早期美国毒品控制模式研究
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摘要
本文以定性分析法为主,兼采文献、个案、信息以及跨学科等多方位的研究方法,对20世纪初期到40年代为止的早期美国毒品控制的外交模式、法律惩戒模式以及医疗模式这三个方面进行了结构性的梳理与学术上的组建,以求从中摸索出美国毒品控制体系在其形成与早期发展过程中所存在的经验与教训,从而对这一至今百年有余的国家毒品控制体系的历史有一个立体性的深度认识。
美国毒品控制模式是一个围绕着如何控制并消灭非医用的成瘾性麻醉品而构成的巨大禁毒体系。该模式由美国内政外交诸因素构建而成,它不但涉及美国外交政策理念、国家政治制度、立法执法体系与联邦各个层面的权力结构等上层建筑领域的因素,而且还关系到美国的社会道德理念、历史文化、医疗卫生以及意识形态等方方面面的内容。
国内外史学界对于美国禁毒史的研究多集中于美国毒品政策的立法与执法上,对于外交模式的研究也多局限于禁毒外交如何服务于国内法内容上,至于医疗模式的研究则基本上归之于社会控制以及医药学领域的类别中,很少从历史的角度观察它并将之列为毒品控制模式的一个不可或缺的内容,更惶谈从整个模式的角度去推敲其相互间的能动关系及其各自的独立性与历史地位。事实上,学界尤其是海外学界对于美国禁毒史的研究发展至今,已经达到了一个资料丰富且学术讨论非常活跃的阶段。即使在法律政策史的研究上也向着更为纵深和微观的领域发展,而不断解密的档案资料则无疑为此提供了可能。因此,如何在研究中有所突破已成为现代学者在禁毒史领域的共同研究课题。
鉴于上述的学术研究现状,本文立足于从历史的角度出发,以定性分析法为依据,首次将业已存在的美国毒品控制体系冠之以美国毒品控制模式之名。在去芜存菁的基础上,本文将联邦层面上最为重要的禁毒外交政策、禁毒法体系以及成瘾医疗的三个方面揽括为基本内容,重新构建了美国毒品控制模式的立体式框架。以此框架为据,在认真分析文献与吸取前辈学者的学术成果基础上,以时间为纲、事件为目,辅之以跨学科的、多方位的信息处理方法,力图从内政外交的多方位对模式三方面的的各自内容加以梳理,从而在挖掘早期联邦毒品控制模式内容间的相互能动关系及其实施过程中的经验与教训的同时,全面展示“禁止”理念基础上的美国联邦毒品控制模式的价值取向,进而为理解现行美国“毒品战争”提供一个有价值的学术参考。
Mainly adopting a qualitative analysis method supplemented with multi-aspect research means of bibliography study, case study, information study and interdisciplinary study, this dissertation strives to have a structural sorting and academic formation from the three aspects of diplomatic, legal and medical strategies that constitute the early U.S. drug control mode from the early 1920s to 1940s, and attempts to explore the experience and lessons existed in the formation and development process of the U.S. drug control system as well, so as to have a thorough and in-depth insight into the history of the U.S. national drug control system that has been lasting for more than one hundred years so far.
The U.S. drug control mode is primarily a vast drug control system focused on how to control and eliminate the addictive narcotic drugs for non-medical purposes. Constructed by many domestic and diplomatic factors, it involves not only the factors in the superstructure aspect-the U.S. foreign policy concept, the country's political system, the legislative law-enforcement setup and the federal power structures at all levels, but also the multi-scoped contents of the U.S. social moral philosophy, history, culture, medicine science, health and ideology, etc.
History science circles at home and abroad devoting to the research on the U.S. drug control history have mostly focused on the legislation and law-enforcement of the U. S. drug control policy. As far as the study of diplomatic strategy concerned, it is always confined to how drug diplomacy serves for domestic legislation. As for the study on medical treatment strategy, basically, it is classified into the fields of social control or medical science, and little has been done to observe it from a historical perspective and regard it as an indispensable part of the U.S. drug control mode, not to mention scrutinizing their mutual dynamic relationships, their respective independence and historical status. In fact, the academic circles, especially the overseas scholars, have fulfilled their researches on the U.S. drug control history up to a stage with abundant achievements and active academic discussions. Moreover, the study on the history of legal policy has also been developed toward a more in-depth and microscopic field, and the constant decoding of documentary materials has made this possible. Consequently, how to make a breakthrough in this study turns to be a common study subject for the contemporary scholars in the field of drug control history.
In the light of the above-mentioned current circumstances of academic research, this dissertation, proceeding from the historical perspective and relying on a qualitative analysis method, initiates the use of the "U.S. drug control mode" for the existing U.S. drug control system. On the basis of abandoning the disadvantages and taking in the advantages, this dissertation restructures a stereoscopic framework of the U.S. drug control mode by embracing the basic contents of the most significant three aspects of drug control foreign policy, drug control legal system and addictive treatment. Under this framework, based on a thorough analysis on the bibliographies and assimilation of the academic fruits from senior scholars, having time as outlines and events as items with a supplement of interdisciplinary and multi-aspect information management methods, this dissertation, strives to have a multi-aspect analysis on individual strategy from both domestic and foreign affairs, so as to have an in-depth insight into the dynamic relationships among those three aspects of the U.S. drug control mode, the experience and lessons drawn from their implementation process on one hand, and to thoroughly reveal the value orientation of the U.S. federal drug control mode on the basis of "Control" concept, and further provide a valuable academic reference for the current ongoing "War on Drugs" in the United States on the other hand.
