul Oliver (ed.) Shelter, Sign and Symbol. London: Barrie and Jenkins.
6关于旅游艺术形式的研究：Ben-Amos, Paula.1977."Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts." Studies in theAnthropology of Visual Communication4/2:128-139；Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1984. The Messages of Tourist Art:An African Semiotic System in Comparative Perspective. New York: Plenum Press.关于通俗绘画的研究：Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba, Zaire."Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication3/1:1-21.
1Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1984. The Messages of Tourist Art: An African Semiotic System in ComparativePerspective.New York: Plenum Press.
2Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire."P18.
3同上，第16页。
4福格1929年生于伦敦，1953年毕业于剑桥大学，在那跟随马林诺夫斯基的学生利奇学习考古学和人类学，后来在伦敦经济学院继续做研究，在那里与“英国经济人类学之父”弗斯建立了长期的友谊。1958至1963年在新几内亚做研究，关注社会组织、美学和仪式。1961年担任伦敦经济学院助理讲师，1969年任耶鲁大学访问教授。1974年任澳大利亚国立大学人类学教授直至1991年去世。70年代初期福格被认为是视觉人类学领域的权威。他基于在新几内亚巴布亚岛两个时期的田野研究，出版了一系列关于赛皮克艺术的论著。
1Forge, Anthony.1979."The Problem of Meaning in Art," pp.278-286in Sidney M.Mead (ed.) Exploring theVisual Art of Oceania. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. P281.
2同上
3Forge, Anthony.1979. P283.
4Davis-Roberts, Christopher.1980."Emblem and Imagery: An Analysis of Tabwa Diviners' Headdresses." Paperpresented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.P15-16.
5Forge, Anthony.1973."Style and Meaning in Sepik Art," pp.169-192in Anthony Forge (ed.) Primitive Art andSociety. London: Oxford University Press；Forge, Anthony.1979."The Problem of Meaning in Art".
6Forge.1973. P187.
1Forge.1979. P285.
2Forge.1973. P189.
3Forge.1973. P191.
4Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire." P19.
5McLeod, Malcolm D.1976."Verbal Elements in West African Art." Quaderni Poro1:85-102.
6同上，第91页。
1Feeley-Harnik, Gillian.1980."The Saklava House (Madagascar)." Anthropos75/3,4:559-585. P583.
2Biebuyck, Daniel P.1983."African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions." African StudiesReview26/3,4:99-118. Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman. P126-128.
1Boas, Franz.1927. Primitive Art. Cambriege, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
2Boas, Franz.1927. Primitive Art. P130.
3同上，第1页。对这一时期艺术研究的讨论，见Gerbrands, A.A.1957.Art as an Element of Culture, Especiallyin Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill. P25-65.
4Boas, Franz.1927. Primitive Art. P156.
5奥布若坎斯[Frans M. Olbrechts，1899—1958]，早年在鲁汶大学读哲学，后去美国跟随博厄斯在哥伦比亚大学学习人类学，在美国期间对印第安人中的彻罗基族人做田野研究。1929年回到比利时，1932年任根特大学的教授，讲授民族学和原始艺术，这时非洲造型艺术成为他主要的兴趣，尤其是中非和西非地区。1947年任比利时刚果博物馆主任。赫斯科维茨[Melville Jean Herskovits，1895—1963]，美国人类学家，受业于博厄斯，创立了美国学术界的非洲和非裔美国研究。在法国参加一战，是美国空军医疗队的一员，战后的1923年获得芝加哥大学的哲学学士学位，然后在哥伦比亚大学博厄斯的门下获得人类学硕士和博士学位。他的博士论文是关于东非社会中牛的研究，考察了非洲的权力和权威理论。1927年去西北大学，作为全职的人类学家，1938年在那里建立了人类学系。
6Olbrechts, Frans M.1933."Notre mission ethnographique en Afrique occidentale francaise." Bulletin des Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire (Brussels)5:98-107；Maesen, Albert E.1960."Le sculpteur dans la vie sociale chezles Sénoufo de la C te d'Ivoire." Third International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences,Brussels,1948: Compte-rendu, Tervuren, pp.138-139.
7Herskovits.1938. Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom. New York: J.J. Augustin；1941."Symbolism inDahomean Art." Man41/84:117.
1如Bascom,Cordwell,Crowley,d'Azevedo,Fernandez,Merriam,Messenger,Ottenberg,Schneider,Vaughan,Wolfe。
2Herskovits.1945. The Backgrounds of African Art. Reprint. New York: Biblo and Tannen,1967；1959."Art andValue," pp.41-68in Robert Redfield, Melville J. Herskovits, and Gordon F. Ekholm (eds.) Aspects of Primitive Art.New York: The Museum of Primitive Art..
3Herskovits.1959. P49,64-67.
4Herskovits.1959. P51.
5Herskovits.1945. P58.
6巴斯科姆[William R. Bascom，1912—1981]，生于普林斯顿，美国人类学家，最早在西非做集中田野调查的学者之一，50年代曾在西北大学人类学系担任非洲研究部主任。
7Cordwell, Justine M.1952."Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba and Benin Cultures. PhD dissertation,Northwestern University.
8D'Azevedo, Warren L.1973. The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.阿泽维多[Warren L. d'Azevedo，1920–2014]，生于加利福尼亚，1942年获得伯克利加州大学人类学学士学位，1962年获得西北大学人类学博士学位，致力于研究美洲印第安和利比亚，1963年加入内华达大学，直到1988年退休。
1见阿泽维多《非洲社会中的传统艺术家》（1973）的引言部分以及《对美学的结构方法：面向人类学中的艺术定义》（D'Azevedo, Warren L.1958."AStructuralApproach to Esthetics: Toward a Definition ofArt inAnthropology." American Anthropologist60/4:702-714.）另外，Mills和Maquet也试图创建跨文化的艺术定义，见Mills, George.1957."Art: An Introduction to QualitativeAnthropology." The Journal of Aesthetics and ArtCriticism16/1:1-17；Maquet, Jacques.1971. Introduction to Aesthetic Anthropology. Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley Publishing Co；Maquet, Jacques.1986. The Aesthetic Experience: An Anthropolgist Looks at theVisual Arts. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2D'Azevedo.1973. P6,13.
3Brain, Robert.1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman. P261.
4比如：Himmelheber,Hans.1963."Personality and Technique of African Sculptors," pp.79-110in MargaretMead, Junius B. Bird, and Hans Himmelheber Technique and Personality in Primitive Art. New York: TheMuseum of Primitive Art.Fischer, Eberhard.1976."Probleme der Kreativit t bei Künstlern der Dan,"[Problems of CreativityAmong the Dan Artists] Quaderni Poro1:9-21.[167-78, English trans.]；1984."Self-Portraits, Portraits, andCopies Among the Dan: The Creative Process of Traditional African Mask Carvers." Iowa Studies in African Art1:5-28.Bascom, William R.1973."A Yoruba Master Carver: Duga of Meko," pp.62-78in Warren L. d'Azevedo(ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies.Beier, Ulli.1963. Yemi Bisiri, a Yoruba Brass Caster. Ibadan: Mbari Publications.Borgatti, Jean M.1979. From the Hands of Lawrence Ajanaku. Museum of Cultural History Pamphlet Series, Vol.1, No.6. Los Angeles: University of California.Carroll, Kevin F.1961."Three Generations of Yoruba Carvers." Ibadan12:21-4.Chappel, T.J.H.1972."Critical Carvers: A Case Study." Man, n.s.7/2:296-307.Dickerson, Sara Jane Hollis.1979."Benin Artist Idah: Court Art and Personal Style." Interdisciplinary Studies(SUNO)2/2.Johnson, Barbara C.1986. Four Dan Sculptors: Continuity and Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Nunley, John W.1979."Ntowie: Sisala Carver."African Arts13/1:68-73,98.Peek, Philip M.1985."Ovia Idah and Eture Egbede: Traditional Nigerian Artists." African Arts18/2:54-9,102.Richards, J.V. Olufemi.1977."Santigie Sesay: Sierra Leone Carver." African Arts11/1:65-9,92.Thompson, Robert Farris.1969. Abátàn: A Master Potter of the Egbádò Yorùtbá," pp.120-82in Daniel P.Biebuyck, Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1Shostak, Marjorie.1982. Nisa: The Life and Words of a!Kung Woman. London: Allen Lane.
23Biebuyck.1983. P105-110.
Ben-Amos, Paula.1975."Professionals and Amateurs in Benin Court Carving," pp.170-89in Daniel F. McCalland Edna G. Bay (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. New York: Africana Publishing Company；1978."Owina N'Ido: Royal Weavers of Benin." African Arts11/4:48-53,95-6；1986."Artistic Creativity in BeninKingdom." African Arts19/3:60-3,83-4；Brain, Robert and Pollock, Adam.1971. Bangwa Funerary Sculpture. London: Duckworth.Bray, Jennifer M.1969."The Craft Structure of a Traditional Yoruba Town." Transactions and Papers of theInstitute of British Geographers.46:179-93.Crowley, Daniel J.1973."Aesthetic Value and Professionalism in African Art: Three Cases From the KatangaChokwe," pp.221-49in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The Traditional Artist in AfricaDark, Philip J.1973. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.D'Azevedo,Warren L.1973."Sources of Gola Artistry," pp.282-340in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The TraditionalArtist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Dewey, William J.1986."Shona Male and Female Artistry." African Arts19/3:64-7,84.Hallpike, C.R.1968."The Status of Craftsmen Among the Konso of South-West Ethiopia." Africa38/3:258-69.Lloyd, Peter.1953."Craft Organization in Yoruba Towns." Africa23/1:30-44.McNaughton, Patrick R.1979."Bamana Blacksmiths." African Arts12/2:65-71,92.Messenger, John C.1973."The Carver in Anang Society," pp.101-27in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Neaher, Nancy C.1976."Igbo Metalsmiths Among the Southern Edo." African Arts9/4:46-9,91；1979."AwkaWho Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria." Africa49/4:352-66.Reinhardt, Loretta R.1975."Mende Carvers." PhD dissertation, Southern Illinois University.Vaughan, James H.1973."Enkyagu as Artists in Marghi Society," pp.162-93in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies.
4D'Azevedo.1973. P12.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1975."Professionals and Amateurs in Benin Court Carving," pp.170-189in Daniel F.McCalland Edna G. Bay (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. New York: Africana Publishing Company.
2Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1985."Apprentices and Entrepreneurs: The Workshop and Style Uniformity inSub-Saharan Africa." Paper presented at the Symposium on the Artist and the Workshop in Traditional Africa,University of Iowa.
3Aronson, Lisa.1984."Women in the Arts," pp.119-38in Margaret Jean Hay and Sharon Stichter (eds.) AfricanWomen South of the Sahara. London: Longman；Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1977."The Potters and the Painters: ArtBy and About Women in Urban Africa." Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication4/2:112-27.41986年的《非洲艺术》杂志专题刊登了Ben-Amos，Daly，Eicher，Erekosima，Dewey，Glaze， Perani，Smith和Wolff等学者的相关文章。
5Adams, Marie Jeanne.1980."Afterword: Spheres of Men's and Women's Creativity." Ethnologische ZeitschriftZürich1:163-67；Ottenberg, Simon.1983."Artistic and Sex Roles in a Limba Chiefdom," pp.76-90in ChristineOppong (ed.) Female and Male in West Africa. London: George Allen and Unwin；Teilhet, Jehanne H.1978."TheEquivocal Role of Women Artists in Non-Literate Cultures." Heresies4:96-102.
6Aronson, Lisa.1980." Patronage and Akwete Weaving." African Arts13/3:62-6,91；Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1980." Patronage and Maconde Carvers." African Arts13/3:67-70,91-2；Peek, Philip M.1980." Isoko Artists andTheir Audiences." African Arts13/3:58-61,91；Perani, Judith.1980." Patronage and Nupe Craft Industries."African Arts13/3:71-5,92.
1Drewal, Henry John.1984."Art, History, and the Individual: A New Perspective for the Study of African VisualTraditions." Iowa Studies in African Art1:87-114. P98.
2Karp, Ivan and Maynard, Kent.1983."Reading The Nue（r苏丹努尔人）." Current Anthropology24/4:481-503.P401.
3参见：Paula Ben-Amos.1989."African VisualArts from a Social Perspective”. P28.
4Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire."
1另外Jules-Rosette也表达了同样的观点，参见Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1977."The Potters and the Painters: ArtBy and About Women in Urban Africa."Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication4/2:112-27；1978."The Myth of Modernity in Popular African Art: Symbolic Representation in Popular Carving and Painting."Qualitative Sociology1/2:21-61；1979."Technological Innovation in Popular African Art: A Case Study of SomeContemporary Art Forms in Transition."Journal of Popular Culture13/1:116-30.
2Biebuyck, Daniel P.(ed.)1969. Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.P7.
3Silver, Harry R.1981."Calculating Risks: The Socioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in anAshanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-114.
1Sieber, Roy."Comments,"pp.192-203in Daniel P. Biebuyck (ed.).1969. P193.
2Thompson, Robert Farris."àbátàn: A Master Potter of the ègbádò Yorùbá," pp.120-182in Daniel P. Biebuyck(ed.).1969. P121.
3Ben-Amos, Paula.1986."Artistic Creativity in Benin Kingdom." African Arts19/3:60-3,83-4.
4Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman. P138.
5Adepegba, C.O.1983."Ara: The Factor of Creativity in Yoruba Art." The Nigerian Field48/1,4:53-66. P61.
1弗朗兹·博厄斯：《原始艺术》，金辉译，上海文艺出版社，1989年，第56页。
2Herskovits, Melville J.1959."Art and Value," pp.41-68in Robert Redfield, Melville J. Herskovits, and GordonF. Ekholm (eds.) Aspects of Primitive Art. New York: The Museum of Primitive Art. P47.
3Sieber, Roy.1959."The Aesthetics of Traditional African Art," in Froelich G. Rainey (ed.) Seven Metals ofAfrica. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
4D'Azevedo, Warren L.1958."A Structural Approach to Esthetics: Toward a Definition of Art in Anthropology."American Anthropologist60/4:702-714. P706.
5Horton, Robin.1965. Kalabari Sculpture. Lagos: Dept. of Antiquities, Federal Republic of Nigeria.Vaughan, James H.1973."Enkyagu as Artists in Marghi Society," pp.162-93in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6采取让当地人评价照片的做法，参见Child, Irvin L. and Siroto, Leon.1965."BaKwele andAmerican EstheticEvaluations Compared." Ethnology4/4:349-60.考察当地人对一排雕刻进行的评价的有：Crowley, Daniel J.1958."Aesthetic Judgement and CulturalRelativism." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism17/2:187-93；1966."An African Aesthetic." The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism24/4:519-24；1973."Aesthetic Value and Professionalism in African Art: ThreeCases From the Katanga Chokwe," pp.221-49in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The Traditional Artist in AfricanSocieties.Vogel, Susan Mullin.1979."Baule and Yoruba Art Criticism: A Comparison," pp.309-25in Justine M. Cordwell(ed.) The Visual Arts. The Hague: Mouton；1980."Beauty in the Eyes of the Baule: Aesthetics and CulturalValues." Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No.6. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Fernandez, James W.1966."Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics." The Journal of Aestheticsand Art Criticism25/1:53-64.Thompson, Robert Farris.1968."Esthetics in Traditional Africa." Art News66/9:44-5,63-6；1973."An Aestheticof the Cool." African Arts7/1:40-6；1973."Yoruba Artistic Criticism," pp.19-61in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Socieites.
1Vogel, Susan Mullin.1979."Baule and Yoruba Art Criticism: A Comparison".
2Vansina.1984
3Bohannan, Paul J.1956."Beauty and Scarification Amongst the Tiv." Man56/129:117-121.博安南[Paul JamesBohannan，1920—2007]，美国人类学家，以研究尼日利亚蒂夫族而闻名。二战期间是美国陆军军需兵上尉。1947年获得亚利桑那大学的德语学士学位，1949年获得牛津大学皇后学院的理学学士学位，1951年获得人类学专业的博士学位。
4Thompson, Robert Farris.1973."Yoruba Artistic Criticism," pp.19-61in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Socieites. P21.
5Daly, M. Catherine, Eicher, Joanne B. and Erekosima, Tonye V.1986."Male and Female Artistry in KalabariDress." African Arts19/3:48-51,83.
1Leiris, Michel and Delange, Jacqueline.1968. African Art. London: Thames and Hudson. P30-48.
2Schneider, Harold K.1956."The Interpretation of Pakot Visual Art." Man56/108:103-106；1966."Turu EstheticConcepts." American Anthropologist68/1:156-160.
3Warren, Dennis M. and Andrews, J. Kweku.1977."An Ethnoscientific Approach to Akan Arts and Aesthetics."Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No.3. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.
4Ottenberg, Simon.1971. Anthropology and African Aesthetics. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.P1.
5Ben-Amos Paula,"African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective".P33.
6Osborne, Harold.1970. Aesthetics and Art Theory：An Historical Introduction. New York: E.P. Dutton. P17.
1同上，第50页。
2Cole, Herbert M.1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Igbo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.P175.
3Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman. P132.
4同上，第133页。
5Ottenberg, Simon.1971. Anthropology and African Aesthetics. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. P9.
6Osborne, Harold.1970. P18.
7Warren, Dennis M. and Andrews, J. Kweku.1977."An Ethnoscientific Approach to Akan Arts and Aesthetics."P10.
8McNaughton, Patrick R.1979."Secret Sculptures of Komo: Art and Power in Bamana (Bambara) InitiationAssociations." Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No.4. P42.
9Thompson, Robert Farris.1971. Black Gods and Kings: Yoruba Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: Museum andLaboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology, University of California.
1Lawal, Babatunde.1974."Some Aspects of Yoruba Aesthetics." British Journal of Aesthetics14/3:
239-49；Abíódún, Rowland.1983."Identity and the Artistic Process in the Yorùbá Aesthetic Concept of Iwà."Journal of Cultures and Ideas.1/1:13-30.
2Herskovits, Melville J.1938. Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact. New York: J.J. Augustin.
3William R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovits (eds.) Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
4Herskovits, Melville J. and Bascom, William R.1959."The Problem of Stability and Change in AfricanCulture," pp.1-14in Continuity and Change in African Cultures. P2.
5同上，第65页。
6同上，第67页。
7Bascom, William R.1976."Changing African Art," pp.303-19in Nelson H. H. Graburn (ed.) Ethnic and
Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Cordwell, Justine M.1952."Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba and Benin Cultures. PhD dissertation,Northwestern University；1959."African Art," pp.28-48in William R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovits (eds.)Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Crowley, Daniel J.1970."The Contemporary-Traditional Art Market in Africa."African Arts4/1:43-9,80.Merriam, Alan P.1974."Change in Religion and the Arts in a Zairian Village." African Arts7/4:46-53,95.Sieber, Roy.1962."The Arts and Their Changing Social Function." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences96/2:653-58.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1977."Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts." Studies in the Anthropology of VisualCommunication4/2:128-39.Elkan, Walter.1958."The East African Trade in Woodcarvings." Africa28/4:314-23.Imperato, Pascal J.1971."Contemporary Adapted Dances of the Dogon." African Arts5/1.Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1979."Technological Innovation in Popular African Art: A Case Study of SomeContemporary Art Forms in Transition." Journal of Popular Culture13/1:116-30.Richter, Dolores.1978."The Tourist Art Market as a Factor in Social Change." Annals of Tourism Research5/3:
323-38；1980. Art, Economics, and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, California:Psych/Graphic Publishers.Silver, Harry R.1979."Beauty and the ‘I’ of the Beholder: Identity, Aesthetics, and Social Change Among theAshanti." Journal of Anthropological Research35/2:191-207；1981."Calculating Risks: The SocioeconomicFoundations of Aesthetic Innovation in an Ashanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-14；1981."CarvingUp the Profits: Apprenticeship and Structural Flexibility in a Contemporary African Craft Market." AmericanEthnologist8/1:41-52.
2见于一些学者的研究中，如Biebuyck, Daniel P.1976."The Decline of Lega Sculptural Art," pp.334-49inNelson H.H. Graburn (ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Chappel, T.J.H.1973."The Death of a Cult in Northern Nigeria." African Arts6/4:70-4,96.Fouchier, Daniele.1983."Le declin social du forgeron diallonke au Senegal oriental." Journal des Africanistes53/1,2:184-96.
3Richter, Dolores.1980. Art, Economics, and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, California:Psych/Graphic Publishers. P3-5.
4Ben-Amos, Paula.1977."Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts." Studies in the Anthropology of VisualCommunication4/2:128-39.
1Silver, Harry R.1981."Calculating Risks: The Socioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in anAshanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-14；Richter, Dolores.1980. Art, Economics, and Change: TheKulebele of Northern Ivory Coast.
2同上
3Herskovits, Melville J. and Bascom, William R.1959."The Problem of Stability and Change in AfricanCulture," pp.1-14in Continuity and Change in African Cultures. P9.
4Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire."P18.
1Ottenberg, Simon.1984."Culture, Art and Peasantry in Africa." Peasant Studies12/1:5-18.
2姆巴里（mbari）是尼日利亚东南部伊博人一种有关神圣房屋的视觉艺术形式。奥韦里—伊博人的姆巴里房屋设有开放的广场，包括很多大型的安抚诸神的着色雕像，还有表现官员、手工艺人、欧洲人、动物、祖先等雕塑。姆巴里房屋需要几年才能建成，建造的过程被认为是非常神圣的，伴有重要的表演仪式，仪式完成后，进入甚至是观看姆巴里房屋是被禁止的。
3Ravenhill, Philip L.1980."Baule Statuary Art: Meaning and Modernization." Working Papers in the TraditionalArts, No.5.
4同上，第10页。
5Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire." P17.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1984."Royal Art and Ideology in18th Century Benin." Iowa Studies in African Art1:67-86.
1今天欧美各大博物馆都有非洲艺术的藏品与展览，以美国为例如：底特律艺术学院在1883至1930年期间也开始收藏包括贝宁王室铜雕的非洲艺术品；1920年布鲁克林博物馆开始收集非洲艺术品，同年“黑人雕刻”展在纽约切尔西图书俱乐部举办；1923年布鲁克林博物馆展出了“刚果原始黑人艺术”，这是非洲艺术第一次在美国的博物馆举办；1935年现代艺术博物馆举办了“非洲黑人艺术”展；之后重要的私人博物馆以及如宾夕法尼亚大学、耶鲁大学等高校相继收藏了非洲艺术品；1957年，原始艺术博物馆在纽约建立；1966年非洲艺术博物馆在华盛顿建立……参见Frederick John Lamp, Amanda M.Maples, and Laura M.Smalligan,Accumulating Histories: African Art from the Charles B.Benenson Collectiong at the Yale University ArtGallery(New Haven,2011),pp.13-17
2风格分析的代表作是Wingert, Paul S.1950. The Sculpture of Negro Africa. New York: Columbia UniversityPress.
1Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
2Schapiro, Meyer.1953."Style," pp.287-312in A. L. Kroeber (ed.) Anthropology Today. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.
3参见Paul Rivet, Georges-Henri Rivière, and Marcel Griaule,1933,"Mission Dakar-Djibouti1931-1933,"Minotaure: Revue Artistique et Littéraire (éditions Albert Sikra)1; Frans M. Olbrechts,1933,"Notre missionethnographique en Afrique occidentale fran aise," Bulletin des Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire (Brussels),3rdser.,5:98-107.关于1955年汉堡民族学博物馆赴西非考察队的研究参见Juergen Zwernemann,1978,"Maskender Bobo-Ule und Nuna in Hamburgischen Museum fuer Voelkerkunde," Mitteilungen aus dem Museum fuerVoelkerkunde(Hamburg) n.f.8:45-83.
1法格在1953到1971年出版的图录中强化了他的观点，例如Tribes and Forms in African Art,1965, New York:Tudor Publishing Co.; African Sculpture,1970, Washington, DC, International Exhibitions Foundation.这一时期的出版商迎合美国人逐渐兴起的收藏非洲艺术的兴趣，参见Warren M. Robbins and Robert H. Simmons,1966,African Art in American Collections, New York, Praeger.大部分调查文献是由欧洲博物馆的管理者和民族学者撰写的，比如Marcel Griaule,1950, Folk Art of Black Africa, New York: Tudor; William Fagg and Eliot Elisofon,1958, The Sculpture of Africa, New York: Praeger; Elsy Leuzinger,1960, Africa: The Art of the Negro Peoples,New York: McGraw-Hill; Denise Paulme,1962, African Sculpture, New York: Viking; Michel Leiris andJacqueline Delange,1968, African Art, New York: Golden Press; Tibor Bodrogi,1968, Art in Africa, New York:McGraw-Hill.调查风格的主要模式来自30年代的学者：Carl Kjersmeier,1935-38, Centres de style de lasculpture Nègre africaine,4vols, Paris and Copenhagen; reprinted (4volumes in1) New York: Hacker Art Books;Eckartv on Sydow,1930, Handbuch der Westafrikanischen Plastik, Berlin: Reimer and Vohsen.法格[William Buller Fagg]（1914—1992）是约鲁巴和尼日利亚艺术研究领域最早的史学家之一，他尤其关注贝宁艺术，曾担任大英博物馆人类学部主管（1969—1974），1940至1970年代期间在非洲做了大量的实地研究。早年在剑桥大学抹大拉学院学习古典文学，在拉丁语方面卓有成就，毕业后1937年另外获得了剑桥大学考古学和人类学的学位。
2Kleinbauer, W. Eugene.1971. Modern Perspectives in Western Art History: An Anthology of Twentieth-CenturyWritings on the Visual Arts. New York: Holt, Rinehart&Winston.第2页。
3[英]罗伯特·莱顿：《艺术人类学》，李东晔等译，广西师范大学出版社，2009年，第174页。
1Panofsky, Erwin.1955."Iconography and Iconology," pp.26-54in Meaning in the Visual Arts. Garden City, NJ:Doubleday.第39页。
1Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
2Read, Herbert.1956. Art and Society. London: Faber and Faber.
3Sieber, Roy.1959."The Aesthetic of Traditional African Art." n.p. in Froelich Rainey (ed.) Seven Metals ofAfrica. Philadelphia: University Museum. Reprinted in Carol F. Jopling (ed.)1971. Art and Aesthetics in PrimitiveSocieties. New York: E. P. Dutton.
1在第一章中笔者概述了人类学家研究非洲艺术的功能主义理论与方法，现重提一些影响艺术界学者的研究成果。功能主义理论有广泛的吸引力，以英语为母语的艺术类出版物逐渐从强调艺术的宗教实践角色到强调实际的社会功能转换。（见Melville J.Herskovits,1945, The Backgrounds of African Art, Denver: Denver ArtMuseum）在利比里亚的美国传教士George W.Harley（1950）解释了作为社会控制媒介的面具的广阔用途。Daniel Biebuyck（1954）强调了Lega面具的说教功能（见于“Function of a Lega Mask”, Internationales Archivfuer Ethnographie(Leiden)47:108-120）。Margaret Trowell（1954），东非的一名英文教师，关注表现声望和社会互动的艺术，宣称艺术品除了关乎精神以外，其它作品还关注人（见Classical African Sculpture, NewYork: Praeger）。比利时传教士Visser兄弟认为北部的巴刚果族（Bakongo）的木制壶盖上雕刻的图像是用来通信交流的，不是指神灵或恶魔，但只是以家庭为背景，就像是丈夫与妻子间的留言信息（收录于AdrianA.Gerbrands,1957, Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro Africa, Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseumvoor Volkenkunde12, Leiden: Brill）。Trowell的African Design(London: Faber and Faber，1960)是英语市场一项显著的革新，以著作长的篇幅第一次关注了纺织、陶器、篮子编织等艺术形式。1960年代早期，以英语为母语的人类学家为各种各样艺术品的社会环境和象征含义提供了丰富详尽的解释（例如，Joan Wescott andPeter Morton-Williams,1962,"The Symbolism and Ritual Context of the Yoruba Laba Shango," Journal of theRoyal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland92/1:23-37; Robin Horton,1960, The Gods asGuests:An Aspect of Kalabari Religious Life, Lagos: Nigeria Magazine;1965,Kalabari Sculpture, Lgos:Department of Antiquities）。在美国，通过对调查图书的简明总结，这些作品大部分都被艺术界所了解。讽刺的是，在美国正当艺术界学者迷上功能主义时，人类学的方法却在发生变化；有关功能的主张正在被排斥，取而代之的是支持检验社会秩序实际上怎样实现或没有实现的更加多样化的方法。
2Sieber, Roy.1967."Art as an Aspect of the Reconstruction of Culture History," pp.117-37in Creighton Gabeland Norman R. Bennett (eds.) Reconstructing African Culture History. Boston: Boston University Press.
1Sieber, Roy.1972. African Textiles and Decorative Arts. New York: Museum of Modem Art；1980. AfricanFurniture and Household Objects. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
2Fraser, Douglas. and Cole, Herbert M.(eds.)1972. African Arts and Leadership. Madison: University ofWisconsin Press.
3Fraser, Douglas.(ed.)1974. African Art as Philosophy. New York: Interbook.
4Thompson, Robert Farris.1969."Abátàn: A Master Potter of the Egbádò Yorùtbá," pp.120-82in Daniel P.Biebuyck, Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
5Thompson, Robert Farris.1968."Aesthetics in Traditional Africa." Art News66/9:44-5,63-6. Reprinted inCarol F. Jopling (ed.)1971. Art and Aesthetics in Primitive Societies. New York: E.P. Dutton.；1973."YorubaArtistic Criticism," pp.19-61in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6Thompson, Robert Farris.1971. Black Gods and Kings: African Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia Press.
7Thompson, Robert Farris.1974. African Art in Motion. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
1Rubin, Arnold.1972. Monuments of African Sculpture in Southern California Collections. Santa Ana, Calif.:Santa Ana College Gallery.Sieber, Roy. and Rubin, Arnold.1968. Sculpture of Black Africa: The Paul Tishman Collection. Los Angeles: LosAngeles County Museum of Art.Bravmann, Rene A.1970. West African Sculpture. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
2Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style? Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art."History in Africa11:163-193.
3Bravmann, Rene A.1973. Open Frontiers: The Mobility of Art in Black Africa. Seattle: University ofWashington Press.
4Rubin, Arnold.1974. African Accumulative Sculpture: Power and Display. New York: Pace Gallery.
5Cole, Herbert M.1969."Art as a Verb in Iboland." African Arts3/1:34-41,88.
6Cole, Herbert M.1970. African Arts of Transformation. Santa Barbara: University of California Press.
7Turner, Victor.1964. The Ritual Process. Chicago: Aldine.
8Siroto, Leon.1976. African Spirit Images and Identities. New York: Pace Gallery.
1商人Marc L.Felix所写的手册非常有价值，提供了一百多个艺术品生产群体的概略和背景信息，参见MarcL. Felix.1987.100Peoples of Zaire and their Sculpture. Brussels: Zaire Basin Art History Research Foundation.
2Monni, Adams.1989."African Visual Arts from an Art Historical Perspective." African Studies Review32/2:55-103.P62.
3Alpers, Svetlana.1977."Is Art History?" Daedalus106:1-13.第9页。
4Sieber, Roy.1986. Testimonial read at presentation of ACASA Leadership Award in ACASA Newsletter (ArtsCouncil of the African Studies Association)12:7-8.
5Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1986. Review of Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa. In African Arts19/2.
6Ruby, Jay (ed.)1982. A Crack in the Mirror: Reflexive Perspectives in Anthropology. Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press；Geertz, Clifford:1983. Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books；Clifford, James. andMarcus, George E.(eds.)1986. Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press.
1Wingert, Paul S.1972."Style Determinants in African Sculpture." African Arts5/3:37-43.P38.
2同上，第37页。
3相关的研究有：鲁宾关于尼日利亚北部艺术研究的博士论文Rubin, Arnold.1967."TheArts of theJukun-speaking Peoples of Northern Nigeria." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University；Cole, Herbert M. and Ross,Doran H.1977. The Arts of Ghana. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University of California；Cole,Herbert M. and Aniakor, Chike C.1984. Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmos. Los Angeles: Museum of CulturalHistory, University of California；Bourgeois, Arthur P.1984. Art of the Yaka and Suku. Text in English and French.Translated and adapted by J. B. Donne. Meudon, France: Alain and Franqoise Chaffin.
1见于格雷兹对雕刻的研究Glaze, Anita J.1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press，以及普鲁森对建筑的研究Prussin, Labelle.1969. Architecture in Northern Ghana: A Study ofForms and Functions. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2例如，奥坦伯格、布莱恩和波洛克的研究，Ottenberg, Simon.1975. Masked Rituals of Afikpo. Seattle:University of Washington Press. Brain, Robert and Pollock, Adam.1971. Bangwa Funerary Sculpture. London:Duckworth.
3威廉法格[William Fagg]（1914-1992），英国伦敦人。约鲁巴和尼日利亚艺术的历史学家，大英博物馆人种学馆的主管，系统的非洲艺术研究的拓荒者。1936年本科毕业于剑桥大学，古典文学专业，第二年另外获得了考古学和人类学的学士学位。
4Willett, Frank.1971. African Art: An Introduction. New York: Thames and Hudson.P29.
5Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style? Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art."History in Africa11:163-93.
6Sieber, Roy. and Rubin, Arnold.1968. Sculpture of Black Africa: The Paul Tishman Collection. Los Angeles:Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
7Wingert, Paul S.1972."Further Style Analysis in African Sculpture." African Arts6/1:35-41.P35.
8Perrois, Louis.1972. La statuaire Fang, Gabon. Memoires ORSTOM59. Paris: ORSTOM.
1Fernandez, James W..1977."Fang Reliquary Art: Its Quantities and Qualities." Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines60/15,4:723-46.
2Himmelheber, Hans.1964."Sculptors and Sculptures of the Dan," pp.243-55in Lalage Bown and MichaelCrowder (eds.) The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Africanists. Evanston: NorthwesternUniversity Press；Fischer, Eberhard. and Himmelheber, Hans.1984. The Arts of the Dan. Translated by AnneBundle. Zurich: Rietberg Museum. First published in German,1976；Vogel, Susan Mullin.1984."'The SheepWears his Spots Where he Pleases', or the Question of Regional Styles in Baule Sculpture," pp.29-44inChristopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art1. Iowa City: University of Iowa.
3Neyt, Fran ois.1977. La grande statuaire Hemba du Zaire. Louvain-la-Neuve: Institut supérieur d'archéologie etd'histoire de l'art.
4Kubler, George.1962. The Shape of Time. New Haven: Yale University Press.
5Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.P87-89.扬·万斯那[Jan Vansina]，1929年生于比利时，是专门研究非洲的历史学家和人类学家，是中非民族史研究的权威，他关注与欧洲接触之前的非洲社会。1957年获得鲁汶天主教大学的历史学博士学位，生活在美国威斯康星州，是威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校名誉退休教授。除上文提到他对口头传统的关注以外，在艺术史领域，还出版了《非洲的艺术史》（Art History inAfrica，1984），专门提出非洲艺术研究的方法，涉及鉴定、社会环境、媒介和技术、风格、图像识别、文化、创作过程、历史变化等问题。
6同上，第89页。
7Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1986. Review of Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa. African Arts19/2:10,12,14,17,19,92.
8Visona, Monica Blackmun.1987."Divinely Inspired Artists from the Lagoon Cultures of Ivory Coast," pp.67-78in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art: The Stanley Conferences at the University of Iowa2.Iowa City: University of Iowa.
9例如：Drewal, Henry John.1977. Traditional Art of the Nigerian Peoples: The Milton D. Ratner FamilyCollection. Washington, DC: Museum of African Art；Rubin, Arnold.1987."Artists and Workshops inNortheastern Nigeria," pp.7-22in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art: The Stanley Conferencesat the University of Iowa2.
10Sieber, Roy. and Celenko, Theodore.1977."Rayons x et l'art africain." Arts d'Afrique Noire.21:16-28.
1Bedaux, R. M. A.1988."Tellem and Dogon Material Culture." African Arts21/4:38-45,91.
2Fagg, William B.1963. Nigerian Images: The Splendor of African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.
3Dark, Philip J. C.1975."Benin Bronze Heads: Styles and Chronology," pp.25-103in Daniel F. McCall andEdna G. Bay (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. Boston University Papers on Africa6. New York:Africana Publishing；Willett, Frank.1967. Ife in the History of West African Sculpture. London: Thames&Hudson.
4Rubin, Arnold.1970. Review of Philip Allison, African Stone Sculpture and Frank Willett, Ife in the History ofWest African Sculpture. In Art Bulletin72/3:348-54；Fraser, Douglas.1972."Correspondence." Art Bulletin54/2:
233.也见于威廉姆斯对这一问题的讨论：Williams, Denis.1974. Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and SecularForms in African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press.
5Shaw, Thurstan.1978."The Art of Benin Through the Eyes of the Artist, the Art Historian, the Ethnographer andthe Archaeologist," pp.207-23in Michael Greenhalgh and Vincent Megaw(eds.) Art in Society: Studies in Style,Culture and Aesthetics. New York: St. Martin's Press.也见于弗雷伊的概述：Freyer, Bryna.1987. Royal Benin Artin the Collection of the National Museum of African Art. Washington, DC: National Museum of African Art,Smithsonian Institution Press.
6Tunis, Irwin L.1981."The Benin Chronologies." African Arts14/2:86-7.Tunis, Irwin L.and Tunis, Angelika.1984."Museum fuer Voelkerkunde Berlin: Benin Studies," pp.76-81in EzioBassani (ed.) Art in Africa: Reality and Perspectives in a Study of the History of African Arts. Modena: EdizioniPanini.
7Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.P181-187.
8Comet, Joseph.1982. Art Royal Kuba. Milan: Edizioni Sipiel.对这个问题的讨论也见于：Vansina, Jan.1972."Ndop: Royal Statues among the Kuba," pp.41-56in Douglas Fraser and Herbert M.Cole (eds.) African Art andLeadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press；Adams, Monni.1988."Eighteenth-Century Kuba KingFigures." African Arts21/3:32-8,88.
1对阿坎族（Akan）的研究见Himmelheber1935；丹族（Dan）见Fischer1963；约鲁巴见Fagg1963、Willet和Picton1967、William Bascom,"约鲁巴熟练的雕刻者"：见Warren L.d'Azevedo(ed.)1973,The Traditional Artistin African Societies。对蒙德族（Mende）的研究见J.V.Olufemi Richards,1974,"The Sande Mask"; LorettaR.Reinhardt,1975,"Mende Carvers,"博士论文。Himmelheber第一个探索当地面具雕刻脸部的风格与肖像相似的关系；Fischer检验了有关面具风格的自我形象：“自画像、肖像和Dan的复制品：传统非洲面具雕刻者的创作过程。”
2例如，Poynor, Robin.1987."Naturalism andAbstraction in Owo Masks." African Arts20/4:56-61,91.
3Biebuyck, Daniel P.1969."Introduction," pp.1-23in Daniel P. Biebuyck (ed.) Tradition and Creativity in TribalArt. Berkeley: University of California Press.P2-3.；1986. The Arts of Zaire: Eastern Zaire, vol.2. Berkeley:University of California Press.
4Frank, Barbara E.1987."Open Borders: Style and Ethnic Identity," African Arts20/4:48-55,90；类似的讨论还有Green, Kathryn L.1987."Shared Masking Traditions in Northeastern Ivory Coast." African Arts20/4:62-9,92.
5Vogel, Susan Mullin.1977."Baule Art as the Expression of a World View." Ph.D. dissertation, New YorkUniversity.
6Drewal, Margaret Thompson and Drewal, Henry John.1987."Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art." Wordand Image3/3:225-251.
7Vansina, Jan.1965. Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. Translated by H. M. Wright. Chicago:Aldine.
1例如：Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1982."Anjenu: Sculpture for Idoma Water Spirits." AfricanArts15/4:47-51,91-92；Borgatti, Jean M.1979."Art and History in West Africa: Two Case Studies," pp.567-592in Justine M.Cordwell (ed.) The Visual Arts: Plastic and Graphic. The Hague: Mouton.
2参见de Heusch, Luc.1982. The Drunken King, or, The Origin of the State. Translated and annotated by RoyWillis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.与Willis, Roy.1980."The Literalist Fallacy and the Problem ofOral Tradition." Social Analysis4:28-37.但是，万斯那做出了回应：Vansina, Jan.1983."Is EleganceStructuralism and African History." History in Africa10:307-348.
3Berns, Marla C.1986."Art and History in the Lower Gongala Valley, Northeastern Nigeria." Ph.D. dissertation,University of California, Los Angeles.
4Fischer和Himmelheber等学者研究了黄铜铸造、陶器、编织；Brigitte Menzel，John Picton和John Mack研究过纺织；Nicole Echard关注冶金；Marie-Thérèse de Lestrange和Monique Gessain，以及合作者TyandeninBidyan和Némeraneké Bendya关注工具；Arnulf Stoessel研究过陶器。在中央或地方政府的支持下，欧洲博物馆管理者能从事长期的研究计划和文件编制。通过出版两家博物馆的非洲艺术展览，做出了有价值的贡献（主要是德国的民族学博物馆）巴黎的一些研究者，Jean Laude，Jean-Louis Paudrat和Marie-No lVerger-Fèvre，主要关注艺术和美学；其他人如Germaine Dieterlen和Dominique Zahan着重于文化的精神表征；Guy Le Moal（1980）对Bobo宗教做了集中的研究。
5Thompson, Robert Farris.1971. Black Gods and Kings: African Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia Press；Adepegba, Cornelius Oyeleke.1976."A Survey of Nigerian Body Markings and TheirRelationship to Other Nigerian Arts." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University；Rubin, Arnold.(ed.)1988. Marks ofCivilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University ofCalifornia.
6McNaughton, Patrick R.1988. The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa.Bloomington: Indiana University Press
1McNaughton, Patrick R.1982."The Shirts That Mande Hunters Wear." African Arts15/3:54-8,91.
2Crowe, Donald W.1973."Geometric Symmetries in African Art," pp.190-96in Claudia Zaslavsky (ed.) AfricaCounts: Number and Pattern in African Culture. Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill&Co.
3Brett-Smith, Sarah Catherine.1984."Speech Made Visible: The Irregular as a System of Meaning." EmpiricalStudies of the Arts2/2:127-47.
4Visona, Monica Blackmun.1984."'The Sheep Wears his Spots Where he Pleases', or the Question of RegionalStyles in Baule Sculpture," pp.29-44in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art1. Iowa City:University of Iowa.
5Laude, Jean.1964."La statuaire du pays Dogon." Revue d'Esthitique17/1-2:46-68. Translated and adapted asAfrican Art of the Dogon: Myths of the Cliff Dwellers (1973). New York: Viking Press.
6Ezra, Kate.1988. Art of the Dogon: Selection from the Lester Wunderman Collection. New York: MetropolitanMuseum of Art.
1Drewal, Henry John.1983. Gelede: Art and Female Power among the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress.
2类似的研究也见于Borgatti,1979b：Dead Mothers of Okpella；Double Perspectives: Village Masking in CantonBoo, Ivory Coast；Phillips.1979. The Sande Society Masks of the Mende of Sierra Leone. Doctorate dissertation,The School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
3Lamp, Frederick.1985."Cosmos, Cosmetics, and the Spirit of Bondo." African Arts18/3:28-43,98-9.
4Northern, Tamara.1973. Royal Art of Cameroon. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College.
5Preston, George Nelson.1985. Sets, Series and Ensembles in African Art. New York: The Center for African Art.
6Ben-Amos, Paula.1988."Edo Ancestral Altars: Testimonies to a Life Well-Lived." Paper read at the Workshopon African Material Culture, Bellagio, Italy；Anderson, Martha G.1983."Central Ijo Art: Shrines and SpiritImages."P h.D. dissertation, Indiana University；Kreamer, Christine M.1987."The Art and Ritual of the Moba ofNorthern Togo." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.
7Flam, Jack D.1970."Some Aspects of Style Symbolism in Sudanese Sculpture." Journal de la Société desAfricanistes40/2:137-150.
8Cornet, Joseph.1982. Art Royal Kuba. Milan: Edizioni Sipiel.
9Blier, Suzanne Preston.1985."Kings, Crowns, and Rights of Succession: Obalufon Arts at Ife and Other YorubaCenters." Art Bulletin67/3:383-401.
10Drewal, Margaret Thompson.1977."Projections from the Top in Yoruba Art." African Arts11/1:43-49,91-92.
11Thompson, Robert Farris.1974. African Art in Motion. Los Angeles: University of California Press；Thompsonand Comet, Joseph.1981. The Four Moments of the Sun: Kongo Art in Two Worlds. Washington, DC: NationalGallery of Art.
1例如上文所提到的Fernandez，1966“Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics”；Ben-Amos，1973. Symbolism in Olokun Mud Art；Jedrej,1980. Structural Aspects of a West African Secret Society;MacCormack,1980. Art and Symbolism in Thoma Ritual among the Sherbro, Sierra Leone
2DeMott, Barbara.1982. Dogon Masks: A Structural Study of Form and Meaning. Ann Arbor: UMI ResearchPress.
3Cole, Herbert M. and Aniakor, Chike C.1984. Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmos. Los Angeles: Museum ofCultural History, University of California.
4这种领悟起源于人类学显著的趋势，例如参见Mary Douglas(1966, Purity and Danger, New York: Praeger)关于思考范畴的作品。人类学家不再考虑孤立的概念范畴，不再将它们用在一组特定的事件中（例如，“入会”及其仪式的顺序），而是趋向于思考使用和产生种类的整个领域。这个趋势由伦敦亚非学院的John Picton影响到一些黑非洲艺术学者，例如，Marilyn Houlberg, Ruth Phillips, Sidney Kasfir, Dunja Hersak, Keith Nicklin以及Jill Salmon。这种观点的两个例子来自英国人类学家Nigel Barley的作品（"Placing the WestAfricanPotter" in John Picton (ed.)1984, Earthenware in Asia and Africa）和Malcolm McLeod(Akan Terracotta)对西非陶器的研究中。McLeod展示了工艺过程和Asante陶器制作的禁忌，这些禁忌与Asante建构的抽象价值观有关，依附于地点（灌木/村庄）、色彩和温度（红/热、白/凉爽）以及时间分类上，由此，Asante维护对装饰体验的控制。Barley声称在西非陶工的地位应该被看为不只是以锻工为中心的等级制的部分，而是方式的部分，在这种方式中，工艺过程或许被用来表达转换和发展的模式。几年前，Robin Horton提出在社会中人的活动呈现出明显最有序和规律的、他们的经验领域，因此为风俗提供了最重要的解释模型（RobinHorton，1964，Ritual Man in Africa）。但是，不是认为陶器制造和仪式的关系按照隐喻或合理的优先，Barley宁愿说文化知识在陶器制作和风俗中都以相同的形式被编码（1984:101），而不是依照隐喻或逻辑上的时间次序来理解陶器制作与风俗两者之间的关系。对另外的关于物质文化象征（符号论）的新方法，见NicholasDavid, Judy Sterner和Kodzo Gavua"Why Pots are Decorated"；Michael Rowlands和Jean-PierreWarnier,1988,"The Magical Production of Iron in the Cameroon Grassfields,"在非洲物质文化工作坊的文章。
1Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987. The Anatomy of Architecture: Ontology and Metaphor in BatammalibaArchitectural Expression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2Brett-Smith, Sarah Catherine.1982."Symbolic Blood: Cloths for Excised Women." RES: Anthropologyand Aesthetics3:15-31；1983."The Poisonous Child," RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics6:47-64.
3Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art," ArtJournal47/2:75-87.
4Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art," ArtJournal47/2:75-87.
5民族考古学家Ian Hodder(1982.Symbols inAction: Ethnoarchaeological Studies of Material Culture)坚持认为所有的物质都是由有象征意义的、在社会策略中使用的代码生成。单元的意义不只在于与同一组中其它单元的对比，而且源自作品的关系与用途以及它的关系网络和不同背景中的含义。他将他解释的方法有效地用在现存的肯尼亚Baringo社区所使用的不同的物品中，以展示它们在生态竞争和控制动力上的意义。
1Bravmann, Rene A.1979."Gur and Manding Masquerades in Ghana." African Arts13/1:44-51,98. P46.
2Adams, Monni.1980."Fon Appliqued Cloths," African Arts13/2:28-41,87-8.
3Arnoldi, Mary Jo.1986."Puppet Theater: Form and Ideology in Bamana Performance." Empirical Studies of theArts4/2:131-150.
4Okpaku, Joseph; Opubor, Alfred and Oloruntimehim, Benja.(eds.)1986. The Arts and Civilization of Black andAfrican Peoples. Vol.1, Black Civilization and the Arts. Vol.2, Black Civilization and Philosophy. Lagos: Centrefor Black and African Arts and Civilization.2of10projected volumes.
5McNaughton, Patrick R.1979. Secret Sculptures of Komo: Art and Power in Bamana Initiation Associations.Working Papers in the Traditional Arts4. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues；1988. The MandeBlacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6Weil, Peter M.1988."Modeling Form in Mande Masking." Paper read at the31st Annual Meeting of the AfricanStudies Association, Chicago.
1d'Azevedo, Warren L.1973."Mask Makers and Myth in Western Liberia," pp.126-50in Anthony Forge (ed.)Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press.
2Glaze, Anita J.1975."Woman Power and Art in a Senufo Village." African Arts8/3:24-9,64-8,90-1.
3Glaze, Anita J.1986."Dialectics of Gender in Senufo Masquerades." African Arts19/3:30-9,82.
4Hodder, Ian.1982. Symbols in Action: Ethnoarchaeological Studies of Material Culture. New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.
5Glaze, Anita J.1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.第31页。
6Adams, Monni.1980."Afterword: Spheres of Men's and Women's Creativity." Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zuerich1:163-67.
7Ben-Amos, Paula.1986."Artistic Creativity in Benin Kingdom." African Arts19/3:60-3,83-4.
1Teilhet, Jehanne H.1978."The Equivocal Role of Women Artists in Non-Literate Cultures." Heresies7:96-102；Ottenberg, Simon.1983."Artistic and Sex Roles in a Limba Chiefdom," pp.76-90in Christine Oppong (ed.) Maleand Female in West Africa. London: Allen&Unwin.
2Aronson, Lisa.1984."Women in the Arts," pp.119-38in Margaret Jean Hay and Sharon Shichter (eds.) AfricanWomen South of the Sahara. New York: Longman.
3Jedrej, M. C.1980."Structural Aspects of a West African Secret Society." Reprinted in Journal ofAnthropological Research32/3(1976):234-245.
4Bledsoe, Caroline H.1980."Stratification and Sande Politics."Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zuerich1:143-149.
5Drewal, Henry John. and Drewal, Margaret Thompson.1978."More Powerful Than Each Other: An EgbadoClassification of Egungun." African Arts11/3.
6Pemberton, John.1978."Egungun Masquerades of the Igbomina Yoruba." African Arts11/3.
7Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M.(eds.)1972. African Art and Leadership. Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, pp.305.
8分别举例：Thompson, Robert Farris.1970."The Sign of the Divine King:An Essay on YorubaBead-Embroidered Crowns with Veil and Bid Decorations." African Arts3/3:8-17,74-80；Flam, Jack D.1971."The Symbolic Structure of Baluba Caryatid Stools." African Arts4/2:54-9,80.
9Geary, Christraud M.1983. Things of the Palace: A Catalogue of the Bamum Palace Museum in Foumban(Cameroon). Studien zur Kulturkunde60. Wiesbaden: Steiner Verlag.
1Volavka, Zdenka.1972."Nkisi Figures from the Lower Congo." African Arts5/2:52-9,84.也见于Blier,1988.Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art.
2Himmelheber, Hans.1964."Sculptors and Sculptures of the Dan," pp.243-55in Lalage Bown and MichaelCrowder (eds.) The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Africanists. Evanston: NorthwesternUniversity Press；Fischer, Eberhard.1978."Dan Forest Spirits: Masks in Dan Villages," African Arts11/2:16-23,94.
3Glaze,1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village；Cole,1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Ibo; Drewaland Drewal, Henry John.1983. Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art
4Glaze, Anita J.1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
1Cole, Herbert M.1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Ibo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
2例如LeMoal,1980. Les Bobo: Nature et fonction des masques
3见Ottenberg,1972.Humorous Masks and Serious Politics among the Afikpo Ibo, in Douglas Fraser and HerbertM. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership.。1973. Afikpo Masquerades: Audience and Performers
4Siroto, Leon.1969."Masks and Social Organization among the BaKwele People of Western Equatorial Africa."Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University.
5Jamin, Jean and Coulibaly, Nabé Vincent.1979."A bout de souffle: La dette de la vie chez les Sénoufo."Objets et Mondes (Musée de l'Homme)19/1-4:280-292.
6Drewal, Henry John.1983. Gelede: Art and Female Power among the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress.
7讨论欧洲与非洲接触后图像的变化的有Fraser,Douglas.1962.Primitive Art.Garden City；McGaffey andJanzen,1974.A Propos: Nkisi Figures of the Bakongo；Garrard,1984.‘Figurine Cults of the Southern Akan’ inChristopher D.Roy(ed.)Iowa Studies in African Art1。当然，考古学最有希望揭秘古老的过去。随着马里杰内（Djenne）市附近尼日尔河三角洲内陆地区的大聚居地——始于基督前时代到14世纪——被发现，出现了一些精心的调查研究。（见Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh,1982，Prehistoric Investgations inthe Region of Jenne, Mali: A Study in te Development of Urbanism in the Sahel; R.J.McIntosh,1988, MiddleNiger Terracottas Before the Symplegades Gateway）中空的烧陶骑马人形象和人物塑像在后来的世纪出现。人物塑像的身体姿态和手势多样，并着重于蛇的图像，此外，还有一些有着细微差别的扁平物，这些物体比所知的20世纪马里地区的人像木刻要多。这些发现确实提出了关于小型木雕和纺织物碎片之间可能的关系问题，它们发现于马里Bandiagara悬崖干燥、无人居住的洞穴里，因为放射性碳测定的时间追溯到11到15世纪（对年代的断定，见Bedaux,1988.Tellem and Dogon Material Culture）。也有一些对关系的研究（SeeBernard de Grunne,1987, Divine Gestures and Earthly Gods: A Study of the Ancient Terracotta Statuary from theInland Niger Delta in Mali, Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University）.一位积极的加纳考古学家James Anquandah,发现在加纳北部Komaland一批15到18世纪的烧制陶像（人物、动物、马和骑骆驼的人以及其它不同的物件），他认为这些陶像属于发展于贸易路线上的铁器时代王国。(见J.R.Anquandah和Laurent Van Ham，1986，Discovering the Forgotten "Civilisation" of Komaland)。对发现于地表或接近于地面的石刻确定时期很困难。尽管有相当多的研究，但仍需要另外的技术分析来精确地确定几百个发掘于尼日利亚Esie附近的小型具象石雕的时期——一般估计在18世纪中期（见Phillips Stevens,1978,The Stone Images of Esie, Nigeria, Ibadan）。基于对文献和古老的村庄以及墓葬的调查，Cornet总结到萨伊河下游地区被认为收藏于17世纪的软石刻品，更可能在19世纪晚期被获得，而且雕刻活动只开始于18世纪期间，持续到20世纪前25年，（Stone NtadiSculpture of Bas-Zaire,1981）。但是，这个问题仍被争论，见Marie-No l Verger-Fèvre,1988，La pierre: Mémoirede l'Afrique noire。
1Bravmann, Rene A.1974. Islam and Tribal Art in West Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2例如Cole, Herbert M. and Ross, Doran H.1977. The Arts of Ghana. LosAngeles: Museum of Cultural History,University of California；Silverman, Raymond A.1986."Bono Brass Casting." African Arts19/4:60-4,85-6.
3Ross, Doran H.and Garrard, Timothy H.(eds.)1983. Akan Transformations. Problems in Ghanaian Art History.Museum of Cultural History Monograph Series21. Los Angeles: University of California.
4Johnson, Marian A.1980."Black Gold: Goldsmiths, Jewelry and Women in Senegal." Ph.D. dissertation,Stanford University.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1983."Who is the Man in the Bowler Hat? Emblems of Identity in Benin Royal Art."Baessler-Archiv (Berlin) n.f.31:161-83.
2Mark, Peter.1987."The Senegambian Horned Initiation Mask: History and Provenance." Art Bulletin64/4:626-640.
3Bassani, Ezio.1983."A Note on Kongo High-Status Caps in Old European Collections." RES: Anthropology andAesthetics5:74-84.
4Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.
5Bravmann, René A.1981. Seeking the Sense of History: Art Historians in Africa, pp.122-29in Donald I. Ray,Peter Shinnie and Donovan Williams(eds.) Into the80's: The Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference ofthe Canadian Association of African Studies, B.C. Geographical Series32. Vancouver: Tantalus Research.
6d'Azevedo, Warren L.1980. Review of Frederick Lamp, African Art of the West Atlantic Coast. In African Arts14/1:81-6.
7Mark, Peter.1987. Review of Labelle Prussin, Hatumere: Islamic Design in West Africa. In African StudiesReview30/1:124-126.
1Jones, Adam.1988."Drink Deep, or Taste Not: Thoughts on the Use of Early European Records in the Study ofAfrican Material Culture." Paper read at the Workshop on African Material Culture. Bellagio, Italy.
2Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Melville J. Herskovits and the Arts of Ancient Dahomey." RES: Anthropologyand Aesthetics16:125-142.
3Geary, Christraud M.1987."Basketry in the Aghem-Fungom Area of the Cameroon Grassfields." African Arts20/3；1988."Art and Political Process in the Kingdoms of Bali-Nyonga and Bamum (Cameroon Grassfields)."Canadian Journal of African Studies22/1:11-41.
4Geary, Christraud M.1988. Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography from the Court of King Njoya,Cameroon, West Africa,1902-1915. Washington, DC: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian InstitutionPress.
5Vogel, Susan Mullin.1973."People of Wood: Baule Figure Sculpture." Art Journal33/1:23-6；1980. Beauty inthe Eyes of the Baule: Aesthetics and Cultural Values. Working Papers in the Traditional Arts6. Philadelphia:Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Boone, Sylvia Ardyn.1986. Radiance from the Waters: Ideals of Feminine Beauty in Mende Art. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press.
6Borgatti, Jean M.1982."Okpella Masks: In Search of the Parameters of the Beautiful and the Grotesque."Studies in Visual Communication8/3:28-40；1988."Social Change and Aesthetic Attitudes in Okpella (Nigeria)."Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Cultural Anthropology, Washington, DC.
7Drewal，Margaret Thompson. and Drewal, Henry John.1987. Composing Times and Space in Yoruba Art. Wordand Image3/3:225-51.
1Lawal, Babatunde.1976."Some Aspects of Yoruba Aesthetics." British Journal of Aesthetics14/3:239-249；1985."Ori: The Significance of the Head in Yoruba Sculpture." Journal of Anthropological Research41/1:91-103.
2Bascom, William.1976. Changing African Arts, pp.303-19in Nelson H.H.Grabum(ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts.Berkeley: University of California Press.
3参见：阿泽维多：《非洲社会的传统艺术家》
4Baxandall, Michael.1972. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Itlay. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
5Ben-Amos, Paula.1980."Patron-Artist Interactions in Africa." African Arts13/3:56-57,92.
6Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1987."Apprentices and Entrepreneurs: The Workshop and Style Uniformity inSub-Saharan Africa," pp.25-47in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in Africa Art: The Stanley Conferences atthe University ofIowa2. Iowa City: University of Iowa.
7Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art"
8如Preston, George Nelson.1975."Perseus and Medusa inAfrica: Military Art in Fanteland,1834-1972." AfricanArts.
1Silver, Harry R.1983."Foreign Art and Asante Aesthetics." African Arts16/3.
2Richter, Dolores.1980. Art, Economics and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, Calif.:Psych/Graph Publishers.
3Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit. Cambridge University Press1994
4Bassani, Ezio. and McLeod, Malcolm.1985."African Material in Early Collections." pp.245-250in OliverImpey and Arthur MacGregor (eds.) The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth-andSeventeenth-Century Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press；Ehrlich, Martha J.1981."A Catalogue of Ashanti ArtTaken from Kumasi in the Anglo-Ashanti War of1874." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.
5Nunley, John W.1981."The Fancy and the Fierce." African Arts14/2:52-8,87-8；Ottenberg, Simon.1982."Illusion, Communication, and Psychology in West African Masquerade," Ethos10/2:149-185；1988."Psychological Aspects of Igbo Art." African Arts21/2:72-82,93.此外，传播最广泛的非洲艺术图书是AfricanSculpture Speaks（New York: A.A.Wyn,1952,1961年再版，1969、1975扩增），作者是艺术商Ladislas Segy，受弗洛伊德的启发，将祖先雕像解释为被看作是让人安心或令人敬畏的父亲形象。为征服对父亲的恐惧，非洲人将他的意志强加于自然的形式因此将风格变形和抽象化。（1961:47）
1曹意强：《欧美艺术史学史与方法论》，《新美术》，2001（1）：27-37，第28页。
2温克尔曼：《古代艺术史》，陈研、陈平译，《新美术》，2007（1）：38-47，第38页。
3曹意强：《欧美艺术史学史与方法论》，第28页。
1托马斯·德-科斯塔·考夫曼：《美国声音——美国早期艺术史学和接纳德裔艺术史家情况的几点认识上》，张坚译，《新美术》，2011（2）：27-38。
2Schapiro,Meyer.1939."From Mozarabic to Romanesque in Silos." Art Bulletin21/4.
3Schapiro, Meyer.1994. Theory and Philosophy of Art: Style, Artist, and Society. George Braziller.
4Shapiro, M."Style". In Kroeber, A. L.(ed.), Anthropology Today. Chicago University Press,1953, pp.283-311.
1参见福西永：《形式的生命》，陈平译，北京大学出版社，2011年，中译者前言，第7-8页。
2罗伯特·约瑟·霍维茨：《与乔治·库布勒的谈话》，章利国译，《新美术》1990年02期，第67页。
1参见DICTIONARY OFART HISTORIANS，http://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.org/sieberr.htm以及Doran H. Ross and Roy Sieber.1992.“Interview with Roy Sieber.” African Arts25/4:36-51.
2参见Paul Bohannan.1961."Artist and Critic in an African Society." pp.85-94in Marian W.Smith,ed.The Artistin Tribal Society, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Occasional Paper15. New York:Free Press of Glencoe.
3Alpers, Svetlana.1977."Is Art History?" Daedalus106:1-13.
1Zerner, Henri.1982."Editor's Statement: The Crisis in the Discipline," Art Journal42/4:279.
2Baxandall, Michael.1972. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy. Oxford: Clarendon Press；Clark, T.J.1973. Image of the People: Gustave Courbet and the1848Revolution. London: Thames&Hudson.
3Zerner, Henri.1982."Editor's Statement: The Crisis in the Discipline," Art Journal42/4:279.
4Belting, Hans.1987. The End of the History of Art? Translated by Christopher S. Wood. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.
5参见：Larry Silver,1986,"The State of Research in Northern RenaissanceArt," Art Bulletin48/4:518-35；Wanda M. Corn,1988,"Coming of Age: Historical Scholarship in American Art," Art Bulletin70/2:188-207；Herbert L. Kessler,1988,"On the State of Medieval Art History," Art Bulletin70/2:166-87.
6Baxandall, Michael.1980. The Limewood Sculptors of Renaissance Germany. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress.
1参见Bryson, Norman.1983. Vision and Painting: The Logic of the Gaze. New Haven: Yale University Press.中译本：《视觉与绘画：注视的逻辑》，郭杨等译，杭州：浙江摄影出版社，2004。
2Shiff, Richard.1988."Art History and the Nineteenth Century: Realism and Resistance." Art Bulletin70/1:25-48.第27页。
3关于市场策略研究参见Wagner, Anne Middleton.1986. Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux: Sculptor of the SecondEmpire. New Haven: Yale University Press；关于观看方式Fried, Michael.1980. Absorption and Theatricality:Painting and Beholder in the Age of Diderot. Berkeley: University of California Press；关于社会交际关系参见：Crow, Thomas E.1985. Painters and Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Paris. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4Clark, T. J.1985. The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and his Followers. New York: Knopf.中译本T.J.克拉克，《现代生活的画像——马奈及其追随者艺术中的巴黎》，沈语冰、诸葛沂译，江苏美术出版社，2013年。
1参见：[美]乔治·E.马尔库斯/米开尔·M.J.费彻尔，《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年；[美]爱德华·W.萨义德，《东方学》，王宇根译，三联书店，2007年。
2马利特·威斯特曼（Mari t Westermann）：《艺术史与人类学的对象》，李修建译，《民族艺术》2013（1）：60-69。
3同上，第66页。
4有关艺术史近年对人类学术语的探讨非常多，仅列举比较早的几例：大卫·弗里德伯格《图像的力量》（Thepower of Images，1989）；文特（Irene J.Winter）《强力统治者的身体：对古地亚雕像的一种理解》（“The Bodyof the Able Ruler: Toward an Understanding of the Statues of Gudea”，1989）；雷德侯《万物：中国艺术中的模件化和批量化生产》（2000）等。
1格尔兹“艺术是一种文化体系”的观点，是目前文化人类学对艺术的经典理论陈述，人类学之外与非西方艺术史都广为接受这种说法，《现代语言笔记91》（Modern Language Notes91）（1976）：第1473－1499页。（李修建译，2013）
2墨菲《艺术人类学》，第662页
3Baxandall, Michael.1980. The Limewood Sculptors of Renaissance Germany.第164页。
4Belting, Hans.1987.
5Baxandall, Michael.1980.
6例如，西尔弗对没有经过训练的刻工的评论，参见Silver, Harry R.1981."Calculating Risks: TheSocioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in an Ashanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-14.
7Geertz, Clifford:1983. Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
1马利特·威斯特曼，2013，第66页。
2关于视觉研究与视觉文化以及艺术史研究的关系，参见米歇尔·安·霍利（Michael Ann Holly）和肯斯·莫
克（Keith Moxey）主编的《艺术史、美学和视觉研究》（Art History，Aesthetics，Visual Study）（Williamstown,Mass: Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute,2003
3Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
1Herskovits.1945，第58页。
2比如Daniel Biebuyck “AfricanArt Studies Since1957:Achievements and Directions”；Jan Vansina, Art Historyin Africa: An Introduction to Method； Sidney Kasfir “One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography ofAfrican Art”；Ben-Amos."African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective"； Monni Adams "African Visual Artsfrom an Art Historical Perspective"；Henry Drewal "African Art Studies Today"；Suzanne Preston Blier "AfricanArt at the Crossroads: An American Perspective"；Suzanne Preston Blier "Words about Words about Icons:Iconology and the Study of African Art"
1Fagg,William.1955-1956."The Study of African Art," pp.458-73in Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg(eds.) Culturesand Societies of Africa. Random House, pp.464
2Sieber,Roy.,"The Arts and Their Changing Social Function." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,196296:653-58.
3Sieber,Roy.1966."Report of Visual Arts Group." ARC Conference on the African Arts, Indiana University,March25-26,1966.
4Bascom, William.1962."African Material Culture, Technology, and Ecological Adaptation." Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences96:581-89.
5Laude, Jean.1978. Introduction to Michel Huet The Dance, Art and Ritual of Africa. New York: Pantheon Books,pp.14-15; Fagg William.1955-56."The Study of African Art,"pp.458-73in Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg (eds.)Cultures and Societies of Africa. New York:Random House; Sieber,Roy.1965."The Visual Arts," in RobertLystad(ed.) The African World: A Survey of Social Research. New York: Praeger, pp.444.
6Daniel Biebuyck,' African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions', African Studies Review,vol.26,nos.3/4,(1983),pp.105-106
7Bascom, William.1962,pp.583
8Leach,1982; Sieber,1973
9Daniel Biebuyck,1983, pp.105
1Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa: An Introduction to Method, London and New York,1984.
2Sieber,Roy.1965."The Visual Arts," in Robert Lystad (ed.) The African World: A Survey of Social Research.New York, pp.445
3Crowley,Daniel J.1958,"Aesthetic Judgment and Cultural Relativism," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism17:187-93.
4Richards,1953; Firth,1951; Sieber,1966
5Daniel Biebuyck,' African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions', African Studies Review,vol.26,nos.3/4,(1983),pp.101-103
6Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
7Drewal, Henry John.1987."African Art Studies Today." Paper read at the Opening Symposium, NationalMuseum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. P28.
1Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1979."Visual Arts of the Idoma of Central Nigeria." Ph.D. University of London.
2Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art." Historyin Africa11:163-93.
3Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art." Historyin Africa11:165.
1Smith, Affairs of Daura,9
2David and Charlene Baldwin. The Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria: An Indexed Bibliography （Boston,1976）
3存在的例外多来自于欧洲的历史学家或民族学者，他们关注了一些历史问题。万斯那运用了历史学家的方法论考察了库巴艺术，见“Ndop: Royal Statues Among the Kuba”收录于弗雷泽和科尔编的《非洲艺术和领导力》，第41—55页。Tamara Northern在揭开喀麦隆草原殖民地化之前的艺术史上做了开创性的工作，见于《喀麦隆的王室艺术》（Royal Art of Cameroon）Hanover，1973；以及《豹子的标记》（The Sign of theLeopard）Storrs, Conn.,1975。南美洲圭亚那艺术史家Denis Williams在他里程碑式的关于尼日利亚铁和青铜艺术的研究中，结合了考古学、民族学和艺术史的方法。见于《圣像和图像》（Icon and Image）London，1974。美国学者亨利和玛格利特·朱奥通过研究所选取跨越几代人的家族的礼拜生活，创建了约鲁巴艺术的历史。见于“An Ifa Diviner's Shrine in Ijebuland.”1985.AfricanArts16/2:60-7,99-100以及其它约鲁巴相关的研究。
1Vansina, Sidney."Cultures Through Time" in Raoul Naroll and Ronald Cohen. eds. A Handbook of Method inCultural Anthropology. New York.1970.175
2Edward Sapir,"Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture: A Study in Method"[1916], reprinted inDavid Mandelbaum, ed., Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Language, Culture and Personality (Berkeley,1949),475-32; Clark Wissler, The American Indian (New York,1917),342-54; Alfred L. Kroeber, Cultural andNatural Areas of Native North America [University of California Publications in American Archaeology andEthnology,38](Berkeley,1939),1-19.
3Melville J. Herskovits."A Preliminary Consideration of the Culture-Areas of Africa." American Anthropologist,26(1924),50-63; idem.,"The Culture Areas of Africa," Africa,3(1930),59-77.
1Adam Kuper and Pierre Van Leynseele,"Social Anthropology and the Bantu Expansion," Africa,48(1978),335.
2A. Von Sydow. Handbuch der Afrikanischen Plastik.(Berlin,1930),1:2.
3Kjersmeier, Centres de Style de La Sculpture Negre Africaine (reprinted New York,1967).
4例如见于G.I. Jones,"Sculpture of the UmuahiaArea of Nigeria," AfricanArts,6/4(1973),58-63.
1Roy Sieber,"African Art and Culture History" in Creighton Gabel and Norman R. Bennett, eds., ReconstructingAfrican Culture History (Boston,1967), P136.
2Aidan Southall.1970."The Illusion of Tribe." Journal of Asian and African Studies5:28-50. Morton Fried,Michael Moerman, and Gertrude Dole in Essays on the Problem of Tribe, ed. June Helm (Seattle,1968), P3-20,P153-69, P83-100. Anya P. Royce, Ethnic Identity (Bloomington,1982), P20-24.
3Aidan Southall.1970."The Illusion of Tribe." P28.
1Tribes and Forms in African Arts. New York,1965,11
2Fagg, Tribes and Forms in African Arts. New York,1965,13
1如Elizabeth Isichei.Igbo Worlds (Philadelphia,1978),43-45,50-52,76-77.
2Southall,"Illusion of Tribe,"32.
3Fagg. Tribes and Forms.P16.
4Susan Vogel. ed. For Spirits and Kings (New York,1981),163-64; cat. no.96.
1Sculpture of Black Africa, prepared for the Los Angeles County Museum (Los Angeles,1968)
2Sculpture of Black Africa,12.
3David Dalby, SOAS Seminar on Ethnicity,11December1973.
4Rene Bravmann, West African Sculpture (Seattle,1970),52.
5Rene Bravmann, Open Frontiers: The Mobility of Art in Black Africa (Seattle,1973).
1Jones,"Sculpture of the Umuahia Area."
2Jones,"Sculpture of the Umuahia Area." P.59.
3Jones,"Sculpture of the Umuahia Area."P.63.
4Biebuyck, ed., Tradition and Creativity,3.
1Biebuyck, ed., Tradition and Creativity,2.
2Jan Vansina,"The Use of Process-Models in African History" in Jan Vansina, Raymond Mauny and LouisVincent Thomas, The Historian in Tropical Africa (London,1964),378-79.
3Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art." P187.
1Joseph Cornet."African Art and Authenticity". African Arts9/1,1975, pp:52-55.
2《非洲艺术》杂志，1976年第9卷、3期
3Kasfir, Sidney."African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow." African Arts25/2,1992, pp:41.
1Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P42.
2Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P43.
12Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P45.Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P53.
3Kasfir, Sidney. Rethinking the Maasai Ivories. African Arts.1995,28/2:12-15.
4Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit. Cambridge University Press,1994.
5在此笔者引用了罗易扉的相关翻译，见罗易扉：《资本的渗透——克里斯托弗·斯坦纳与<流通中的非洲艺术>》，载《江南大学学报》2011年第4期。
1在此援引罗易扉的相关译介，见《资本的渗透——克里斯托弗·斯坦纳与<流通中的非洲艺术>》，载《江南大学学报》2011年第4期。
1Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit.P102.
2皮埃尔·布迪厄：《艺术的法则：文学场的生成和结构》，刘辉译，中央编译出版社，2001年，第276页。
1Fred Myers. Painting Culture: The Making of all Aboriginal High Art. Duke University Press.2002:22-23.
2Denis Dutton."Mythologies of Tribal Art." African Arts26,1995:32-43.丹尼斯·杜顿，在加州大学获得哲学学士和博士学位，并曾在加州大学圣巴巴拉分校、密歇根大学等高校任教。
3Miller B L, Steiner C B, Kasfir S L, et al. Commentary on "Mythologies of Tribal Art". African Arts.1996,29/1:89-104, P39.
4同上。
1乔治·E.马尔库斯、米开尔·M. J.费彻尔：《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年，第11页。
1针对这一问题，笔者不仅查阅了大量资料，而且也与美国与南非的相关学者探讨过，或许在今天，关于方法本身的问题已经不是问题了。
2Miller B L, Steiner C B, Kasfir S L, et al. Commentary on "Mythologies of Tribal Art". African Arts.1996,29/1:89-104.
1James M.Reisshardt，郑锡瑜译：《黑人是否劣等民族？》，载《光华大学半月刊》1932年第4期，第23页。
2但功泽：《黑人理想中的美观谈》，载《申报月刊》1934年第6期。
3林风眠：《原始人类的艺术》，载《国立艺术院半月刊》1928年第2期。
4格罗塞（Ernst Grosse）：《艺术的起源》，陈易译，大东书局1933年版；蔡慕晖译，商务印书馆1937年版。
5岑家梧：《欧美原始艺术研究小史》，载《责善半月刊》1941年第2巻14期，第3页。
6《由面具和偶人所看到的原始艺术》，载《三六九画报》1943年第16期，第11页。
7参见林风眠：《原始人类的艺术》，载《国立艺术院半月刊》1928年第2期，第87-116页；丰子恺：《西洋美术史》，开明书店1928年版，第8页。
8刘咸：《国际人类学及史前考古学巴黎会议记》，载《科学》1932年第16卷第4期，第507-535。
9鲁迅：《当陶元庆君的绘画展览时我所要说的几句话》，载郎绍君，水天中编《二十世纪中国美术文选》上，上海书画出版社1999年版，第176-177页。
10板垣鹰穗：《近代美术史潮论》，鲁迅译，北新书局1929年版，第107-156页。
1梁锡鸿：《现代绘画与原始人艺术的探讨》，载《真善美半月刊》（广州），1948年第7期，第44-45页。
2丰子恺：《立体派、未来派、抽象派》，载丰子恺《西洋画派十二讲》，开明书店1930年版，第432-433页。
3吕澂：《西洋美术史》，商务印书馆1933年版，第157页。
4梁锡鸿：《辟卡梭艺术的阶段》，载《美术杂志》1937年第5期，第118页。
1林镛：《辟卡梭与辟卡梭主义》，载《美术杂志》1937年第5期，第123页。
2《艺术运动社宣言》，载杭州国立艺术院月刊《亚波罗》1929年第8期。
3[苏]奥尔捷罗戈、比列维尔捷夫，东雨等译：《非洲的造型艺术和音乐》，载《亚非译丛》1963年第10期，第32页。
4向红：《遥致刚果河的英雄儿女们——纪录片《刚果（利）人民必胜》观后》，载《电影艺术》1964年第6期。
1卜维勤：《加纳的木雕艺术》，载《世界知识》1964年第18期。
2梁烈：《刚果（利）人民的木刻艺术》，载《羊城晚报》1964年12月6日。
3如杨阳、马路编译《非洲民族服饰》，湖南美术出版社1998年。
4让洛德：《黑非洲艺术》，张延风译，江苏美术出版社1994年版。
12010年以前中国有关非洲艺术的文献情况参见李彩的硕士论文《20世纪以来中国对非洲艺术的认知》，在此不再赘述，下同。
2“国立”历史博物馆编辑委员会编《前进非洲——原始艺术特展》，台北：“国立”历史博物馆2003年；王婉如编《古刚果文物展－从古仪式至现代艺术之探究》，台中：“国立”台湾美术馆2005年；彭基山编《亚洲国际木雕艺术交流展：黑色风潮－來自非洲的问候》，苗栗：苗栗县文化局2006年。
3胡佳莹，孙哲：《充满诱惑的非洲艺术》，载《美术大观》2008年第11期。
4袁承志：《原生的本能现代的范式——论非洲木雕艺术》，载《雕塑》2001年第1期。
5段圣君：《非洲雕刻艺术的特点》，载《荆门职业技术学院学报》2001年第5期。
6黄平：《非洲木雕人像中的性意识》，载《华侨大学学报》2006年第3期。
7例如王沫：《非洲雕刻的美学价值及现代意义》，硕士学位论文，东北师范大学2008年；吴妍：《黑非洲传统服饰图案研究》，硕士学位论文，广东工业大学2011年。
1刘鸿武，张佳梅：《尼日利亚古代文化艺术史述略》，载《西亚非洲》1999年第2期。
1张荣生：《20世纪世界美术大系——非洲卷》，黑龙江美术出版社，1991年。
2[美]乔治·E.马尔库斯、米开尔·M. J.费彻尔：《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年。
3方李莉：《走向田野的艺术人类学研究——艺术人类学研究的方法与视角》，载《民间文化论坛》2006年第5期。
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78. Ruby, Jay (ed.) A Crack in the Mirror: Reflexive Perspectives in Anthropology.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,1982.
79. Geertz, Clifford. Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books,1983.
80. Clifford, James. and Marcus, George E.(eds.). Writing Culture: The Poetics andPolitics of Ethnography. Berkeley: University of California Press,1986.
81. Monni, Adams."African Visual Arts from an Art Historical Perspective." AfricanStudies Review32/2,1989, pp:55-103.
82. Daniel Biebuyck.“African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements andDirections.” African Studies Review26/3,1983.
83. Robert T.Soppelsa.“Western Art-Historical Methodology and African Art:Panofsky's Paradigm and Ivorian Mma”, Art Journal(Summer),1988.
84. Drewal, Henry John."African Art Studies Today." Paper read at the OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution,Washington, DC,1987.
85. Adams, Monni."Current Directions in the Study of Masking in Africa.", AfricanaJournal14/2-3,1987, pp:89-114.
86. Bascom, William. African Art in Cultural Perspective, New York: Norton,1973.
87. Joseph Cornet."African Art and Authenticity", African Arts9/1,1975,pp:52-55.
88. Kasfir, Sidney. African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow, African Arts25(2),1992, pp:41-97.
89. Blier, Suzanne Preston."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective."Paper read at Opening Symposium, National Museum of African Art, SmithsonianInstitution, Washington, DC,1987.
90. Blier, Suzanne Preston."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Studyof African Art," Art Journal47/2,1988, pp:75-87.
91. Belting. Hans. The End of the History of Art? Translated by Christopher S. Wood,Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1987.
92. Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit, Cambridge University Press,1994.
93. Shapiro, Meyer."Style". In Kroeber, A. L.(ed.). Anthropology Today. ChicagoUniversity Press,1953, pp.283-311.
94. Kasfir, Sidney."African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow." AfricanArts25/2,1992, pp:41-97.
1.张坚：《西方现代美术史》，上海人民美术出版社，2009年。
2.张坚：《视觉形式的生命》，中国美术学院出版社，2004年。
3.涂尔干、莫斯：《原始分类》，汲喆译，上海人民出版社，2000年。
4. A. R.拉德克利夫—布朗：《社会人类学方法》，夏建中译，山东人民出版社，1988年。
5.王铭铭编：《西方人类学名著提要》，江西人民出版社，2004年。
6.王建民：《艺术人类学新论》，民族出版社，2008年。
7.方李莉，李修建：《艺术人类学》，生活·读书·新知三联书店，2013年。
8.高长江：《艺术人类学—艺术的存在和存在的艺术》，中国社会科学出版社，2010年。
9.罗伯特·莱顿：《艺术人类学》，李东晔等译，广西师范大学出版社，2009年。
10.迪尔凯姆（涂尔干）：《社会学研究方法论》，胡伟译，华夏出版社，1988年。
11.涂尔干：《宗教生活的基本形式》，渠东、汲哲译，上海人民出版社，2006年。
12. B. K.马林诺夫斯基：《文化论》，费孝通等译，中国民间文艺出版社，1987年。
13.阿兰·巴纳德：《人类学历史与理论》，王建民等译，华夏出版社，2006年。
14.乔治·E.马尔库斯，弗雷德·R.迈尔斯：《文化交流：重塑艺术和人类学》，阿嘎佐诗等译，广西师范大学出版社，2010年。
15.克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯：《遥远的目光》，邢克超译，中国人民大学出版社，2007年。
16.博厄斯：《原始艺术》，金辉译，上海文艺出版社，1989年。
17.范景中：《美术史的形状：从瓦萨里到20世纪20年代》，中国美术学院出版社，2003年。
18.马利特·威斯特曼[Mari t Westermann]：《艺术史与人类学的对象》，李修建译，《民族艺术》2013（1）
19.皮埃尔·布迪厄：《艺术的法则：文学场的生成和结构》，刘辉译，中央编译出版社，2001年。
20.汉斯·贝尔廷：《艺术史的终结？当代西方艺术史哲学文选》，常宁生编译，中国人民大学出版社，2004。
21.乔治·E.马尔库斯、米开尔·M. J.费彻尔：《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年。
22.[美]爱德华·W.萨义德：《东方学》，王宇根译，三联书店，2007年。
2关于西方对非洲艺术的发现、记载，非洲艺术进入西方艺术界与公众视野的过程，参见Leiris, Michel.1968.African art (The Arts of mankind). New York: Golden Press. P1-34.
2关于人类学与非洲研究，参见：Aidan Southall.1983.“The Contribution ofAnthropology toAfrican Studies.”African Studies Review26/3/4:63-76.
3“African Art and Modern Western Art”. in Robbins, Warren M and Nooter, Nancy Ingram.2004. African art inAmerican collections: survey1989. Schiffer Pub.Ltd.pp.22-26.
1关于这个事实的论述很常见，如“African Art and Modern WesternArt”第22页。
2W.MacGaffey,‘The Eyes of Understanding: Kongo Minkisi’, Astonishment and Power (exh.cat., Washington,DC, N.Mus.Afr.A.,1993-4), pp.21-103
3[澳]罗伯特·休斯（Robert Hughes）：《新的冲击——写给大众的西方现代艺术的百年历史》，欧阳昱译，百花文艺出版社，2003年，第14页。
4Fry, Roger.1933.“Negro Sculpture at the Lefevre Gallery.” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs,62/363,1933-06-01:289-290.
1Fry, Roger.1923."Negro Sculpture," in Vision and Design. London: Chatto&Windus.
2[澳]罗伯特·休斯（Robert Hughes）：《新的冲击——写给大众的西方现代艺术的百年历史》，欧阳昱译，百花文艺出版社，2003年，第14页。
3Fry, Roger.1933.“Negro Sculpture at the Lefevre Gallery.” The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs,62/363:289-290.
4同上。
1Thompson, Robert Farris.1973."Yoruba Artistic Criticism", pp.19-61in Warren L.d'Azevedo(ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.James W. Fernandez,'Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics', The Journal ofAesthetics and Art Criticism,25:1,1966-10-011966,53-64.
1李彩：《20世纪以来中国对非洲艺术的认知》，硕士学位论文，浙江师范大学2010年。
1W.MacGaffey,‘The Eyes of Understanding: Kongo Minkisi’, Astonishment and Power (exh.cat., Washington,DC, N.Mus.Afr.A.,1993-4), pp.21-103
2Jan Vansina.1984. Art History in Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.
3P. Guillaume and T.Munro, Primitive Negro Sculpture (London,1926)
4W.Gillon: A Short History of African Art (Harmondsworth,1984)
1Guillaume,Paul. and Munro,Thomas.1926. Primitive Negro Sculpture. London: Harcourt, Brace.
2Willett, Frank.1971. African Art: An Introduction. New York: Thames and Hudson. P27.
1关于人类学与非洲研究，参见：Aidan Southall.1983.“The Contribution ofAnthropology toAfrican Studies.”African Studies Review26/3/4:63-76.
2Tessman, Günter.1913. Die Pangwe: v lkerkundliche monographie eines West-Afrikanische Negerstammes.Berlin: E. Wasmuth, A.G.Torday, Emil and Joyce, T.A.1911. Notes ethnographiques sur les peuples communément appelés Bakuba, ainsique sur les peuplades apparentées, Les Bushongo. Brussels: Librairie Falk.Frobenius, Leo.1912-1919. Und Afrika sprach. Berlin: Vita.
3见比耶比克、赫布兰德、万斯那对这一时期研究情况的评述：Biebuyck, Daniel P.1983."AfricanArt StudiesSince1957: Achievements and Directions." African Studies Review26/3,4:99-118.P101-03；Gerbrands, A.A.1957. Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill.P66-121；Vansina, Jan.1984. ArtHistory in Africa. London: Longman.P19.
1Mudimbe, V.Y.1986."African Art as a Question Mark." African Studies Review29/1:3-4.
2埃米尔·涂尔干与卡尔·马克思及马克斯·韦伯并列为社会学的三大奠基人，《社会学年鉴》创刊人，是法国学院社会学的创始人和古代或原始社会研究方面最有影响的早期理论家，法国首位社会学教授。受教于巴黎高等师范学校，获哲学教师学位和博士学位。1887年在波尔多的一所大学任教，1902年移居到巴黎索邦大学，直至1917年逝世。涂尔干的突出贡献在于他对社会学研究的科学性的确立，尤其是其“社会事实”概念的提出，实际是使社会学超出个人因素的困扰，而在一个更为广泛的意义上使社会学无论在理论还是方法上都更加明确。涂尔干的理论观点和社会学方法对民族学研究有重要的价值和影响。第一，他强调客观地研究现象本身，用客观考察、对比事实的方法研究社会现象。第二，涂尔干提出的“集体表象”概念，在说明社会条件对个人意识的作用上，有积极的一面。同一社会的成员的共同行为方式、思维方式和感觉方式的特征是从该社会自觉或不自觉地接受的。第三，涂尔干提出了各种研究方法，提出社会环境决定因果关系。他对象征—结构论的影响将在下文述及。
1迪尔凯姆（涂尔干）：《社会学研究方法论》，胡伟译，华夏出版社，1988年。
2马林诺夫斯基1884年生于波兰，其父亲是一名语言学教授。先后学习过数学、物理学和哲学，本科毕业后去伦敦经济学院学习人类学，1914年去澳大利亚进行田野调查。1922—1938年在伦敦经济学院任教，二战时期居住在美国，接受耶鲁大学终身教职后不久便去世。他最著名的著作是《西太平洋的航海者》（1922），具体描述了库拉交换规则以及一些仪式的细节。他培养了雷蒙德·弗斯、菲利普·卡伯里、艾琳·克里格、莫尼卡·威尔森和希尔达·库珀等著名的学生，他们都带有“马林诺夫斯基的”特点。他鼓励人类学家进行长期的田野工作，与报道人保持很长时间的密切联系。拉德克利夫-布朗，1881年生于伯明翰。1901年进入剑桥三一学院学习人类学，然后继续在该校攻读硕士学位，两次留学法国，深受法国社会学尤其是涂尔干著作的影响。1906—1910年期间先后在安达曼群岛和西澳大利亚进行田野调查。从1909年开始在三一学院讲授社会人类学，并先后在开普敦、悉尼、芝加哥和牛津等大学讲授该课程。1935年曾应燕京大学的邀请来中国讲学。30年代在美国芝加哥大学任教，1937年后主持牛津大学人类学系。二战期间曾任英国皇家人类学学会会长。他对人类学的贡献主要表现在方法论上。他系统地提出了结构和功能的理论，被称为“结构—功能论”（structural functionalism）。他提倡比较的观点，推崇归纳法，认为人类学可以通过比较发现“社会的自然法则”，他提出社会人类学的任务不是构拟各族的具体历史，而是“运用某种逻辑方法来发现和证明某些普遍规律”，“社会人类学一词用来表示力求形成贯穿于文化现象的一般规律的研究”。（参见A. R.拉德克利夫—布朗：《社会人类学方法》，夏建中译，山东人民出版社，1988，第4页。）作为经验论者，他反对推测构成社会的体系或制度起源，并认为人类学家只应该研究他们所发现的东西。他注重事实，认为将事实联系起来的最简单的方法就是将社会视为一个由活生生的、由互动的各部分组成的单位进行研究。在《论社会科学的功能概念》（1935）一文中他还提出了社会结构的概念，并且把结构和功能联系在一起，反对那些不与社会结构相联系的功能定义。他的结构论以及对结构主义的影响将在下文述及。拉德克利夫-布朗和马林诺夫斯基通力合作，促使英联邦几乎每一位人类学家意识到旧有的人类学进化论和传播伦不再适宜作为人类学的研究领域。大多数英国人类学家及许多美国人类学家，都遵循着拉德克利夫-布朗的思路，他们设想，人类学作为填补田野民族志细节的学科，要概况具体社会，并对这些社会与其它社会进行比较；不对过去进行臆测，而是着眼于阐述社会体系如何发挥功能；不强调个体行为，而寻求更宽泛的模式；最重要的是，将部分组合在一起，以理解社会结构要素如何在彼此关系中发挥功能。马林诺夫斯基的影响主要在英国，特别是他创立“参与观察”传统方面。拉德克利夫-布朗在南非和澳大利亚有很大的影响力，也传播到美国。总之，功能主义源自进化论思想，作为人类学的观点与范式盛行起来，部分地来源于涂尔干，后由马林诺夫斯基和拉德克利夫-布朗继续推进，而且他们两位和他们的继承者为全球范围的学科建立了制度化的基础。
1在《文化论》中，马林诺夫斯基把文化分为物质设备、精神文化、语言和社会组织四个方面，认为人类学是研究文化的特殊科学，文化要素的动态性质揭示了人类学的重要工作就是研究文化的功能，而文化的意义就在文化要素的关系中。并认为文化的真正要素是社会制度，比如任何一个物品，只有将它放在社会制度的文化布局中去解释它所处的地位，才能得到它的文化意义。费孝通认为，自功能学派开始，才重视文化对于人类社会生活的效用及功能，确认文化为人类生活的手段，这是功能学派在理论上对于人类学的基本贡献。参见B. K.马林诺夫斯基：《文化论》，费孝通等译，第2，15—23页，中国民间文艺出版社，1987。
2雷蒙德·弗斯[Raymond Firth，1901—2002]，生于新西兰，曾担任伦敦经济学院人类学教授，他被认为独立创建了英国经济人类学的形式。1921年毕业于奥克兰大学经济学专业，1922年在那里攻读硕士学位，1923年获得社会科学类硕士学位。1924年他在伦敦经济学院开始做博士论文的研究计划，一开始打算研究经济，但当他偶遇著名的社会人类学家马林诺夫斯基时，受马林诺夫斯基的影响，他将研究领域改为“太平洋地区经济和人类学理论的结合”。可能就是在英国期间他是《金枝》的作者——詹姆斯·弗雷泽爵士[Sir JamesG Frazer]的助理。1927年获得博士学位，1929年他的博士论文《新西兰毛利人的原始经济学》出版。1927年他去悉尼大学工作，1928年首次去所罗门群岛最南边的提克皮亚岛做调查，研究那里未与外界接触的波利尼西亚社会，其仍然保持着原始的宗教习俗和经济，从那时起弗斯出版了相当多的研究文献，首部著作是1936年出版的《我们，提克皮亚岛：原始波利尼西亚亲属关系的社会学研究》（We, the Tikopia: ASociological Study of Kinship in Primitive Polynesia），70年后，在很多大学里这部著作依然被用作大洋洲相关课程的基础读物。1930年他开始在悉尼大学教课，拉德克利夫-布朗离开后，他继任代理教授以及澳大利亚国家研究委员会人类学研究委员会的代理主任。1939—1940年他在马来西亚从事田野工作。1944年弗斯继马林诺夫斯基后成为伦敦政治经济学院的社会人类学教授，1968年后他先后在夏威夷大学、不列颠哥伦比亚大学、康奈尔大学、芝加哥大学、纽约大学、加州大学戴维斯分校任太平洋人类学访问教授。其研究著作多集中于太平洋地区经济、社会的人类学研究。
3Firth, Raymond.1951."The Social Framework of Primitive Art," pp.155-182in Raymond Firth. Elements ofSocial Organization. London: Watts.
4同上，第179页。
1Haselberger, H.1961.“Methods of studying ethnological art.” Current Anthropology,2:341-384.
2Balandier, Georges.1966.“Les Conditions sociologiques de l’art noir,” pp.59-67in L’Art Nègre. Paris:PrésenceAfricaine.巴朗迪耶，法国民族学家，索邦大学名誉退休教授，法国高等社会科学院非洲研究中心主任。
3Adandé，Alexandre.1955."Fonctions et significations sociales des masques en Afrique noire." PrésenceAfricaine, n.s.1/1,2:24-38；Mveng, Engelbert.1968."The Function and Significance of Negro Art in the Life ofthe Peoples of Black Africa," pp,11-27in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Présence Africaine.
4Trowell, Kathleen Margaret.1954. Classical African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.
5Gerbrands, A.A.1957. Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill.格布兰兹[AdriaanAlexander Gerbrands，1917-1997]，1917年生于当时荷属东印度群岛的美娜多。在莱顿大学学习印度学，期间对人类学产生兴趣。1947—1966年在莱顿市的民族学国家博物馆工作，后成为非洲和美洲部的主管，还策划展览和制作民族学电影，1956年以《作为文化要素的艺术，尤以黑非洲为例》获得莱顿大学的哲学和语言学博士学位。1960—1961年在新几内亚做田野调查，并借此扩充了扩充了博物馆的藏品。1966年接受了莱顿大学的文化人类学席位的教授一职。
6Brain, Robert.1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman.
7Himmelheber, Hans.1935. Negerkünstler. Strecker und Schr der, pp.49.
8Bascom, William R.1962."African Arts and Social Control." African Studies Bulletin5/2:22-5.Biebuyck, Daniel P.1954."Function of a Lega Mask." International Archives of Ethnography47/1:108-20；1968."Art as a Didactic Device in African Initiation Systems." African Forum3/4,4；1972."The Kindi Aristocrats andTheir Art Among the Lega," pp.7-20in Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership.Madison: University of Wiscons in Press；1973. Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among aCentral African People. Berkeley: University of California Press.Cory, Hans.1956. African Figurines: Their Ceremonial Use in Puberty Rites in Tanganyika. London:Faber and Faber.Harley, George W.1950. Masks as Agents of Social Control in Northeast Liberia. Cambridge,Mass.: PeabodyMuseum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University.Holas, Bohumil.1952. Les masques Kono. Paris: Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner.Le Moal, Guy.1980. Les Bobo: nature etfonction des masques. Paris: ORSTOM.Mesquitela, Lima A.G.1978."L'Artiste en Afrique noire: quelques remarques sur le statut de l'artistee n AfriqueBantoue traditionnelle."Arts d'Afrique Noire25:14-20.Messenger, John C.1962."Anang Art, Drama, and Social Control."African Studies Bulletin5/2:29-35.Ottenberg, Simon.1972."Humorous Masks and Serious Politics Among the Afikpo Ibo," pp.99-121in DouglasFraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Sieber, Roy.1962b."Masks as Agents of Social Control."African Studies Bulletin5/2:8-13.Twala, Regina G.1951."Beads as Regulating the Social Life of the Zulu and Swazi." African Studies10:113-23.Van Geertruyen, Godelieve.1976."La fonction de la sculpture dans une société africaine: les Baga,Nalu etLanduman (Guinée)." Africana Gandensia1:63-113.Weil, Peter M.1971."The Masked Figure and Social Control: The Mandinka Case." Africa41/4:279-93.
1奥滕伯格[Simon Ottenberg]，华盛顿大学的人类学教授，1957年在西北大学获得博士学位，他的导师是赫斯科维茨。奥滕伯格以非洲艺术研究闻名，尤其是对尼日利亚艺术的研究。
2Ottenberg, Simon.1972.第119页。
3Trowell, Kathleen Margaret.1954. Classical African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.
4同上，第32页。
1Baumann, Hermann.1969. Afrikanische Plastik und sakrales Kbnigtum: ein sozialer Aspekt traditionellerafrikanisher Kunst. Munich: Verlag des Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenshaften.Brain, Robert.1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman.Dittmer, Kunz.1968."Medieval Art in the Royal Courts of West Africa," pp.67-72in Colloquium on Negro Art.Dakar: Editions Presence Africaine.Dark, Philip J.1973. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Geary, Christraud M.1981."The Idiom of War in the Bamum Court Arts." African Studies CenterWorking Papers (Boston), No.51.Vansina, Jan.1968."Kuba Art and Its Cultural Context." African Forum3/4,4/1:12-27；1972."Ndop: RoyalStatues Among the Kuba," pp.41-55in Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership.
2Douglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.弗雷泽和科尔师徒是美国研究非洲艺术的艺术史家，将在下一章详细介绍其背景。
3Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M.(eds.)1972.第305页。
4迪尔凯姆（涂尔干）：《社会学研究方法论》，胡伟译，华夏出版社，1988年，第108页
5例如Fischer, John L.1961."Art Styles as Cultural Cognitive Maps." American Anthropologist63/1:79-93.
6Wolfe, Alvin W.1969."Social Structural Bases of Art."Current Anthropology10/1:3-44.
1涂尔干：《社会学研究方法论》，第110页。
2Faris, James C.1978.“The Productive Basis of Aesthetic Traditions: Some African Examples,” pp.317-339inMichael Greenhalgh and Vincent Megaw (eds.) Art in Society. New York: St. Martin's Press.
3人类学家本-阿莫斯[Ben-Amos]和比耶比克分别在“African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective”和“AfricanArt Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions”中提出这一问题。
4Siegmann, William C.1980."Spirit Manifestation and the Poro Society." Ethnologische Zeitschrift Ziirich1:89-95.
5Firth, Raymond. ed.1980. Man and Culture, An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski. London:Routledge and Kega Paul. P.89.
1Firth, Raymond.1951."The Social Framework of Primitive Art," pp.155-82in Raymond Firth. Elements ofSocial Organization. London: Watts.第167页。
2Siroto, Leon.1972."Gon: A Mask Used in Competition for Leadership Among the Bakwele," pp.57-77inDouglas Fraser and Herbert M. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership. Madison:University of Wisconsin Press.
3Janzen, John M.1977."The Tradition of Renewal in Kongo Religion," pp.69-115in Newell S.Booth (ed.)African Religions: A Symposium. New York: Nok Publishers.
4比耶比克，1925年生于比利时，非洲中部艺术研究的权威人物，非洲艺术语境研究的开创者之一。曾学习古典哲学、法律和民族志，并在伦敦大学研究社会人类学，1949—1961年期间在现在称为刚果民主共和国中做田野调查，对莱加等部族做了大量的研究。作为人类学教授在特拉华州退休，也是鲁汶大学、耶鲁等大学的客座教授，讲授文化和社会人类学、非洲艺术和口头文献。
5Biebuyck, Daniel.1973. Lega Culture: Art, Initiation, and Moral Philosophy Among a Central AfricanPeople.Berkeley: University of California Press. P.170,173.
6同上，第232页。
1Layton, Robert.1981. The Anthropology of Art. New York: Columbia University Press. P.41.
2Durkheim, Emile.1912. Les formes dlementaires de la vie religieuse: le systeme totimiqueen Australie.Paris: Alcan.[Translated, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: A Study in Religious Sociology. London:George Allen and Unwin,1915.]
3Ben-Amos, Paula.1981.“There Are Three Things in the Palace That Are Threatening: Royal Ritual Symbolismin Benin.”Paper presented at the Seminar on Visual Art as Social Commentary in Africa, School of Oriental andAfrican Studies, University of London.
4Meyerowitz, Eva.1951. The Sacred State of the Akan. London: Faber and Faber.
5B. K.马林诺夫斯基：《文化论》，费孝通等译，第15—23页，中国民间文艺出版社，1987。
6例如Abíódún, Rowland.1975.“Ifa Art Objects: An Interpretation Based on Oral Traditions”；Arnoldi, Mary Jo.1986.“Puppet Theatre: Form and Ideology in Bamana Performances.”；Bay, Edna G.1985. Asen: Iron Altars ofthe Fon People of Benin；Biebuyck, Daniel P.1977.“Symbolism of the Lega Stool”；Brett-Smith, Sarah C.1982.“Symbolic Blood: Cloths for Excised Women”；Drewal, Henry John.1977.“Art and the Perception of Women inYoruba Culture”；Drewal, Margaret Thompson.1977.“Projections from the Top in Yoruba Art”；Lamp, Frederick.1985.“Cosmos, Cosmetics and the Spirit of Bondo”；Siroto, Leon.1979.“Witchcraft Belief in the Explanation ofTraditional African Iconography”；Wescott, Joan.1962.“The Sculpture and Myths of Eshu-Elegba, the YorubaTrickster: Definition and Interpretationin Yoruba Iconography.”等
7Davenport,William.1973."TheI nterpretationo f Symbolism in Primitive Art." Paper presented at the CollegeArt Association Meeting, New York.
1Hodder, Ian R.(ed.)1982. Symbolic and Structural Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.第4页。
2E.涂尔干：《宗教生活的基本形式》，渠东等译，第17页，上海人民出版社，1999。
3体现在《宗教生活的初级形式》（The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life），尤其是与莫斯（Marcel Mauss）合著的《原始分类》（Primitive Classification）中。
4Durkheim, Emile and Mauss, Marcel.1963(1903). Primitive Classification (translated from the French byRodney Needham). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. E.涂尔干、莫斯：《原始分类》，汲喆译，上海人民出版社，2000。
5涂尔干关注澳大利亚原始部落中的图腾崇拜，其研究目的却是为了“理解现今的人”，为了解释宗教的社会功能和论证共同意识对社会秩序建立的必要性。他批判了早期人类学家对宗教起源的两种解释—万物有灵论和自然崇拜论。他认为，宗教不是要给人们一种对于物质世界的描述，而是服务于社会。图腾是民族的标志、旗帜，图腾原则就是民族本身。人们崇拜图腾实际上是崇拜他们所属的那个团体，图腾是团体的象征，他认为宗教的神圣来自社会，是被实体化、人格化了的团体力量，即道德力量。这些神圣象征物（即宗教）的功能不仅在于帮助人们感到社会实体的存在，更在于维系社会，促进其整合。涂尔干分析了原始宗教中的多种仪式，认为它们起着维系社会、使之一体化的功能。他指出，不仅原始社会需要宗教的这种功能，“社会生活在其每一方面，在其每一个历史时期，都要靠一个大的象征体系才成为可能”，这一点是他晚年思想中的最大转变。（Durkheim, Emile.1915(1912).The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life: AStudyin Religious Sociology (translated from the French by Joseph Ward Swain). London: George Allen&Unwin.）“涂尔干关于象征行为的功能理论激发了社会科学领域里的三条发展路径：结构语言学，关于神话与仪式的结构功能，功能主义宗教学说。”参见罗伯特·莱顿：《他者的眼光：人类学理论入门》，蒙养山人译，华夏出版社，2005。
1Mauss, Marcel.1954. The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchage in Archaic Societies. London: Coehn and West,pp.11.马塞尔·莫斯[Marcel Mauss，1872—1950]，法国社会学家和人类学家，涂尔干的学生和外甥，法国民族学的实际开创者。他精通多种语言，包括梵文，因其对不同文化中有关魔术、牺牲和礼物交换的分析而对人类学的多个领域产生了深远的影响。他影响了拉德克里夫—布朗、马林诺夫斯基、埃文斯—普里查德、弗斯、赫斯科维茨等大批学者以及结构人类学的创立者列维-斯特劳斯。1926年与列维—布留尔等人建立巴黎大学的民族研究所。除与涂尔干合著的《原始分类》外，他最有代表性的著作是《礼物》，他指出尽管理论上讲送礼是自愿的，但这源自对礼物接受一方的期望，具有一种偿还因素。即礼物并不是免费的，而是嵌入在一套权利与义务体系中，在任何社会都构成社会结构的部分。他列举的例子包括波利尼西亚人和美拉尼西亚人之间和北美西海岸民族中的仪式性交换。涂尔干与莫斯推进的理论不仅有结构-功能主义的要素，而且还有进化论和结构主义的要素。所有这些理论都建立在公开承认人类心理一致性的基础上。莫斯还主张用统计学的方法以及借鉴心理学和生物学来进行民族学研究。
2受涂尔干与莫斯的影响，拉德克利夫—布朗在《论社会科学的功能概念》（1935）一文中也提出了社会结构的概念，并且把结构和功能联系在一起，反对那些不与社会结构相联系的功能定义。后来指出“结构这个概念是指在某个较大的统一体中，各个部分的配置或相互之间的组合。”（A. R.拉德克利夫—布朗：《社会人类学方法》，夏建中译，山东人民出版社，1988，第140页。）他认为社会结构是社会人类学研究的基本部分。他的结构功能论对以列维—斯特劳斯为代表的结构人类学产生了重要的影响。
1参与的学者有Genevieve Calame-Griaule, Germaine Dieterlen, Solange de Ganay, Michel Leiris, DominiqueZahan等。
1Griaule, Marcel.1938. Masques dogons. Paris: Institut d'Ethnologie.
2Marcel Griaule的相关文章和著作有：1940. Notes complémentaires sur les masques dogons. Journal de la Société des Africanistes10:79-85;1947. Arts de l'Afrique noire. Paris: Editions du Chène;1952. Réflexions sur desSymboles Soudanais. Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie13/2:8-30;1966. Les symboles des arts africains,pp.25-33in L'Art Nègre. Paris: Présence Africaine.
3Marcel Griaule.1966. Les symboles des arts africains. P33.
1Marcel Griaule.1952. Réflexions sur des Symboles Soudanais. P7.
2仅举几例，建筑：如Dieterlen.1968."A Contribution to the Study of Traditional Architecture in Negro-Africa,"pp.295-306in Colloquium on Negro Art. Dakar: Editions Presence Africaine；Lebeuf, Annie and Lebeuf,Jean-Paul.1955."Monuments symboliques de Palais Royal de Logone-Birni (Nord-Cameroun)." Journal de laSociété des Africanistes25/1,2:25-34.疤痕：De Ganay, Solange.1949.“Aspects de mythologie et de symboliquebambara.” Journal de Psychologie Normale et Pathologique42:181-201.服装：Dieterlen, Germaine.1951. Essaisur la religion bambara. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.色彩象征：Zahan, Dominique.1951.“Lescouleurs chez les Bambara du Soudan fran ais.” Notes Africaines50:52-56.面具Zahan, Dominique.1974. TheBambara. Leiden: E.J. Brill.
3见于这些文献中的部分内容，艺术相关：Flam, Jack D.1976."Graphic Symbolism in the Dogon Granary:Grains, Time and a Notion of History"； Klobe, Marguerite.1977."A Dogon Figure of a Koro Player"；Imperato,Pascal J.1971."Contemporary Adapted Dances of the Dogon"；N'Diaye, Francine.1971."Iconologie des pouliesde métier à tisser dogon"；Nesmith, Fisher H.1979."Dogon Bronzes"；Richardson, John Adkins.1977."Speculations on Dogon Iconography"；涉及铁匠的研究：Clément, Pierre.1948."Le forgeron en Afriquenoire: quelques attitudes du groupe a son égard"；De Heusch, Luc.1956."Le symbolisme du forgeron en Afrique"；De Maret, Pierre.1980."Ceux qui jouent avec le feu: la place du forgeron en Afrique centrale"；Makarius, Laura.1968."The Blacksmith's Taboos: From the Man of Iron to the Man of Blood"；Richards, Dona.1981."The Nyamaof the Blacksnith: The Metaphysical Significance of Metallurgy in Africa"；Schwarz, Arturo.1980."Le forgeroncéleste."
4Laude, Jean.1973. African Art of the Dogon: The Myths of the Cliff Dwellers. New York: Viking Press.
5Ben-Amos Paula.1989.“African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective.” African Studies Review32/2. P12.
1费尔南德斯[James Fernandez]，芝加哥大学人类学系教授，1962年博士毕业于西北大学人类学系，师从赫斯科维茨，曾在非洲做民族志研究。
2Fernandez, James W.1966."Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics." The Journal of Aestheticsand Art Criticism25/1:53-64.
3Adams, Marie Jeanne.1973."Structural Aspects of a Village Art." American Anthropologist75/1:265-279.
4Drewal, Henry John.1984."Art, History, and the Individual: A New Perspective for the Study of African VisualTraditions." Iowa Studies in African Art1:88.
5Hardin, Kris L.1987."The Aesthetics of Action: Production and Re-Production in a West African Town." PhDdissertation, Indiana University.
1本-阿莫斯[Paula Ben-Amos]，印第安纳大学人类学系教授，她主要关注尼日利亚贝宁埃多王国的艺术、南非艺术的社会史以及人类学中艺术的历史与理论。
2Biebuyck, Daniel.1979."The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation." Africa-Tervuren25/3:76-84.
3Ben Amos.1976."Men and Animals in Benin Art." Man, n.s.11/2:242.
4Biebuyck, Daniel.1979."The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation." p.77.
5Mack, John.1981."Animal Representations in Kuba Art: An Anthropological Interpretation of Sculpture." TheOxford Art Journal4/2.p.53.
1Biebuyck, Daniel.1979."The Frog and Other Animals in Lega Art and Initiation."p.78.
2McLeod, Malcolm D.1978."Aspects of Asante Images," pp.305-16in Michael Greenhalgh and Vincent Megaw(eds.) Art in Society. New York: St, Martin's Press. p.306,312.
3Douglas, Mary.1966. Purity and Danger. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, pp.38-39.
4Smith, J. Weldon.1978."African Pragmatism."African Arts11/2:71-5,96；Witte, Hans.1984. Ifa and Esu:Iconography of Order and Disorder. Soest-Holland: Kunsthandel Luttik；Ben-Amos, Paula.1976."Men andAnimals in Benin Art." Man, n.s.11/2:243-52
1Fraser, Douglas.1974. African Art as Philosophy. New York: Interbook；Blier, Suzanne Preston.1976. Beautyand the Beast: A Study in Contrasts. New York: Tribal Arts Gallery Two；Beidelman, T.O.1972."The KaguruHouse." Anthropos67/5,6:690-707.
2Beidelman, T.O.1972."The Kaguru House." Anthropos67/5,6:690-707. p.705.
3Bourdieu, Pierre.1973."The Berber House," pp.98-110in Mary Douglas (ed.) Rules and Meanings. Harmondsworth P: enguin Education. P.100-01.
4Munn, Nancy D.1973."Symbolism in a Ritual Context: Aspects of Symbolic Action," pp.579-612in John J.Honigmann (ed.) Handbook of Social and Cultural Anthropology. Chicago: Rand McNally and Co. p.591.
1Rubin, Arnold.1974. African Accumulative Sculpture: Power and Display. New York. Pace Editions. P10.
2Cole, Herbert M. and Ross, Doran H.1977. The Arts of Ghana. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History,University of California. P23.
3Maurer, Evan M. and Roberts, Allen F.1985. Tabwa: The Rising of a New Moon: A Century of Tabwa Art. AnnArbor: University of Michigan Museum of Art. P3.
4列维—斯特劳斯，1908年生于布鲁塞尔，父母是犹太血统的法国人，父亲是画家，自己也是位业余音乐家。幼年时随父母由比利时迁居巴黎。早年喜爱地质学，青年时代对哲学感兴趣，曾在巴黎大学主修哲学与法律，自称受到弗洛伊德心理学和马克思主义理论的影响。1934—1937年在巴西圣保罗大学教社会学，期间考察巴西中部印第安人。1939年返回法国，服役两年。二战期间在美国任教，在纽约遇到了流亡的中欧语言学家，并把他们在语言学领域发展的理论借用来分析人类学资料。他的想法很多也直接来源于涂尔干和莫斯，尤其是莫斯的《礼物》中婚姻交换的理论影响了他对亲属制度的认识。他也吸收了博厄斯等美国人类学的传统。二战结束后回到法国，1947年任法国人类学博物馆副馆长，1959年起担任法兰西学院社会人类学教授，并任社会人类学实验室主任。他的论著很多，如《亲属制度的基本结构》（博士论文，1949）、《忧郁的热带》（1955）、《结构人类学》（第一卷1958、第二卷1973）、《今日图腾制度》（1962）、《神话学》（四卷本1964—1972）等等。他还被誉为“人类学结构主义之父”。
1Morris, Brian.1987. Anthropological Studies of Religion: An Introductory Text. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. P266.
2Lewis, Ioan.1971. Ecstatic Religion. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. P14.
3Charbonnier, G.(ed.)1969. Conversations with Claude Lévi-Strauss. London: Cape. P150-151.
4对发式的研究：Baduel, Céline and Meillassoux, Claude.1975."Modes et codes de la coiffure Ouest-Africaine."African Visual Arts41L'Ethnographie, n.s.69:11-59；Houlberg, Marilyn Hammersley.1979."Social Hair:Tradition and Change in Yoruba Hairstyles in Southwestern Nigeria,"pp.349-97in Justine M. Cordwell andRonald A. Schwarz (eds.) The Fabrics of Culture.关于身体装饰和服装的研究：Biebuyck, Daniel P.1982."Lega Dress as Cultural Artifact."African Arts15/3:59-65,92；Cole, Herbert M.1979."Living Art Among the Samburu," pp.87-102in Justine M. Cordwell andRonald A. Schwarz (eds.) The Fabrics of Culture. The Hague: Mouton；Paulme, Denise and Brosse, Jacques.1956.Parures Africaines. Paris: Hachette. Peek, Philip M.1980."Isoko Artists and Their Audiences." African Arts13/3:58-61,91；Paulme, Denise.1973."Adornment and Nudity in Tropical Africa," pp.11-24in Anthony Forge (ed.)Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press；Poyner, Robin.1975."The Social Significance ofTraditional Textiles in Owo, Nigeria." Paper presented at the18th Annual Meeting of the African StudiesAssociation, San Francisco.
5Battestini, S.P.X.1984."Sémiotique de l'adire." Semiotica49/1,2:73-93.Lagopoulos, Alexander-Phaedon.1975."Semiological Urbanism: An Analysis of the Traditional Western SudaneseSettlement," pp.206-218in Paul Oliver (ed.) Shelter, Sign and Symbol. London: Barrie and Jenkins.
6关于旅游艺术形式的研究：Ben-Amos, Paula.1977."Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts." Studies in theAnthropology of Visual Communication4/2:128-139；Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1984. The Messages of Tourist Art:An African Semiotic System in Comparative Perspective. New York: Plenum Press.关于通俗绘画的研究：Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba, Zaire."Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication3/1:1-21.
1Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1984. The Messages of Tourist Art: An African Semiotic System in ComparativePerspective.New York: Plenum Press.
2Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire."P18.
3同上，第16页。
4福格1929年生于伦敦，1953年毕业于剑桥大学，在那跟随马林诺夫斯基的学生利奇学习考古学和人类学，后来在伦敦经济学院继续做研究，在那里与“英国经济人类学之父”弗斯建立了长期的友谊。1958至1963年在新几内亚做研究，关注社会组织、美学和仪式。1961年担任伦敦经济学院助理讲师，1969年任耶鲁大学访问教授。1974年任澳大利亚国立大学人类学教授直至1991年去世。70年代初期福格被认为是视觉人类学领域的权威。他基于在新几内亚巴布亚岛两个时期的田野研究，出版了一系列关于赛皮克艺术的论著。
1Forge, Anthony.1979."The Problem of Meaning in Art," pp.278-286in Sidney M.Mead (ed.) Exploring theVisual Art of Oceania. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. P281.
2同上
3Forge, Anthony.1979. P283.
4Davis-Roberts, Christopher.1980."Emblem and Imagery: An Analysis of Tabwa Diviners' Headdresses." Paperpresented at the Conference on the Relations Between the Verbal and Visual Arts in Africa, Philadelphia.P15-16.
5Forge, Anthony.1973."Style and Meaning in Sepik Art," pp.169-192in Anthony Forge (ed.) Primitive Art andSociety. London: Oxford University Press；Forge, Anthony.1979."The Problem of Meaning in Art".
6Forge.1973. P187.
1Forge.1979. P285.
2Forge.1973. P189.
3Forge.1973. P191.
4Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire." P19.
5McLeod, Malcolm D.1976."Verbal Elements in West African Art." Quaderni Poro1:85-102.
6同上，第91页。
1Feeley-Harnik, Gillian.1980."The Saklava House (Madagascar)." Anthropos75/3,4:559-585. P583.
2Biebuyck, Daniel P.1983."African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions." African StudiesReview26/3,4:99-118. Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman. P126-128.
1Boas, Franz.1927. Primitive Art. Cambriege, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
2Boas, Franz.1927. Primitive Art. P130.
3同上，第1页。对这一时期艺术研究的讨论，见Gerbrands, A.A.1957.Art as an Element of Culture, Especiallyin Negro-Africa. Leiden: E.J. Brill. P25-65.
4Boas, Franz.1927. Primitive Art. P156.
5奥布若坎斯[Frans M. Olbrechts，1899—1958]，早年在鲁汶大学读哲学，后去美国跟随博厄斯在哥伦比亚大学学习人类学，在美国期间对印第安人中的彻罗基族人做田野研究。1929年回到比利时，1932年任根特大学的教授，讲授民族学和原始艺术，这时非洲造型艺术成为他主要的兴趣，尤其是中非和西非地区。1947年任比利时刚果博物馆主任。赫斯科维茨[Melville Jean Herskovits，1895—1963]，美国人类学家，受业于博厄斯，创立了美国学术界的非洲和非裔美国研究。在法国参加一战，是美国空军医疗队的一员，战后的1923年获得芝加哥大学的哲学学士学位，然后在哥伦比亚大学博厄斯的门下获得人类学硕士和博士学位。他的博士论文是关于东非社会中牛的研究，考察了非洲的权力和权威理论。1927年去西北大学，作为全职的人类学家，1938年在那里建立了人类学系。
6Olbrechts, Frans M.1933."Notre mission ethnographique en Afrique occidentale francaise." Bulletin des Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire (Brussels)5:98-107；Maesen, Albert E.1960."Le sculpteur dans la vie sociale chezles Sénoufo de la C te d'Ivoire." Third International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences,Brussels,1948: Compte-rendu, Tervuren, pp.138-139.
7Herskovits.1938. Dahomey: An Ancient West African Kingdom. New York: J.J. Augustin；1941."Symbolism inDahomean Art." Man41/84:117.
1如Bascom,Cordwell,Crowley,d'Azevedo,Fernandez,Merriam,Messenger,Ottenberg,Schneider,Vaughan,Wolfe。
2Herskovits.1945. The Backgrounds of African Art. Reprint. New York: Biblo and Tannen,1967；1959."Art andValue," pp.41-68in Robert Redfield, Melville J. Herskovits, and Gordon F. Ekholm (eds.) Aspects of Primitive Art.New York: The Museum of Primitive Art..
3Herskovits.1959. P49,64-67.
4Herskovits.1959. P51.
5Herskovits.1945. P58.
6巴斯科姆[William R. Bascom，1912—1981]，生于普林斯顿，美国人类学家，最早在西非做集中田野调查的学者之一，50年代曾在西北大学人类学系担任非洲研究部主任。
7Cordwell, Justine M.1952."Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba and Benin Cultures. PhD dissertation,Northwestern University.
8D'Azevedo, Warren L.1973. The Traditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.阿泽维多[Warren L. d'Azevedo，1920–2014]，生于加利福尼亚，1942年获得伯克利加州大学人类学学士学位，1962年获得西北大学人类学博士学位，致力于研究美洲印第安和利比亚，1963年加入内华达大学，直到1988年退休。
1见阿泽维多《非洲社会中的传统艺术家》（1973）的引言部分以及《对美学的结构方法：面向人类学中的艺术定义》（D'Azevedo, Warren L.1958."AStructuralApproach to Esthetics: Toward a Definition ofArt inAnthropology." American Anthropologist60/4:702-714.）另外，Mills和Maquet也试图创建跨文化的艺术定义，见Mills, George.1957."Art: An Introduction to QualitativeAnthropology." The Journal of Aesthetics and ArtCriticism16/1:1-17；Maquet, Jacques.1971. Introduction to Aesthetic Anthropology. Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley Publishing Co；Maquet, Jacques.1986. The Aesthetic Experience: An Anthropolgist Looks at theVisual Arts. New Haven: Yale University Press.
2D'Azevedo.1973. P6,13.
3Brain, Robert.1980. Art and Society in Africa. London: Longman. P261.
4比如：Himmelheber,Hans.1963."Personality and Technique of African Sculptors," pp.79-110in MargaretMead, Junius B. Bird, and Hans Himmelheber Technique and Personality in Primitive Art. New York: TheMuseum of Primitive Art.Fischer, Eberhard.1976."Probleme der Kreativit t bei Künstlern der Dan,"[Problems of CreativityAmong the Dan Artists] Quaderni Poro1:9-21.[167-78, English trans.]；1984."Self-Portraits, Portraits, andCopies Among the Dan: The Creative Process of Traditional African Mask Carvers." Iowa Studies in African Art1:5-28.Bascom, William R.1973."A Yoruba Master Carver: Duga of Meko," pp.62-78in Warren L. d'Azevedo(ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies.Beier, Ulli.1963. Yemi Bisiri, a Yoruba Brass Caster. Ibadan: Mbari Publications.Borgatti, Jean M.1979. From the Hands of Lawrence Ajanaku. Museum of Cultural History Pamphlet Series, Vol.1, No.6. Los Angeles: University of California.Carroll, Kevin F.1961."Three Generations of Yoruba Carvers." Ibadan12:21-4.Chappel, T.J.H.1972."Critical Carvers: A Case Study." Man, n.s.7/2:296-307.Dickerson, Sara Jane Hollis.1979."Benin Artist Idah: Court Art and Personal Style." Interdisciplinary Studies(SUNO)2/2.Johnson, Barbara C.1986. Four Dan Sculptors: Continuity and Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Nunley, John W.1979."Ntowie: Sisala Carver."African Arts13/1:68-73,98.Peek, Philip M.1985."Ovia Idah and Eture Egbede: Traditional Nigerian Artists." African Arts18/2:54-9,102.Richards, J.V. Olufemi.1977."Santigie Sesay: Sierra Leone Carver." African Arts11/1:65-9,92.Thompson, Robert Farris.1969. Abátàn: A Master Potter of the Egbádò Yorùtbá," pp.120-82in Daniel P.Biebuyck, Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
1Shostak, Marjorie.1982. Nisa: The Life and Words of a!Kung Woman. London: Allen Lane.
23Biebuyck.1983. P105-110.
Ben-Amos, Paula.1975."Professionals and Amateurs in Benin Court Carving," pp.170-89in Daniel F. McCalland Edna G. Bay (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. New York: Africana Publishing Company；1978."Owina N'Ido: Royal Weavers of Benin." African Arts11/4:48-53,95-6；1986."Artistic Creativity in BeninKingdom." African Arts19/3:60-3,83-4；Brain, Robert and Pollock, Adam.1971. Bangwa Funerary Sculpture. London: Duckworth.Bray, Jennifer M.1969."The Craft Structure of a Traditional Yoruba Town." Transactions and Papers of theInstitute of British Geographers.46:179-93.Crowley, Daniel J.1973."Aesthetic Value and Professionalism in African Art: Three Cases From the KatangaChokwe," pp.221-49in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The Traditional Artist in AfricaDark, Philip J.1973. An Introduction to Benin Art and Technology. Oxford: Clarendon Press.D'Azevedo,Warren L.1973."Sources of Gola Artistry," pp.282-340in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The TraditionalArtist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Dewey, William J.1986."Shona Male and Female Artistry." African Arts19/3:64-7,84.Hallpike, C.R.1968."The Status of Craftsmen Among the Konso of South-West Ethiopia." Africa38/3:258-69.Lloyd, Peter.1953."Craft Organization in Yoruba Towns." Africa23/1:30-44.McNaughton, Patrick R.1979."Bamana Blacksmiths." African Arts12/2:65-71,92.Messenger, John C.1973."The Carver in Anang Society," pp.101-27in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.Neaher, Nancy C.1976."Igbo Metalsmiths Among the Southern Edo." African Arts9/4:46-9,91；1979."AwkaWho Travel: Itinerant Metalsmiths of Southern Nigeria." Africa49/4:352-66.Reinhardt, Loretta R.1975."Mende Carvers." PhD dissertation, Southern Illinois University.Vaughan, James H.1973."Enkyagu as Artists in Marghi Society," pp.162-93in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies.
4D'Azevedo.1973. P12.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1975."Professionals and Amateurs in Benin Court Carving," pp.170-189in Daniel F.McCalland Edna G. Bay (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. New York: Africana Publishing Company.
2Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1985."Apprentices and Entrepreneurs: The Workshop and Style Uniformity inSub-Saharan Africa." Paper presented at the Symposium on the Artist and the Workshop in Traditional Africa,University of Iowa.
3Aronson, Lisa.1984."Women in the Arts," pp.119-38in Margaret Jean Hay and Sharon Stichter (eds.) AfricanWomen South of the Sahara. London: Longman；Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1977."The Potters and the Painters: ArtBy and About Women in Urban Africa." Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication4/2:112-27.41986年的《非洲艺术》杂志专题刊登了Ben-Amos，Daly，Eicher，Erekosima，Dewey，Glaze， Perani，Smith和Wolff等学者的相关文章。
5Adams, Marie Jeanne.1980."Afterword: Spheres of Men's and Women's Creativity." Ethnologische ZeitschriftZürich1:163-67；Ottenberg, Simon.1983."Artistic and Sex Roles in a Limba Chiefdom," pp.76-90in ChristineOppong (ed.) Female and Male in West Africa. London: George Allen and Unwin；Teilhet, Jehanne H.1978."TheEquivocal Role of Women Artists in Non-Literate Cultures." Heresies4:96-102.
6Aronson, Lisa.1980." Patronage and Akwete Weaving." African Arts13/3:62-6,91；Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1980." Patronage and Maconde Carvers." African Arts13/3:67-70,91-2；Peek, Philip M.1980." Isoko Artists andTheir Audiences." African Arts13/3:58-61,91；Perani, Judith.1980." Patronage and Nupe Craft Industries."African Arts13/3:71-5,92.
1Drewal, Henry John.1984."Art, History, and the Individual: A New Perspective for the Study of African VisualTraditions." Iowa Studies in African Art1:87-114. P98.
2Karp, Ivan and Maynard, Kent.1983."Reading The Nue（r苏丹努尔人）." Current Anthropology24/4:481-503.P401.
3参见：Paula Ben-Amos.1989."African VisualArts from a Social Perspective”. P28.
4Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire."
1另外Jules-Rosette也表达了同样的观点，参见Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1977."The Potters and the Painters: ArtBy and About Women in Urban Africa."Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Communication4/2:112-27；1978."The Myth of Modernity in Popular African Art: Symbolic Representation in Popular Carving and Painting."Qualitative Sociology1/2:21-61；1979."Technological Innovation in Popular African Art: A Case Study of SomeContemporary Art Forms in Transition."Journal of Popular Culture13/1:116-30.
2Biebuyck, Daniel P.(ed.)1969. Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.P7.
3Silver, Harry R.1981."Calculating Risks: The Socioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in anAshanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-114.
1Sieber, Roy."Comments,"pp.192-203in Daniel P. Biebuyck (ed.).1969. P193.
2Thompson, Robert Farris."àbátàn: A Master Potter of the ègbádò Yorùbá," pp.120-182in Daniel P. Biebuyck(ed.).1969. P121.
3Ben-Amos, Paula.1986."Artistic Creativity in Benin Kingdom." African Arts19/3:60-3,83-4.
4Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman. P138.
5Adepegba, C.O.1983."Ara: The Factor of Creativity in Yoruba Art." The Nigerian Field48/1,4:53-66. P61.
1弗朗兹·博厄斯：《原始艺术》，金辉译，上海文艺出版社，1989年，第56页。
2Herskovits, Melville J.1959."Art and Value," pp.41-68in Robert Redfield, Melville J. Herskovits, and GordonF. Ekholm (eds.) Aspects of Primitive Art. New York: The Museum of Primitive Art. P47.
3Sieber, Roy.1959."The Aesthetics of Traditional African Art," in Froelich G. Rainey (ed.) Seven Metals ofAfrica. Philadelphia: University Museum, University of Pennsylvania.
4D'Azevedo, Warren L.1958."A Structural Approach to Esthetics: Toward a Definition of Art in Anthropology."American Anthropologist60/4:702-714. P706.
5Horton, Robin.1965. Kalabari Sculpture. Lagos: Dept. of Antiquities, Federal Republic of Nigeria.Vaughan, James H.1973."Enkyagu as Artists in Marghi Society," pp.162-93in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Societies. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6采取让当地人评价照片的做法，参见Child, Irvin L. and Siroto, Leon.1965."BaKwele andAmerican EstheticEvaluations Compared." Ethnology4/4:349-60.考察当地人对一排雕刻进行的评价的有：Crowley, Daniel J.1958."Aesthetic Judgement and CulturalRelativism." The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism17/2:187-93；1966."An African Aesthetic." The Journalof Aesthetics and Art Criticism24/4:519-24；1973."Aesthetic Value and Professionalism in African Art: ThreeCases From the Katanga Chokwe," pp.221-49in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The Traditional Artist in AfricanSocieties.Vogel, Susan Mullin.1979."Baule and Yoruba Art Criticism: A Comparison," pp.309-25in Justine M. Cordwell(ed.) The Visual Arts. The Hague: Mouton；1980."Beauty in the Eyes of the Baule: Aesthetics and CulturalValues." Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No.6. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Fernandez, James W.1966."Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics." The Journal of Aestheticsand Art Criticism25/1:53-64.Thompson, Robert Farris.1968."Esthetics in Traditional Africa." Art News66/9:44-5,63-6；1973."An Aestheticof the Cool." African Arts7/1:40-6；1973."Yoruba Artistic Criticism," pp.19-61in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Socieites.
1Vogel, Susan Mullin.1979."Baule and Yoruba Art Criticism: A Comparison".
2Vansina.1984
3Bohannan, Paul J.1956."Beauty and Scarification Amongst the Tiv." Man56/129:117-121.博安南[Paul JamesBohannan，1920—2007]，美国人类学家，以研究尼日利亚蒂夫族而闻名。二战期间是美国陆军军需兵上尉。1947年获得亚利桑那大学的德语学士学位，1949年获得牛津大学皇后学院的理学学士学位，1951年获得人类学专业的博士学位。
4Thompson, Robert Farris.1973."Yoruba Artistic Criticism," pp.19-61in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) TheTraditional Artist in African Socieites. P21.
5Daly, M. Catherine, Eicher, Joanne B. and Erekosima, Tonye V.1986."Male and Female Artistry in KalabariDress." African Arts19/3:48-51,83.
1Leiris, Michel and Delange, Jacqueline.1968. African Art. London: Thames and Hudson. P30-48.
2Schneider, Harold K.1956."The Interpretation of Pakot Visual Art." Man56/108:103-106；1966."Turu EstheticConcepts." American Anthropologist68/1:156-160.
3Warren, Dennis M. and Andrews, J. Kweku.1977."An Ethnoscientific Approach to Akan Arts and Aesthetics."Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No.3. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues.
4Ottenberg, Simon.1971. Anthropology and African Aesthetics. Accra: Ghana Universities Press.P1.
5Ben-Amos Paula,"African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective".P33.
6Osborne, Harold.1970. Aesthetics and Art Theory：An Historical Introduction. New York: E.P. Dutton. P17.
1同上，第50页。
2Cole, Herbert M.1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Igbo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.P175.
3Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History in Africa. London: Longman. P132.
4同上，第133页。
5Ottenberg, Simon.1971. Anthropology and African Aesthetics. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. P9.
6Osborne, Harold.1970. P18.
7Warren, Dennis M. and Andrews, J. Kweku.1977."An Ethnoscientific Approach to Akan Arts and Aesthetics."P10.
8McNaughton, Patrick R.1979."Secret Sculptures of Komo: Art and Power in Bamana (Bambara) InitiationAssociations." Working Papers in the Traditional Arts, No.4. P42.
9Thompson, Robert Farris.1971. Black Gods and Kings: Yoruba Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: Museum andLaboratories of Ethnic Arts and Technology, University of California.
1Lawal, Babatunde.1974."Some Aspects of Yoruba Aesthetics." British Journal of Aesthetics14/3:
239-49；Abíódún, Rowland.1983."Identity and the Artistic Process in the Yorùbá Aesthetic Concept of Iwà."Journal of Cultures and Ideas.1/1:13-30.
2Herskovits, Melville J.1938. Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact. New York: J.J. Augustin.
3William R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovits (eds.) Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
4Herskovits, Melville J. and Bascom, William R.1959."The Problem of Stability and Change in AfricanCulture," pp.1-14in Continuity and Change in African Cultures. P2.
5同上，第65页。
6同上，第67页。
7Bascom, William R.1976."Changing African Art," pp.303-19in Nelson H. H. Graburn (ed.) Ethnic and
Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Cordwell, Justine M.1952."Some Aesthetic Aspects of Yoruba and Benin Cultures. PhD dissertation,Northwestern University；1959."African Art," pp.28-48in William R. Bascom and Melville J. Herskovits (eds.)Continuity and Change in African Cultures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Crowley, Daniel J.1970."The Contemporary-Traditional Art Market in Africa."African Arts4/1:43-9,80.Merriam, Alan P.1974."Change in Religion and the Arts in a Zairian Village." African Arts7/4:46-53,95.Sieber, Roy.1962."The Arts and Their Changing Social Function." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences96/2:653-58.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1977."Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts." Studies in the Anthropology of VisualCommunication4/2:128-39.Elkan, Walter.1958."The East African Trade in Woodcarvings." Africa28/4:314-23.Imperato, Pascal J.1971."Contemporary Adapted Dances of the Dogon." African Arts5/1.Jules-Rosette, Bennetta.1979."Technological Innovation in Popular African Art: A Case Study of SomeContemporary Art Forms in Transition." Journal of Popular Culture13/1:116-30.Richter, Dolores.1978."The Tourist Art Market as a Factor in Social Change." Annals of Tourism Research5/3:
323-38；1980. Art, Economics, and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, California:Psych/Graphic Publishers.Silver, Harry R.1979."Beauty and the ‘I’ of the Beholder: Identity, Aesthetics, and Social Change Among theAshanti." Journal of Anthropological Research35/2:191-207；1981."Calculating Risks: The SocioeconomicFoundations of Aesthetic Innovation in an Ashanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-14；1981."CarvingUp the Profits: Apprenticeship and Structural Flexibility in a Contemporary African Craft Market." AmericanEthnologist8/1:41-52.
2见于一些学者的研究中，如Biebuyck, Daniel P.1976."The Decline of Lega Sculptural Art," pp.334-49inNelson H.H. Graburn (ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts. Berkeley: University of California Press.Chappel, T.J.H.1973."The Death of a Cult in Northern Nigeria." African Arts6/4:70-4,96.Fouchier, Daniele.1983."Le declin social du forgeron diallonke au Senegal oriental." Journal des Africanistes53/1,2:184-96.
3Richter, Dolores.1980. Art, Economics, and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, California:Psych/Graphic Publishers. P3-5.
4Ben-Amos, Paula.1977."Pidgin Languages and Tourist Arts." Studies in the Anthropology of VisualCommunication4/2:128-39.
1Silver, Harry R.1981."Calculating Risks: The Socioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in anAshanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-14；Richter, Dolores.1980. Art, Economics, and Change: TheKulebele of Northern Ivory Coast.
2同上
3Herskovits, Melville J. and Bascom, William R.1959."The Problem of Stability and Change in AfricanCulture," pp.1-14in Continuity and Change in African Cultures. P9.
4Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire."P18.
1Ottenberg, Simon.1984."Culture, Art and Peasantry in Africa." Peasant Studies12/1:5-18.
2姆巴里（mbari）是尼日利亚东南部伊博人一种有关神圣房屋的视觉艺术形式。奥韦里—伊博人的姆巴里房屋设有开放的广场，包括很多大型的安抚诸神的着色雕像，还有表现官员、手工艺人、欧洲人、动物、祖先等雕塑。姆巴里房屋需要几年才能建成，建造的过程被认为是非常神圣的，伴有重要的表演仪式，仪式完成后，进入甚至是观看姆巴里房屋是被禁止的。
3Ravenhill, Philip L.1980."Baule Statuary Art: Meaning and Modernization." Working Papers in the TraditionalArts, No.5.
4同上，第10页。
5Szombati-Fabian, Ilona and Fabian, Johannes.1976."Art, History, and Society: Popular Painting in Shaba,Zaire." P17.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1984."Royal Art and Ideology in18th Century Benin." Iowa Studies in African Art1:67-86.
1今天欧美各大博物馆都有非洲艺术的藏品与展览，以美国为例如：底特律艺术学院在1883至1930年期间也开始收藏包括贝宁王室铜雕的非洲艺术品；1920年布鲁克林博物馆开始收集非洲艺术品，同年“黑人雕刻”展在纽约切尔西图书俱乐部举办；1923年布鲁克林博物馆展出了“刚果原始黑人艺术”，这是非洲艺术第一次在美国的博物馆举办；1935年现代艺术博物馆举办了“非洲黑人艺术”展；之后重要的私人博物馆以及如宾夕法尼亚大学、耶鲁大学等高校相继收藏了非洲艺术品；1957年，原始艺术博物馆在纽约建立；1966年非洲艺术博物馆在华盛顿建立……参见Frederick John Lamp, Amanda M.Maples, and Laura M.Smalligan,Accumulating Histories: African Art from the Charles B.Benenson Collectiong at the Yale University ArtGallery(New Haven,2011),pp.13-17
2风格分析的代表作是Wingert, Paul S.1950. The Sculpture of Negro Africa. New York: Columbia UniversityPress.
1Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
2Schapiro, Meyer.1953."Style," pp.287-312in A. L. Kroeber (ed.) Anthropology Today. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.
3参见Paul Rivet, Georges-Henri Rivière, and Marcel Griaule,1933,"Mission Dakar-Djibouti1931-1933,"Minotaure: Revue Artistique et Littéraire (éditions Albert Sikra)1; Frans M. Olbrechts,1933,"Notre missionethnographique en Afrique occidentale fran aise," Bulletin des Musées Royaux d'Art et d'Histoire (Brussels),3rdser.,5:98-107.关于1955年汉堡民族学博物馆赴西非考察队的研究参见Juergen Zwernemann,1978,"Maskender Bobo-Ule und Nuna in Hamburgischen Museum fuer Voelkerkunde," Mitteilungen aus dem Museum fuerVoelkerkunde(Hamburg) n.f.8:45-83.
1法格在1953到1971年出版的图录中强化了他的观点，例如Tribes and Forms in African Art,1965, New York:Tudor Publishing Co.; African Sculpture,1970, Washington, DC, International Exhibitions Foundation.这一时期的出版商迎合美国人逐渐兴起的收藏非洲艺术的兴趣，参见Warren M. Robbins and Robert H. Simmons,1966,African Art in American Collections, New York, Praeger.大部分调查文献是由欧洲博物馆的管理者和民族学者撰写的，比如Marcel Griaule,1950, Folk Art of Black Africa, New York: Tudor; William Fagg and Eliot Elisofon,1958, The Sculpture of Africa, New York: Praeger; Elsy Leuzinger,1960, Africa: The Art of the Negro Peoples,New York: McGraw-Hill; Denise Paulme,1962, African Sculpture, New York: Viking; Michel Leiris andJacqueline Delange,1968, African Art, New York: Golden Press; Tibor Bodrogi,1968, Art in Africa, New York:McGraw-Hill.调查风格的主要模式来自30年代的学者：Carl Kjersmeier,1935-38, Centres de style de lasculpture Nègre africaine,4vols, Paris and Copenhagen; reprinted (4volumes in1) New York: Hacker Art Books;Eckartv on Sydow,1930, Handbuch der Westafrikanischen Plastik, Berlin: Reimer and Vohsen.法格[William Buller Fagg]（1914—1992）是约鲁巴和尼日利亚艺术研究领域最早的史学家之一，他尤其关注贝宁艺术，曾担任大英博物馆人类学部主管（1969—1974），1940至1970年代期间在非洲做了大量的实地研究。早年在剑桥大学抹大拉学院学习古典文学，在拉丁语方面卓有成就，毕业后1937年另外获得了剑桥大学考古学和人类学的学位。
2Kleinbauer, W. Eugene.1971. Modern Perspectives in Western Art History: An Anthology of Twentieth-CenturyWritings on the Visual Arts. New York: Holt, Rinehart&Winston.第2页。
3[英]罗伯特·莱顿：《艺术人类学》，李东晔等译，广西师范大学出版社，2009年，第174页。
1Panofsky, Erwin.1955."Iconography and Iconology," pp.26-54in Meaning in the Visual Arts. Garden City, NJ:Doubleday.第39页。
1Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
2Read, Herbert.1956. Art and Society. London: Faber and Faber.
3Sieber, Roy.1959."The Aesthetic of Traditional African Art." n.p. in Froelich Rainey (ed.) Seven Metals ofAfrica. Philadelphia: University Museum. Reprinted in Carol F. Jopling (ed.)1971. Art and Aesthetics in PrimitiveSocieties. New York: E. P. Dutton.
1在第一章中笔者概述了人类学家研究非洲艺术的功能主义理论与方法，现重提一些影响艺术界学者的研究成果。功能主义理论有广泛的吸引力，以英语为母语的艺术类出版物逐渐从强调艺术的宗教实践角色到强调实际的社会功能转换。（见Melville J.Herskovits,1945, The Backgrounds of African Art, Denver: Denver ArtMuseum）在利比里亚的美国传教士George W.Harley（1950）解释了作为社会控制媒介的面具的广阔用途。Daniel Biebuyck（1954）强调了Lega面具的说教功能（见于“Function of a Lega Mask”, Internationales Archivfuer Ethnographie(Leiden)47:108-120）。Margaret Trowell（1954），东非的一名英文教师，关注表现声望和社会互动的艺术，宣称艺术品除了关乎精神以外，其它作品还关注人（见Classical African Sculpture, NewYork: Praeger）。比利时传教士Visser兄弟认为北部的巴刚果族（Bakongo）的木制壶盖上雕刻的图像是用来通信交流的，不是指神灵或恶魔，但只是以家庭为背景，就像是丈夫与妻子间的留言信息（收录于AdrianA.Gerbrands,1957, Art as an Element of Culture, Especially in Negro Africa, Mededelingen van het Rijksmuseumvoor Volkenkunde12, Leiden: Brill）。Trowell的African Design(London: Faber and Faber，1960)是英语市场一项显著的革新，以著作长的篇幅第一次关注了纺织、陶器、篮子编织等艺术形式。1960年代早期，以英语为母语的人类学家为各种各样艺术品的社会环境和象征含义提供了丰富详尽的解释（例如，Joan Wescott andPeter Morton-Williams,1962,"The Symbolism and Ritual Context of the Yoruba Laba Shango," Journal of theRoyal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland92/1:23-37; Robin Horton,1960, The Gods asGuests:An Aspect of Kalabari Religious Life, Lagos: Nigeria Magazine;1965,Kalabari Sculpture, Lgos:Department of Antiquities）。在美国，通过对调查图书的简明总结，这些作品大部分都被艺术界所了解。讽刺的是，在美国正当艺术界学者迷上功能主义时，人类学的方法却在发生变化；有关功能的主张正在被排斥，取而代之的是支持检验社会秩序实际上怎样实现或没有实现的更加多样化的方法。
2Sieber, Roy.1967."Art as an Aspect of the Reconstruction of Culture History," pp.117-37in Creighton Gabeland Norman R. Bennett (eds.) Reconstructing African Culture History. Boston: Boston University Press.
1Sieber, Roy.1972. African Textiles and Decorative Arts. New York: Museum of Modem Art；1980. AfricanFurniture and Household Objects. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
2Fraser, Douglas. and Cole, Herbert M.(eds.)1972. African Arts and Leadership. Madison: University ofWisconsin Press.
3Fraser, Douglas.(ed.)1974. African Art as Philosophy. New York: Interbook.
4Thompson, Robert Farris.1969."Abátàn: A Master Potter of the Egbádò Yorùtbá," pp.120-82in Daniel P.Biebuyck, Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press.
5Thompson, Robert Farris.1968."Aesthetics in Traditional Africa." Art News66/9:44-5,63-6. Reprinted inCarol F. Jopling (ed.)1971. Art and Aesthetics in Primitive Societies. New York: E.P. Dutton.；1973."YorubaArtistic Criticism," pp.19-61in Warren L. d'Azevedo (ed.) The Traditional Artist in African Societies.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6Thompson, Robert Farris.1971. Black Gods and Kings: African Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia Press.
7Thompson, Robert Farris.1974. African Art in Motion. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
1Rubin, Arnold.1972. Monuments of African Sculpture in Southern California Collections. Santa Ana, Calif.:Santa Ana College Gallery.Sieber, Roy. and Rubin, Arnold.1968. Sculpture of Black Africa: The Paul Tishman Collection. Los Angeles: LosAngeles County Museum of Art.Bravmann, Rene A.1970. West African Sculpture. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
2Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style? Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art."History in Africa11:163-193.
3Bravmann, Rene A.1973. Open Frontiers: The Mobility of Art in Black Africa. Seattle: University ofWashington Press.
4Rubin, Arnold.1974. African Accumulative Sculpture: Power and Display. New York: Pace Gallery.
5Cole, Herbert M.1969."Art as a Verb in Iboland." African Arts3/1:34-41,88.
6Cole, Herbert M.1970. African Arts of Transformation. Santa Barbara: University of California Press.
7Turner, Victor.1964. The Ritual Process. Chicago: Aldine.
8Siroto, Leon.1976. African Spirit Images and Identities. New York: Pace Gallery.
1商人Marc L.Felix所写的手册非常有价值，提供了一百多个艺术品生产群体的概略和背景信息，参见MarcL. Felix.1987.100Peoples of Zaire and their Sculpture. Brussels: Zaire Basin Art History Research Foundation.
2Monni, Adams.1989."African Visual Arts from an Art Historical Perspective." African Studies Review32/2:55-103.P62.
3Alpers, Svetlana.1977."Is Art History?" Daedalus106:1-13.第9页。
4Sieber, Roy.1986. Testimonial read at presentation of ACASA Leadership Award in ACASA Newsletter (ArtsCouncil of the African Studies Association)12:7-8.
5Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1986. Review of Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa. In African Arts19/2.
6Ruby, Jay (ed.)1982. A Crack in the Mirror: Reflexive Perspectives in Anthropology. Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press；Geertz, Clifford:1983. Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books；Clifford, James. andMarcus, George E.(eds.)1986. Writing Culture: The Poetics and Politics of Ethnography. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press.
1Wingert, Paul S.1972."Style Determinants in African Sculpture." African Arts5/3:37-43.P38.
2同上，第37页。
3相关的研究有：鲁宾关于尼日利亚北部艺术研究的博士论文Rubin, Arnold.1967."TheArts of theJukun-speaking Peoples of Northern Nigeria." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University；Cole, Herbert M. and Ross,Doran H.1977. The Arts of Ghana. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University of California；Cole,Herbert M. and Aniakor, Chike C.1984. Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmos. Los Angeles: Museum of CulturalHistory, University of California；Bourgeois, Arthur P.1984. Art of the Yaka and Suku. Text in English and French.Translated and adapted by J. B. Donne. Meudon, France: Alain and Franqoise Chaffin.
1见于格雷兹对雕刻的研究Glaze, Anita J.1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press，以及普鲁森对建筑的研究Prussin, Labelle.1969. Architecture in Northern Ghana: A Study ofForms and Functions. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2例如，奥坦伯格、布莱恩和波洛克的研究，Ottenberg, Simon.1975. Masked Rituals of Afikpo. Seattle:University of Washington Press. Brain, Robert and Pollock, Adam.1971. Bangwa Funerary Sculpture. London:Duckworth.
3威廉法格[William Fagg]（1914-1992），英国伦敦人。约鲁巴和尼日利亚艺术的历史学家，大英博物馆人种学馆的主管，系统的非洲艺术研究的拓荒者。1936年本科毕业于剑桥大学，古典文学专业，第二年另外获得了考古学和人类学的学士学位。
4Willett, Frank.1971. African Art: An Introduction. New York: Thames and Hudson.P29.
5Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style? Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art."History in Africa11:163-93.
6Sieber, Roy. and Rubin, Arnold.1968. Sculpture of Black Africa: The Paul Tishman Collection. Los Angeles:Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
7Wingert, Paul S.1972."Further Style Analysis in African Sculpture." African Arts6/1:35-41.P35.
8Perrois, Louis.1972. La statuaire Fang, Gabon. Memoires ORSTOM59. Paris: ORSTOM.
1Fernandez, James W..1977."Fang Reliquary Art: Its Quantities and Qualities." Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines60/15,4:723-46.
2Himmelheber, Hans.1964."Sculptors and Sculptures of the Dan," pp.243-55in Lalage Bown and MichaelCrowder (eds.) The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Africanists. Evanston: NorthwesternUniversity Press；Fischer, Eberhard. and Himmelheber, Hans.1984. The Arts of the Dan. Translated by AnneBundle. Zurich: Rietberg Museum. First published in German,1976；Vogel, Susan Mullin.1984."'The SheepWears his Spots Where he Pleases', or the Question of Regional Styles in Baule Sculpture," pp.29-44inChristopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art1. Iowa City: University of Iowa.
3Neyt, Fran ois.1977. La grande statuaire Hemba du Zaire. Louvain-la-Neuve: Institut supérieur d'archéologie etd'histoire de l'art.
4Kubler, George.1962. The Shape of Time. New Haven: Yale University Press.
5Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.P87-89.扬·万斯那[Jan Vansina]，1929年生于比利时，是专门研究非洲的历史学家和人类学家，是中非民族史研究的权威，他关注与欧洲接触之前的非洲社会。1957年获得鲁汶天主教大学的历史学博士学位，生活在美国威斯康星州，是威斯康星大学麦迪逊分校名誉退休教授。除上文提到他对口头传统的关注以外，在艺术史领域，还出版了《非洲的艺术史》（Art History inAfrica，1984），专门提出非洲艺术研究的方法，涉及鉴定、社会环境、媒介和技术、风格、图像识别、文化、创作过程、历史变化等问题。
6同上，第89页。
7Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1986. Review of Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa. African Arts19/2:10,12,14,17,19,92.
8Visona, Monica Blackmun.1987."Divinely Inspired Artists from the Lagoon Cultures of Ivory Coast," pp.67-78in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art: The Stanley Conferences at the University of Iowa2.Iowa City: University of Iowa.
9例如：Drewal, Henry John.1977. Traditional Art of the Nigerian Peoples: The Milton D. Ratner FamilyCollection. Washington, DC: Museum of African Art；Rubin, Arnold.1987."Artists and Workshops inNortheastern Nigeria," pp.7-22in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art: The Stanley Conferencesat the University of Iowa2.
10Sieber, Roy. and Celenko, Theodore.1977."Rayons x et l'art africain." Arts d'Afrique Noire.21:16-28.
1Bedaux, R. M. A.1988."Tellem and Dogon Material Culture." African Arts21/4:38-45,91.
2Fagg, William B.1963. Nigerian Images: The Splendor of African Sculpture. New York: Praeger.
3Dark, Philip J. C.1975."Benin Bronze Heads: Styles and Chronology," pp.25-103in Daniel F. McCall andEdna G. Bay (eds.) African Images: Essays in African Iconology. Boston University Papers on Africa6. New York:Africana Publishing；Willett, Frank.1967. Ife in the History of West African Sculpture. London: Thames&Hudson.
4Rubin, Arnold.1970. Review of Philip Allison, African Stone Sculpture and Frank Willett, Ife in the History ofWest African Sculpture. In Art Bulletin72/3:348-54；Fraser, Douglas.1972."Correspondence." Art Bulletin54/2:
233.也见于威廉姆斯对这一问题的讨论：Williams, Denis.1974. Icon and Image: A Study of Sacred and SecularForms in African Classical Art. New York: New York University Press.
5Shaw, Thurstan.1978."The Art of Benin Through the Eyes of the Artist, the Art Historian, the Ethnographer andthe Archaeologist," pp.207-23in Michael Greenhalgh and Vincent Megaw(eds.) Art in Society: Studies in Style,Culture and Aesthetics. New York: St. Martin's Press.也见于弗雷伊的概述：Freyer, Bryna.1987. Royal Benin Artin the Collection of the National Museum of African Art. Washington, DC: National Museum of African Art,Smithsonian Institution Press.
6Tunis, Irwin L.1981."The Benin Chronologies." African Arts14/2:86-7.Tunis, Irwin L.and Tunis, Angelika.1984."Museum fuer Voelkerkunde Berlin: Benin Studies," pp.76-81in EzioBassani (ed.) Art in Africa: Reality and Perspectives in a Study of the History of African Arts. Modena: EdizioniPanini.
7Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.P181-187.
8Comet, Joseph.1982. Art Royal Kuba. Milan: Edizioni Sipiel.对这个问题的讨论也见于：Vansina, Jan.1972."Ndop: Royal Statues among the Kuba," pp.41-56in Douglas Fraser and Herbert M.Cole (eds.) African Art andLeadership. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press；Adams, Monni.1988."Eighteenth-Century Kuba KingFigures." African Arts21/3:32-8,88.
1对阿坎族（Akan）的研究见Himmelheber1935；丹族（Dan）见Fischer1963；约鲁巴见Fagg1963、Willet和Picton1967、William Bascom,"约鲁巴熟练的雕刻者"：见Warren L.d'Azevedo(ed.)1973,The Traditional Artistin African Societies。对蒙德族（Mende）的研究见J.V.Olufemi Richards,1974,"The Sande Mask"; LorettaR.Reinhardt,1975,"Mende Carvers,"博士论文。Himmelheber第一个探索当地面具雕刻脸部的风格与肖像相似的关系；Fischer检验了有关面具风格的自我形象：“自画像、肖像和Dan的复制品：传统非洲面具雕刻者的创作过程。”
2例如，Poynor, Robin.1987."Naturalism andAbstraction in Owo Masks." African Arts20/4:56-61,91.
3Biebuyck, Daniel P.1969."Introduction," pp.1-23in Daniel P. Biebuyck (ed.) Tradition and Creativity in TribalArt. Berkeley: University of California Press.P2-3.；1986. The Arts of Zaire: Eastern Zaire, vol.2. Berkeley:University of California Press.
4Frank, Barbara E.1987."Open Borders: Style and Ethnic Identity," African Arts20/4:48-55,90；类似的讨论还有Green, Kathryn L.1987."Shared Masking Traditions in Northeastern Ivory Coast." African Arts20/4:62-9,92.
5Vogel, Susan Mullin.1977."Baule Art as the Expression of a World View." Ph.D. dissertation, New YorkUniversity.
6Drewal, Margaret Thompson and Drewal, Henry John.1987."Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art." Wordand Image3/3:225-251.
7Vansina, Jan.1965. Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. Translated by H. M. Wright. Chicago:Aldine.
1例如：Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1982."Anjenu: Sculpture for Idoma Water Spirits." AfricanArts15/4:47-51,91-92；Borgatti, Jean M.1979."Art and History in West Africa: Two Case Studies," pp.567-592in Justine M.Cordwell (ed.) The Visual Arts: Plastic and Graphic. The Hague: Mouton.
2参见de Heusch, Luc.1982. The Drunken King, or, The Origin of the State. Translated and annotated by RoyWillis. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.与Willis, Roy.1980."The Literalist Fallacy and the Problem ofOral Tradition." Social Analysis4:28-37.但是，万斯那做出了回应：Vansina, Jan.1983."Is EleganceStructuralism and African History." History in Africa10:307-348.
3Berns, Marla C.1986."Art and History in the Lower Gongala Valley, Northeastern Nigeria." Ph.D. dissertation,University of California, Los Angeles.
4Fischer和Himmelheber等学者研究了黄铜铸造、陶器、编织；Brigitte Menzel，John Picton和John Mack研究过纺织；Nicole Echard关注冶金；Marie-Thérèse de Lestrange和Monique Gessain，以及合作者TyandeninBidyan和Némeraneké Bendya关注工具；Arnulf Stoessel研究过陶器。在中央或地方政府的支持下，欧洲博物馆管理者能从事长期的研究计划和文件编制。通过出版两家博物馆的非洲艺术展览，做出了有价值的贡献（主要是德国的民族学博物馆）巴黎的一些研究者，Jean Laude，Jean-Louis Paudrat和Marie-No lVerger-Fèvre，主要关注艺术和美学；其他人如Germaine Dieterlen和Dominique Zahan着重于文化的精神表征；Guy Le Moal（1980）对Bobo宗教做了集中的研究。
5Thompson, Robert Farris.1971. Black Gods and Kings: African Art at UCLA. Los Angeles: University ofCalifornia Press；Adepegba, Cornelius Oyeleke.1976."A Survey of Nigerian Body Markings and TheirRelationship to Other Nigerian Arts." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University；Rubin, Arnold.(ed.)1988. Marks ofCivilization: Artistic Transformations of the Human Body. Los Angeles: Museum of Cultural History, University ofCalifornia.
6McNaughton, Patrick R.1988. The Mande Blacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa.Bloomington: Indiana University Press
1McNaughton, Patrick R.1982."The Shirts That Mande Hunters Wear." African Arts15/3:54-8,91.
2Crowe, Donald W.1973."Geometric Symmetries in African Art," pp.190-96in Claudia Zaslavsky (ed.) AfricaCounts: Number and Pattern in African Culture. Westport, Conn.: Lawrence Hill&Co.
3Brett-Smith, Sarah Catherine.1984."Speech Made Visible: The Irregular as a System of Meaning." EmpiricalStudies of the Arts2/2:127-47.
4Visona, Monica Blackmun.1984."'The Sheep Wears his Spots Where he Pleases', or the Question of RegionalStyles in Baule Sculpture," pp.29-44in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in African Art1. Iowa City:University of Iowa.
5Laude, Jean.1964."La statuaire du pays Dogon." Revue d'Esthitique17/1-2:46-68. Translated and adapted asAfrican Art of the Dogon: Myths of the Cliff Dwellers (1973). New York: Viking Press.
6Ezra, Kate.1988. Art of the Dogon: Selection from the Lester Wunderman Collection. New York: MetropolitanMuseum of Art.
1Drewal, Henry John.1983. Gelede: Art and Female Power among the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress.
2类似的研究也见于Borgatti,1979b：Dead Mothers of Okpella；Double Perspectives: Village Masking in CantonBoo, Ivory Coast；Phillips.1979. The Sande Society Masks of the Mende of Sierra Leone. Doctorate dissertation,The School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
3Lamp, Frederick.1985."Cosmos, Cosmetics, and the Spirit of Bondo." African Arts18/3:28-43,98-9.
4Northern, Tamara.1973. Royal Art of Cameroon. Hanover, NH: Dartmouth College.
5Preston, George Nelson.1985. Sets, Series and Ensembles in African Art. New York: The Center for African Art.
6Ben-Amos, Paula.1988."Edo Ancestral Altars: Testimonies to a Life Well-Lived." Paper read at the Workshopon African Material Culture, Bellagio, Italy；Anderson, Martha G.1983."Central Ijo Art: Shrines and SpiritImages."P h.D. dissertation, Indiana University；Kreamer, Christine M.1987."The Art and Ritual of the Moba ofNorthern Togo." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.
7Flam, Jack D.1970."Some Aspects of Style Symbolism in Sudanese Sculpture." Journal de la Société desAfricanistes40/2:137-150.
8Cornet, Joseph.1982. Art Royal Kuba. Milan: Edizioni Sipiel.
9Blier, Suzanne Preston.1985."Kings, Crowns, and Rights of Succession: Obalufon Arts at Ife and Other YorubaCenters." Art Bulletin67/3:383-401.
10Drewal, Margaret Thompson.1977."Projections from the Top in Yoruba Art." African Arts11/1:43-49,91-92.
11Thompson, Robert Farris.1974. African Art in Motion. Los Angeles: University of California Press；Thompsonand Comet, Joseph.1981. The Four Moments of the Sun: Kongo Art in Two Worlds. Washington, DC: NationalGallery of Art.
1例如上文所提到的Fernandez，1966“Principles of Opposition and Vitality in Fang Aesthetics”；Ben-Amos，1973. Symbolism in Olokun Mud Art；Jedrej,1980. Structural Aspects of a West African Secret Society;MacCormack,1980. Art and Symbolism in Thoma Ritual among the Sherbro, Sierra Leone
2DeMott, Barbara.1982. Dogon Masks: A Structural Study of Form and Meaning. Ann Arbor: UMI ResearchPress.
3Cole, Herbert M. and Aniakor, Chike C.1984. Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmos. Los Angeles: Museum ofCultural History, University of California.
4这种领悟起源于人类学显著的趋势，例如参见Mary Douglas(1966, Purity and Danger, New York: Praeger)关于思考范畴的作品。人类学家不再考虑孤立的概念范畴，不再将它们用在一组特定的事件中（例如，“入会”及其仪式的顺序），而是趋向于思考使用和产生种类的整个领域。这个趋势由伦敦亚非学院的John Picton影响到一些黑非洲艺术学者，例如，Marilyn Houlberg, Ruth Phillips, Sidney Kasfir, Dunja Hersak, Keith Nicklin以及Jill Salmon。这种观点的两个例子来自英国人类学家Nigel Barley的作品（"Placing the WestAfricanPotter" in John Picton (ed.)1984, Earthenware in Asia and Africa）和Malcolm McLeod(Akan Terracotta)对西非陶器的研究中。McLeod展示了工艺过程和Asante陶器制作的禁忌，这些禁忌与Asante建构的抽象价值观有关，依附于地点（灌木/村庄）、色彩和温度（红/热、白/凉爽）以及时间分类上，由此，Asante维护对装饰体验的控制。Barley声称在西非陶工的地位应该被看为不只是以锻工为中心的等级制的部分，而是方式的部分，在这种方式中，工艺过程或许被用来表达转换和发展的模式。几年前，Robin Horton提出在社会中人的活动呈现出明显最有序和规律的、他们的经验领域，因此为风俗提供了最重要的解释模型（RobinHorton，1964，Ritual Man in Africa）。但是，不是认为陶器制造和仪式的关系按照隐喻或合理的优先，Barley宁愿说文化知识在陶器制作和风俗中都以相同的形式被编码（1984:101），而不是依照隐喻或逻辑上的时间次序来理解陶器制作与风俗两者之间的关系。对另外的关于物质文化象征（符号论）的新方法，见NicholasDavid, Judy Sterner和Kodzo Gavua"Why Pots are Decorated"；Michael Rowlands和Jean-PierreWarnier,1988,"The Magical Production of Iron in the Cameroon Grassfields,"在非洲物质文化工作坊的文章。
1Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987. The Anatomy of Architecture: Ontology and Metaphor in BatammalibaArchitectural Expression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2Brett-Smith, Sarah Catherine.1982."Symbolic Blood: Cloths for Excised Women." RES: Anthropologyand Aesthetics3:15-31；1983."The Poisonous Child," RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics6:47-64.
3Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art," ArtJournal47/2:75-87.
4Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art," ArtJournal47/2:75-87.
5民族考古学家Ian Hodder(1982.Symbols inAction: Ethnoarchaeological Studies of Material Culture)坚持认为所有的物质都是由有象征意义的、在社会策略中使用的代码生成。单元的意义不只在于与同一组中其它单元的对比，而且源自作品的关系与用途以及它的关系网络和不同背景中的含义。他将他解释的方法有效地用在现存的肯尼亚Baringo社区所使用的不同的物品中，以展示它们在生态竞争和控制动力上的意义。
1Bravmann, Rene A.1979."Gur and Manding Masquerades in Ghana." African Arts13/1:44-51,98. P46.
2Adams, Monni.1980."Fon Appliqued Cloths," African Arts13/2:28-41,87-8.
3Arnoldi, Mary Jo.1986."Puppet Theater: Form and Ideology in Bamana Performance." Empirical Studies of theArts4/2:131-150.
4Okpaku, Joseph; Opubor, Alfred and Oloruntimehim, Benja.(eds.)1986. The Arts and Civilization of Black andAfrican Peoples. Vol.1, Black Civilization and the Arts. Vol.2, Black Civilization and Philosophy. Lagos: Centrefor Black and African Arts and Civilization.2of10projected volumes.
5McNaughton, Patrick R.1979. Secret Sculptures of Komo: Art and Power in Bamana Initiation Associations.Working Papers in the Traditional Arts4. Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Issues；1988. The MandeBlacksmiths: Knowledge, Power, and Art in West Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
6Weil, Peter M.1988."Modeling Form in Mande Masking." Paper read at the31st Annual Meeting of the AfricanStudies Association, Chicago.
1d'Azevedo, Warren L.1973."Mask Makers and Myth in Western Liberia," pp.126-50in Anthony Forge (ed.)Primitive Art and Society. London: Oxford University Press.
2Glaze, Anita J.1975."Woman Power and Art in a Senufo Village." African Arts8/3:24-9,64-8,90-1.
3Glaze, Anita J.1986."Dialectics of Gender in Senufo Masquerades." African Arts19/3:30-9,82.
4Hodder, Ian.1982. Symbols in Action: Ethnoarchaeological Studies of Material Culture. New York: CambridgeUniversity Press.
5Glaze, Anita J.1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.第31页。
6Adams, Monni.1980."Afterword: Spheres of Men's and Women's Creativity." Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zuerich1:163-67.
7Ben-Amos, Paula.1986."Artistic Creativity in Benin Kingdom." African Arts19/3:60-3,83-4.
1Teilhet, Jehanne H.1978."The Equivocal Role of Women Artists in Non-Literate Cultures." Heresies7:96-102；Ottenberg, Simon.1983."Artistic and Sex Roles in a Limba Chiefdom," pp.76-90in Christine Oppong (ed.) Maleand Female in West Africa. London: Allen&Unwin.
2Aronson, Lisa.1984."Women in the Arts," pp.119-38in Margaret Jean Hay and Sharon Shichter (eds.) AfricanWomen South of the Sahara. New York: Longman.
3Jedrej, M. C.1980."Structural Aspects of a West African Secret Society." Reprinted in Journal ofAnthropological Research32/3(1976):234-245.
4Bledsoe, Caroline H.1980."Stratification and Sande Politics."Ethnologische Zeitschrift Zuerich1:143-149.
5Drewal, Henry John. and Drewal, Margaret Thompson.1978."More Powerful Than Each Other: An EgbadoClassification of Egungun." African Arts11/3.
6Pemberton, John.1978."Egungun Masquerades of the Igbomina Yoruba." African Arts11/3.
7Fraser, Douglas and Cole, Herbert M.(eds.)1972. African Art and Leadership. Madison: University ofWisconsin Press, pp.305.
8分别举例：Thompson, Robert Farris.1970."The Sign of the Divine King:An Essay on YorubaBead-Embroidered Crowns with Veil and Bid Decorations." African Arts3/3:8-17,74-80；Flam, Jack D.1971."The Symbolic Structure of Baluba Caryatid Stools." African Arts4/2:54-9,80.
9Geary, Christraud M.1983. Things of the Palace: A Catalogue of the Bamum Palace Museum in Foumban(Cameroon). Studien zur Kulturkunde60. Wiesbaden: Steiner Verlag.
1Volavka, Zdenka.1972."Nkisi Figures from the Lower Congo." African Arts5/2:52-9,84.也见于Blier,1988.Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art.
2Himmelheber, Hans.1964."Sculptors and Sculptures of the Dan," pp.243-55in Lalage Bown and MichaelCrowder (eds.) The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Africanists. Evanston: NorthwesternUniversity Press；Fischer, Eberhard.1978."Dan Forest Spirits: Masks in Dan Villages," African Arts11/2:16-23,94.
3Glaze,1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village；Cole,1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Ibo; Drewaland Drewal, Henry John.1983. Composing Time and Space in Yoruba Art
4Glaze, Anita J.1981. Art and Death in a Senufo Village. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
1Cole, Herbert M.1982. Mbari: Art and Life Among the Owerri Ibo. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
2例如LeMoal,1980. Les Bobo: Nature et fonction des masques
3见Ottenberg,1972.Humorous Masks and Serious Politics among the Afikpo Ibo, in Douglas Fraser and HerbertM. Cole (eds.) African Art and Leadership.。1973. Afikpo Masquerades: Audience and Performers
4Siroto, Leon.1969."Masks and Social Organization among the BaKwele People of Western Equatorial Africa."Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University.
5Jamin, Jean and Coulibaly, Nabé Vincent.1979."A bout de souffle: La dette de la vie chez les Sénoufo."Objets et Mondes (Musée de l'Homme)19/1-4:280-292.
6Drewal, Henry John.1983. Gelede: Art and Female Power among the Yoruba. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress.
7讨论欧洲与非洲接触后图像的变化的有Fraser,Douglas.1962.Primitive Art.Garden City；McGaffey andJanzen,1974.A Propos: Nkisi Figures of the Bakongo；Garrard,1984.‘Figurine Cults of the Southern Akan’ inChristopher D.Roy(ed.)Iowa Studies in African Art1。当然，考古学最有希望揭秘古老的过去。随着马里杰内（Djenne）市附近尼日尔河三角洲内陆地区的大聚居地——始于基督前时代到14世纪——被发现，出现了一些精心的调查研究。（见Susan Keech McIntosh and Roderick J. McIntosh,1982，Prehistoric Investgations inthe Region of Jenne, Mali: A Study in te Development of Urbanism in the Sahel; R.J.McIntosh,1988, MiddleNiger Terracottas Before the Symplegades Gateway）中空的烧陶骑马人形象和人物塑像在后来的世纪出现。人物塑像的身体姿态和手势多样，并着重于蛇的图像，此外，还有一些有着细微差别的扁平物，这些物体比所知的20世纪马里地区的人像木刻要多。这些发现确实提出了关于小型木雕和纺织物碎片之间可能的关系问题，它们发现于马里Bandiagara悬崖干燥、无人居住的洞穴里，因为放射性碳测定的时间追溯到11到15世纪（对年代的断定，见Bedaux,1988.Tellem and Dogon Material Culture）。也有一些对关系的研究（SeeBernard de Grunne,1987, Divine Gestures and Earthly Gods: A Study of the Ancient Terracotta Statuary from theInland Niger Delta in Mali, Ph.D. dissertation, Yale University）.一位积极的加纳考古学家James Anquandah,发现在加纳北部Komaland一批15到18世纪的烧制陶像（人物、动物、马和骑骆驼的人以及其它不同的物件），他认为这些陶像属于发展于贸易路线上的铁器时代王国。(见J.R.Anquandah和Laurent Van Ham，1986，Discovering the Forgotten "Civilisation" of Komaland)。对发现于地表或接近于地面的石刻确定时期很困难。尽管有相当多的研究，但仍需要另外的技术分析来精确地确定几百个发掘于尼日利亚Esie附近的小型具象石雕的时期——一般估计在18世纪中期（见Phillips Stevens,1978,The Stone Images of Esie, Nigeria, Ibadan）。基于对文献和古老的村庄以及墓葬的调查，Cornet总结到萨伊河下游地区被认为收藏于17世纪的软石刻品，更可能在19世纪晚期被获得，而且雕刻活动只开始于18世纪期间，持续到20世纪前25年，（Stone NtadiSculpture of Bas-Zaire,1981）。但是，这个问题仍被争论，见Marie-No l Verger-Fèvre,1988，La pierre: Mémoirede l'Afrique noire。
1Bravmann, Rene A.1974. Islam and Tribal Art in West Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2例如Cole, Herbert M. and Ross, Doran H.1977. The Arts of Ghana. LosAngeles: Museum of Cultural History,University of California；Silverman, Raymond A.1986."Bono Brass Casting." African Arts19/4:60-4,85-6.
3Ross, Doran H.and Garrard, Timothy H.(eds.)1983. Akan Transformations. Problems in Ghanaian Art History.Museum of Cultural History Monograph Series21. Los Angeles: University of California.
4Johnson, Marian A.1980."Black Gold: Goldsmiths, Jewelry and Women in Senegal." Ph.D. dissertation,Stanford University.
1Ben-Amos, Paula.1983."Who is the Man in the Bowler Hat? Emblems of Identity in Benin Royal Art."Baessler-Archiv (Berlin) n.f.31:161-83.
2Mark, Peter.1987."The Senegambian Horned Initiation Mask: History and Provenance." Art Bulletin64/4:626-640.
3Bassani, Ezio.1983."A Note on Kongo High-Status Caps in Old European Collections." RES: Anthropology andAesthetics5:74-84.
4Vansina, Jan.1984. Art History of Africa: An Introduction to Method. London: Longman.
5Bravmann, René A.1981. Seeking the Sense of History: Art Historians in Africa, pp.122-29in Donald I. Ray,Peter Shinnie and Donovan Williams(eds.) Into the80's: The Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Conference ofthe Canadian Association of African Studies, B.C. Geographical Series32. Vancouver: Tantalus Research.
6d'Azevedo, Warren L.1980. Review of Frederick Lamp, African Art of the West Atlantic Coast. In African Arts14/1:81-6.
7Mark, Peter.1987. Review of Labelle Prussin, Hatumere: Islamic Design in West Africa. In African StudiesReview30/1:124-126.
1Jones, Adam.1988."Drink Deep, or Taste Not: Thoughts on the Use of Early European Records in the Study ofAfrican Material Culture." Paper read at the Workshop on African Material Culture. Bellagio, Italy.
2Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Melville J. Herskovits and the Arts of Ancient Dahomey." RES: Anthropologyand Aesthetics16:125-142.
3Geary, Christraud M.1987."Basketry in the Aghem-Fungom Area of the Cameroon Grassfields." African Arts20/3；1988."Art and Political Process in the Kingdoms of Bali-Nyonga and Bamum (Cameroon Grassfields)."Canadian Journal of African Studies22/1:11-41.
4Geary, Christraud M.1988. Images from Bamum: German Colonial Photography from the Court of King Njoya,Cameroon, West Africa,1902-1915. Washington, DC: National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian InstitutionPress.
5Vogel, Susan Mullin.1973."People of Wood: Baule Figure Sculpture." Art Journal33/1:23-6；1980. Beauty inthe Eyes of the Baule: Aesthetics and Cultural Values. Working Papers in the Traditional Arts6. Philadelphia:Institute for the Study of Human Issues.Boone, Sylvia Ardyn.1986. Radiance from the Waters: Ideals of Feminine Beauty in Mende Art. New Haven: YaleUniversity Press.
6Borgatti, Jean M.1982."Okpella Masks: In Search of the Parameters of the Beautiful and the Grotesque."Studies in Visual Communication8/3:28-40；1988."Social Change and Aesthetic Attitudes in Okpella (Nigeria)."Paper read at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Cultural Anthropology, Washington, DC.
7Drewal，Margaret Thompson. and Drewal, Henry John.1987. Composing Times and Space in Yoruba Art. Wordand Image3/3:225-51.
1Lawal, Babatunde.1976."Some Aspects of Yoruba Aesthetics." British Journal of Aesthetics14/3:239-249；1985."Ori: The Significance of the Head in Yoruba Sculpture." Journal of Anthropological Research41/1:91-103.
2Bascom, William.1976. Changing African Arts, pp.303-19in Nelson H.H.Grabum(ed.) Ethnic and Tourist Arts.Berkeley: University of California Press.
3参见：阿泽维多：《非洲社会的传统艺术家》
4Baxandall, Michael.1972. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Itlay. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
5Ben-Amos, Paula.1980."Patron-Artist Interactions in Africa." African Arts13/3:56-57,92.
6Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1987."Apprentices and Entrepreneurs: The Workshop and Style Uniformity inSub-Saharan Africa," pp.25-47in Christopher D. Roy (ed.) Iowa Studies in Africa Art: The Stanley Conferences atthe University ofIowa2. Iowa City: University of Iowa.
7Blier, Suzanne Preston.1988."Words about Words about Icons: Iconology and the Study of African Art"
8如Preston, George Nelson.1975."Perseus and Medusa inAfrica: Military Art in Fanteland,1834-1972." AfricanArts.
1Silver, Harry R.1983."Foreign Art and Asante Aesthetics." African Arts16/3.
2Richter, Dolores.1980. Art, Economics and Change: The Kulebele of Northern Ivory Coast. La Jolla, Calif.:Psych/Graph Publishers.
3Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit. Cambridge University Press1994
4Bassani, Ezio. and McLeod, Malcolm.1985."African Material in Early Collections." pp.245-250in OliverImpey and Arthur MacGregor (eds.) The Origins of Museums: The Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth-andSeventeenth-Century Europe. Oxford: Clarendon Press；Ehrlich, Martha J.1981."A Catalogue of Ashanti ArtTaken from Kumasi in the Anglo-Ashanti War of1874." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.
5Nunley, John W.1981."The Fancy and the Fierce." African Arts14/2:52-8,87-8；Ottenberg, Simon.1982."Illusion, Communication, and Psychology in West African Masquerade," Ethos10/2:149-185；1988."Psychological Aspects of Igbo Art." African Arts21/2:72-82,93.此外，传播最广泛的非洲艺术图书是AfricanSculpture Speaks（New York: A.A.Wyn,1952,1961年再版，1969、1975扩增），作者是艺术商Ladislas Segy，受弗洛伊德的启发，将祖先雕像解释为被看作是让人安心或令人敬畏的父亲形象。为征服对父亲的恐惧，非洲人将他的意志强加于自然的形式因此将风格变形和抽象化。（1961:47）
1曹意强：《欧美艺术史学史与方法论》，《新美术》，2001（1）：27-37，第28页。
2温克尔曼：《古代艺术史》，陈研、陈平译，《新美术》，2007（1）：38-47，第38页。
3曹意强：《欧美艺术史学史与方法论》，第28页。
1托马斯·德-科斯塔·考夫曼：《美国声音——美国早期艺术史学和接纳德裔艺术史家情况的几点认识上》，张坚译，《新美术》，2011（2）：27-38。
2Schapiro,Meyer.1939."From Mozarabic to Romanesque in Silos." Art Bulletin21/4.
3Schapiro, Meyer.1994. Theory and Philosophy of Art: Style, Artist, and Society. George Braziller.
4Shapiro, M."Style". In Kroeber, A. L.(ed.), Anthropology Today. Chicago University Press,1953, pp.283-311.
1参见福西永：《形式的生命》，陈平译，北京大学出版社，2011年，中译者前言，第7-8页。
2罗伯特·约瑟·霍维茨：《与乔治·库布勒的谈话》，章利国译，《新美术》1990年02期，第67页。
1参见DICTIONARY OFART HISTORIANS，http://www.dictionaryofarthistorians.org/sieberr.htm以及Doran H. Ross and Roy Sieber.1992.“Interview with Roy Sieber.” African Arts25/4:36-51.
2参见Paul Bohannan.1961."Artist and Critic in an African Society." pp.85-94in Marian W.Smith,ed.The Artistin Tribal Society, Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Occasional Paper15. New York:Free Press of Glencoe.
3Alpers, Svetlana.1977."Is Art History?" Daedalus106:1-13.
1Zerner, Henri.1982."Editor's Statement: The Crisis in the Discipline," Art Journal42/4:279.
2Baxandall, Michael.1972. Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy. Oxford: Clarendon Press；Clark, T.J.1973. Image of the People: Gustave Courbet and the1848Revolution. London: Thames&Hudson.
3Zerner, Henri.1982."Editor's Statement: The Crisis in the Discipline," Art Journal42/4:279.
4Belting, Hans.1987. The End of the History of Art? Translated by Christopher S. Wood. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.
5参见：Larry Silver,1986,"The State of Research in Northern RenaissanceArt," Art Bulletin48/4:518-35；Wanda M. Corn,1988,"Coming of Age: Historical Scholarship in American Art," Art Bulletin70/2:188-207；Herbert L. Kessler,1988,"On the State of Medieval Art History," Art Bulletin70/2:166-87.
6Baxandall, Michael.1980. The Limewood Sculptors of Renaissance Germany. New Haven: Yale UniversityPress.
1参见Bryson, Norman.1983. Vision and Painting: The Logic of the Gaze. New Haven: Yale University Press.中译本：《视觉与绘画：注视的逻辑》，郭杨等译，杭州：浙江摄影出版社，2004。
2Shiff, Richard.1988."Art History and the Nineteenth Century: Realism and Resistance." Art Bulletin70/1:25-48.第27页。
3关于市场策略研究参见Wagner, Anne Middleton.1986. Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux: Sculptor of the SecondEmpire. New Haven: Yale University Press；关于观看方式Fried, Michael.1980. Absorption and Theatricality:Painting and Beholder in the Age of Diderot. Berkeley: University of California Press；关于社会交际关系参见：Crow, Thomas E.1985. Painters and Public Life in Eighteenth-Century Paris. New Haven: Yale University Press.
4Clark, T. J.1985. The Painting of Modern Life: Paris in the Art of Manet and his Followers. New York: Knopf.中译本T.J.克拉克，《现代生活的画像——马奈及其追随者艺术中的巴黎》，沈语冰、诸葛沂译，江苏美术出版社，2013年。
1参见：[美]乔治·E.马尔库斯/米开尔·M.J.费彻尔，《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年；[美]爱德华·W.萨义德，《东方学》，王宇根译，三联书店，2007年。
2马利特·威斯特曼（Mari t Westermann）：《艺术史与人类学的对象》，李修建译，《民族艺术》2013（1）：60-69。
3同上，第66页。
4有关艺术史近年对人类学术语的探讨非常多，仅列举比较早的几例：大卫·弗里德伯格《图像的力量》（Thepower of Images，1989）；文特（Irene J.Winter）《强力统治者的身体：对古地亚雕像的一种理解》（“The Bodyof the Able Ruler: Toward an Understanding of the Statues of Gudea”，1989）；雷德侯《万物：中国艺术中的模件化和批量化生产》（2000）等。
1格尔兹“艺术是一种文化体系”的观点，是目前文化人类学对艺术的经典理论陈述，人类学之外与非西方艺术史都广为接受这种说法，《现代语言笔记91》（Modern Language Notes91）（1976）：第1473－1499页。（李修建译，2013）
2墨菲《艺术人类学》，第662页
3Baxandall, Michael.1980. The Limewood Sculptors of Renaissance Germany.第164页。
4Belting, Hans.1987.
5Baxandall, Michael.1980.
6例如，西尔弗对没有经过训练的刻工的评论，参见Silver, Harry R.1981."Calculating Risks: TheSocioeconomic Foundations of Aesthetic Innovation in an Ashanti Carving Community." Ethnology20/2:101-14.
7Geertz, Clifford:1983. Local Knowledge. New York: Basic Books.
1马利特·威斯特曼，2013，第66页。
2关于视觉研究与视觉文化以及艺术史研究的关系，参见米歇尔·安·霍利（Michael Ann Holly）和肯斯·莫
克（Keith Moxey）主编的《艺术史、美学和视觉研究》（Art History，Aesthetics，Visual Study）（Williamstown,Mass: Sterling and Francine Clark Art Institute,2003
3Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
1Herskovits.1945，第58页。
2比如Daniel Biebuyck “AfricanArt Studies Since1957:Achievements and Directions”；Jan Vansina, Art Historyin Africa: An Introduction to Method； Sidney Kasfir “One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography ofAfrican Art”；Ben-Amos."African Visual Arts from a Social Perspective"； Monni Adams "African Visual Artsfrom an Art Historical Perspective"；Henry Drewal "African Art Studies Today"；Suzanne Preston Blier "AfricanArt at the Crossroads: An American Perspective"；Suzanne Preston Blier "Words about Words about Icons:Iconology and the Study of African Art"
1Fagg,William.1955-1956."The Study of African Art," pp.458-73in Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg(eds.) Culturesand Societies of Africa. Random House, pp.464
2Sieber,Roy.,"The Arts and Their Changing Social Function." Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,196296:653-58.
3Sieber,Roy.1966."Report of Visual Arts Group." ARC Conference on the African Arts, Indiana University,March25-26,1966.
4Bascom, William.1962."African Material Culture, Technology, and Ecological Adaptation." Annals of the NewYork Academy of Sciences96:581-89.
5Laude, Jean.1978. Introduction to Michel Huet The Dance, Art and Ritual of Africa. New York: Pantheon Books,pp.14-15; Fagg William.1955-56."The Study of African Art,"pp.458-73in Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg (eds.)Cultures and Societies of Africa. New York:Random House; Sieber,Roy.1965."The Visual Arts," in RobertLystad(ed.) The African World: A Survey of Social Research. New York: Praeger, pp.444.
6Daniel Biebuyck,' African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions', African Studies Review,vol.26,nos.3/4,(1983),pp.105-106
7Bascom, William.1962,pp.583
8Leach,1982; Sieber,1973
9Daniel Biebuyck,1983, pp.105
1Jan Vansina, Art History in Africa: An Introduction to Method, London and New York,1984.
2Sieber,Roy.1965."The Visual Arts," in Robert Lystad (ed.) The African World: A Survey of Social Research.New York, pp.445
3Crowley,Daniel J.1958,"Aesthetic Judgment and Cultural Relativism," Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism17:187-93.
4Richards,1953; Firth,1951; Sieber,1966
5Daniel Biebuyck,' African Art Studies Since1957: Achievements and Directions', African Studies Review,vol.26,nos.3/4,(1983),pp.101-103
6Blier, Suzanne Preston.1987."African Art at the Crossroads: An American Perspective." Paper read at OpeningSymposium, National Museum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC.
7Drewal, Henry John.1987."African Art Studies Today." Paper read at the Opening Symposium, NationalMuseum of African Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. P28.
1Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1979."Visual Arts of the Idoma of Central Nigeria." Ph.D. University of London.
2Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art." Historyin Africa11:163-93.
3Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art." Historyin Africa11:165.
1Smith, Affairs of Daura,9
2David and Charlene Baldwin. The Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria: An Indexed Bibliography （Boston,1976）
3存在的例外多来自于欧洲的历史学家或民族学者，他们关注了一些历史问题。万斯那运用了历史学家的方法论考察了库巴艺术，见“Ndop: Royal Statues Among the Kuba”收录于弗雷泽和科尔编的《非洲艺术和领导力》，第41—55页。Tamara Northern在揭开喀麦隆草原殖民地化之前的艺术史上做了开创性的工作，见于《喀麦隆的王室艺术》（Royal Art of Cameroon）Hanover，1973；以及《豹子的标记》（The Sign of theLeopard）Storrs, Conn.,1975。南美洲圭亚那艺术史家Denis Williams在他里程碑式的关于尼日利亚铁和青铜艺术的研究中，结合了考古学、民族学和艺术史的方法。见于《圣像和图像》（Icon and Image）London，1974。美国学者亨利和玛格利特·朱奥通过研究所选取跨越几代人的家族的礼拜生活，创建了约鲁巴艺术的历史。见于“An Ifa Diviner's Shrine in Ijebuland.”1985.AfricanArts16/2:60-7,99-100以及其它约鲁巴相关的研究。
1Vansina, Sidney."Cultures Through Time" in Raoul Naroll and Ronald Cohen. eds. A Handbook of Method inCultural Anthropology. New York.1970.175
2Edward Sapir,"Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture: A Study in Method"[1916], reprinted inDavid Mandelbaum, ed., Selected Writings of Edward Sapir in Language, Culture and Personality (Berkeley,1949),475-32; Clark Wissler, The American Indian (New York,1917),342-54; Alfred L. Kroeber, Cultural andNatural Areas of Native North America [University of California Publications in American Archaeology andEthnology,38](Berkeley,1939),1-19.
3Melville J. Herskovits."A Preliminary Consideration of the Culture-Areas of Africa." American Anthropologist,26(1924),50-63; idem.,"The Culture Areas of Africa," Africa,3(1930),59-77.
1Adam Kuper and Pierre Van Leynseele,"Social Anthropology and the Bantu Expansion," Africa,48(1978),335.
2A. Von Sydow. Handbuch der Afrikanischen Plastik.(Berlin,1930),1:2.
3Kjersmeier, Centres de Style de La Sculpture Negre Africaine (reprinted New York,1967).
4例如见于G.I. Jones,"Sculpture of the UmuahiaArea of Nigeria," AfricanArts,6/4(1973),58-63.
1Roy Sieber,"African Art and Culture History" in Creighton Gabel and Norman R. Bennett, eds., ReconstructingAfrican Culture History (Boston,1967), P136.
2Aidan Southall.1970."The Illusion of Tribe." Journal of Asian and African Studies5:28-50. Morton Fried,Michael Moerman, and Gertrude Dole in Essays on the Problem of Tribe, ed. June Helm (Seattle,1968), P3-20,P153-69, P83-100. Anya P. Royce, Ethnic Identity (Bloomington,1982), P20-24.
3Aidan Southall.1970."The Illusion of Tribe." P28.
1Tribes and Forms in African Arts. New York,1965,11
2Fagg, Tribes and Forms in African Arts. New York,1965,13
1如Elizabeth Isichei.Igbo Worlds (Philadelphia,1978),43-45,50-52,76-77.
2Southall,"Illusion of Tribe,"32.
3Fagg. Tribes and Forms.P16.
4Susan Vogel. ed. For Spirits and Kings (New York,1981),163-64; cat. no.96.
1Sculpture of Black Africa, prepared for the Los Angeles County Museum (Los Angeles,1968)
2Sculpture of Black Africa,12.
3David Dalby, SOAS Seminar on Ethnicity,11December1973.
4Rene Bravmann, West African Sculpture (Seattle,1970),52.
5Rene Bravmann, Open Frontiers: The Mobility of Art in Black Africa (Seattle,1973).
1Jones,"Sculpture of the Umuahia Area."
2Jones,"Sculpture of the Umuahia Area." P.59.
3Jones,"Sculpture of the Umuahia Area."P.63.
4Biebuyck, ed., Tradition and Creativity,3.
1Biebuyck, ed., Tradition and Creativity,2.
2Jan Vansina,"The Use of Process-Models in African History" in Jan Vansina, Raymond Mauny and LouisVincent Thomas, The Historian in Tropical Africa (London,1964),378-79.
3Kasfir, Sidney Littlefield.1984."One Tribe, One Style: Paradigms in the Historiography of African Art." P187.
1Joseph Cornet."African Art and Authenticity". African Arts9/1,1975, pp:52-55.
2《非洲艺术》杂志，1976年第9卷、3期
3Kasfir, Sidney."African Art and Authenticity: A Text with a Shadow." African Arts25/2,1992, pp:41.
1Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P42.
2Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P43.
12Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P45.Kasfir, Sidney.1992. P53.
3Kasfir, Sidney. Rethinking the Maasai Ivories. African Arts.1995,28/2:12-15.
4Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit. Cambridge University Press,1994.
5在此笔者引用了罗易扉的相关翻译，见罗易扉：《资本的渗透——克里斯托弗·斯坦纳与<流通中的非洲艺术>》，载《江南大学学报》2011年第4期。
1在此援引罗易扉的相关译介，见《资本的渗透——克里斯托弗·斯坦纳与<流通中的非洲艺术>》，载《江南大学学报》2011年第4期。
1Christopher B. Steiner. African Art in Transit.P102.
2皮埃尔·布迪厄：《艺术的法则：文学场的生成和结构》，刘辉译，中央编译出版社，2001年，第276页。
1Fred Myers. Painting Culture: The Making of all Aboriginal High Art. Duke University Press.2002:22-23.
2Denis Dutton."Mythologies of Tribal Art." African Arts26,1995:32-43.丹尼斯·杜顿，在加州大学获得哲学学士和博士学位，并曾在加州大学圣巴巴拉分校、密歇根大学等高校任教。
3Miller B L, Steiner C B, Kasfir S L, et al. Commentary on "Mythologies of Tribal Art". African Arts.1996,29/1:89-104, P39.
4同上。
1乔治·E.马尔库斯、米开尔·M. J.费彻尔：《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年，第11页。
1针对这一问题，笔者不仅查阅了大量资料，而且也与美国与南非的相关学者探讨过，或许在今天，关于方法本身的问题已经不是问题了。
2Miller B L, Steiner C B, Kasfir S L, et al. Commentary on "Mythologies of Tribal Art". African Arts.1996,29/1:89-104.
1James M.Reisshardt，郑锡瑜译：《黑人是否劣等民族？》，载《光华大学半月刊》1932年第4期，第23页。
2但功泽：《黑人理想中的美观谈》，载《申报月刊》1934年第6期。
3林风眠：《原始人类的艺术》，载《国立艺术院半月刊》1928年第2期。
4格罗塞（Ernst Grosse）：《艺术的起源》，陈易译，大东书局1933年版；蔡慕晖译，商务印书馆1937年版。
5岑家梧：《欧美原始艺术研究小史》，载《责善半月刊》1941年第2巻14期，第3页。
6《由面具和偶人所看到的原始艺术》，载《三六九画报》1943年第16期，第11页。
7参见林风眠：《原始人类的艺术》，载《国立艺术院半月刊》1928年第2期，第87-116页；丰子恺：《西洋美术史》，开明书店1928年版，第8页。
8刘咸：《国际人类学及史前考古学巴黎会议记》，载《科学》1932年第16卷第4期，第507-535。
9鲁迅：《当陶元庆君的绘画展览时我所要说的几句话》，载郎绍君，水天中编《二十世纪中国美术文选》上，上海书画出版社1999年版，第176-177页。
10板垣鹰穗：《近代美术史潮论》，鲁迅译，北新书局1929年版，第107-156页。
1梁锡鸿：《现代绘画与原始人艺术的探讨》，载《真善美半月刊》（广州），1948年第7期，第44-45页。
2丰子恺：《立体派、未来派、抽象派》，载丰子恺《西洋画派十二讲》，开明书店1930年版，第432-433页。
3吕澂：《西洋美术史》，商务印书馆1933年版，第157页。
4梁锡鸿：《辟卡梭艺术的阶段》，载《美术杂志》1937年第5期，第118页。
1林镛：《辟卡梭与辟卡梭主义》，载《美术杂志》1937年第5期，第123页。
2《艺术运动社宣言》，载杭州国立艺术院月刊《亚波罗》1929年第8期。
3[苏]奥尔捷罗戈、比列维尔捷夫，东雨等译：《非洲的造型艺术和音乐》，载《亚非译丛》1963年第10期，第32页。
4向红：《遥致刚果河的英雄儿女们——纪录片《刚果（利）人民必胜》观后》，载《电影艺术》1964年第6期。
1卜维勤：《加纳的木雕艺术》，载《世界知识》1964年第18期。
2梁烈：《刚果（利）人民的木刻艺术》，载《羊城晚报》1964年12月6日。
3如杨阳、马路编译《非洲民族服饰》，湖南美术出版社1998年。
4让洛德：《黑非洲艺术》，张延风译，江苏美术出版社1994年版。
12010年以前中国有关非洲艺术的文献情况参见李彩的硕士论文《20世纪以来中国对非洲艺术的认知》，在此不再赘述，下同。
2“国立”历史博物馆编辑委员会编《前进非洲——原始艺术特展》，台北：“国立”历史博物馆2003年；王婉如编《古刚果文物展－从古仪式至现代艺术之探究》，台中：“国立”台湾美术馆2005年；彭基山编《亚洲国际木雕艺术交流展：黑色风潮－來自非洲的问候》，苗栗：苗栗县文化局2006年。
3胡佳莹，孙哲：《充满诱惑的非洲艺术》，载《美术大观》2008年第11期。
4袁承志：《原生的本能现代的范式——论非洲木雕艺术》，载《雕塑》2001年第1期。
5段圣君：《非洲雕刻艺术的特点》，载《荆门职业技术学院学报》2001年第5期。
6黄平：《非洲木雕人像中的性意识》，载《华侨大学学报》2006年第3期。
7例如王沫：《非洲雕刻的美学价值及现代意义》，硕士学位论文，东北师范大学2008年；吴妍：《黑非洲传统服饰图案研究》，硕士学位论文，广东工业大学2011年。
1刘鸿武，张佳梅：《尼日利亚古代文化艺术史述略》，载《西亚非洲》1999年第2期。
1张荣生：《20世纪世界美术大系——非洲卷》，黑龙江美术出版社，1991年。
2[美]乔治·E.马尔库斯、米开尔·M. J.费彻尔：《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年。
3方李莉：《走向田野的艺术人类学研究——艺术人类学研究的方法与视角》，载《民间文化论坛》2006年第5期。
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2.张坚：《视觉形式的生命》，中国美术学院出版社，2004年。
3.涂尔干、莫斯：《原始分类》，汲喆译，上海人民出版社，2000年。
4. A. R.拉德克利夫—布朗：《社会人类学方法》，夏建中译，山东人民出版社，1988年。
5.王铭铭编：《西方人类学名著提要》，江西人民出版社，2004年。
6.王建民：《艺术人类学新论》，民族出版社，2008年。
7.方李莉，李修建：《艺术人类学》，生活·读书·新知三联书店，2013年。
8.高长江：《艺术人类学—艺术的存在和存在的艺术》，中国社会科学出版社，2010年。
9.罗伯特·莱顿：《艺术人类学》，李东晔等译，广西师范大学出版社，2009年。
10.迪尔凯姆（涂尔干）：《社会学研究方法论》，胡伟译，华夏出版社，1988年。
11.涂尔干：《宗教生活的基本形式》，渠东、汲哲译，上海人民出版社，2006年。
12. B. K.马林诺夫斯基：《文化论》，费孝通等译，中国民间文艺出版社，1987年。
13.阿兰·巴纳德：《人类学历史与理论》，王建民等译，华夏出版社，2006年。
14.乔治·E.马尔库斯，弗雷德·R.迈尔斯：《文化交流：重塑艺术和人类学》，阿嘎佐诗等译，广西师范大学出版社，2010年。
15.克洛德·列维-斯特劳斯：《遥远的目光》，邢克超译，中国人民大学出版社，2007年。
16.博厄斯：《原始艺术》，金辉译，上海文艺出版社，1989年。
17.范景中：《美术史的形状：从瓦萨里到20世纪20年代》，中国美术学院出版社，2003年。
18.马利特·威斯特曼[Mari t Westermann]：《艺术史与人类学的对象》，李修建译，《民族艺术》2013（1）
19.皮埃尔·布迪厄：《艺术的法则：文学场的生成和结构》，刘辉译，中央编译出版社，2001年。
20.汉斯·贝尔廷：《艺术史的终结？当代西方艺术史哲学文选》，常宁生编译，中国人民大学出版社，2004。
21.乔治·E.马尔库斯、米开尔·M. J.费彻尔：《作为文化批评的人类学》，王铭铭等译，三联书店，1998年。
22.[美]爱德华·W.萨义德：《东方学》，王宇根译，三联书店，2007年。
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