美国毒品控制模式是一个围绕着如何控制并消灭非医用的成瘾性麻醉品而构成的巨大禁毒体系。该模式由美国内政外交诸因素构建而成,它不但涉及美国外交政策理念、国家政治制度、立法执法体系与联邦各个层面的权力结构等上层建筑领域的因素,而且还关系到美国的社会道德理念、历史文化、医疗卫生以及意识形态等方方面面的内容。
国内外史学界对于美国禁毒史的研究多集中于美国毒品政策的立法与执法上,对于外交模式的研究也多局限于禁毒外交如何服务于国内法内容上,至于医疗模式的研究则基本上归之于社会控制以及医药学领域的类别中,很少从历史的角度观察它并将之列为毒品控制模式的一个不可或缺的内容,更惶谈从整个模式的角度去推敲其相互间的能动关系及其各自的独立性与历史地位。事实上,学界尤其是海外学界对于美国禁毒史的研究发展至今,已经达到了一个资料丰富且学术讨论非常活跃的阶段。即使在法律政策史的研究上也向着更为纵深和微观的领域发展,而不断解密的档案资料则无疑为此提供了可能。因此,如何在研究中有所突破已成为现代学者在禁毒史领域的共同研究课题。
鉴于上述的学术研究现状,本文立足于从历史的角度出发,以定性分析法为依据,首次将业已存在的美国毒品控制体系冠之以美国毒品控制模式之名。在去芜存菁的基础上,本文将联邦层面上最为重要的禁毒外交政策、禁毒法体系以及成瘾医疗的三个方面揽括为基本内容,重新构建了美国毒品控制模式的立体式框架。以此框架为据,在认真分析文献与吸取前辈学者的学术成果基础上,以时间为纲、事件为目,辅之以跨学科的、多方位的信息处理方法,力图从内政外交的多方位对模式三方面的的各自内容加以梳理,从而在挖掘早期联邦毒品控制模式内容间的相互能动关系及其实施过程中的经验与教训的同时,全面展示“禁止”理念基础上的美国联邦毒品控制模式的价值取向,进而为理解现行美国“毒品战争”提供一个有价值的学术参考。
Mainly adopting a qualitative analysis method supplemented with multi-aspect research means of bibliography study, case study, information study and interdisciplinary study, this dissertation strives to have a structural sorting and academic formation from the three aspects of diplomatic, legal and medical strategies that constitute the early U.S. drug control mode from the early 1920s to 1940s, and attempts to explore the experience and lessons existed in the formation and development process of the U.S. drug control system as well, so as to have a thorough and in-depth insight into the history of the U.S. national drug control system that has been lasting for more than one hundred years so far.
The U.S. drug control mode is primarily a vast drug control system focused on how to control and eliminate the addictive narcotic drugs for non-medical purposes. Constructed by many domestic and diplomatic factors, it involves not only the factors in the superstructure aspect-the U.S. foreign policy concept, the country's political system, the legislative law-enforcement setup and the federal power structures at all levels, but also the multi-scoped contents of the U.S. social moral philosophy, history, culture, medicine science, health and ideology, etc.
History science circles at home and abroad devoting to the research on the U.S. drug control history have mostly focused on the legislation and law-enforcement of the U. S. drug control policy. As far as the study of diplomatic strategy concerned, it is always confined to how drug diplomacy serves for domestic legislation. As for the study on medical treatment strategy, basically, it is classified into the fields of social control or medical science, and little has been done to observe it from a historical perspective and regard it as an indispensable part of the U.S. drug control mode, not to mention scrutinizing their mutual dynamic relationships, their respective independence and historical status. In fact, the academic circles, especially the overseas scholars, have fulfilled their researches on the U.S. drug control history up to a stage with abundant achievements and active academic discussions. Moreover, the study on the history of legal policy has also been developed toward a more in-depth and microscopic field, and the constant decoding of documentary materials has made this possible. Consequently, how to make a breakthrough in this study turns to be a common study subject for the contemporary scholars in the field of drug control history.
In the light of the above-mentioned current circumstances of academic research, this dissertation, proceeding from the historical perspective and relying on a qualitative analysis method, initiates the use of the "U.S. drug control mode" for the existing U.S. drug control system. On the basis of abandoning the disadvantages and taking in the advantages, this dissertation restructures a stereoscopic framework of the U.S. drug control mode by embracing the basic contents of the most significant three aspects of drug control foreign policy, drug control legal system and addictive treatment. Under this framework, based on a thorough analysis on the bibliographies and assimilation of the academic fruits from senior scholars, having time as outlines and events as items with a supplement of interdisciplinary and multi-aspect information management methods, this dissertation, strives to have a multi-aspect analysis on individual strategy from both domestic and foreign affairs, so as to have an in-depth insight into the dynamic relationships among those three aspects of the U.S. drug control mode, the experience and lessons drawn from their implementation process on one hand, and to thoroughly reveal the value orientation of the U.S. federal drug control mode on the basis of "Control" concept, and further provide a valuable academic reference for the current ongoing "War on Drugs" in the United States on the other hand.
引文
①William B. Mcallister, Drug diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History [M], London: Routledge, 2000, p. xv.
②F. Zimring and G Hawkins, The Search for Rational Drug Control [M], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 31-32.
③ William B. Mcallister, Drug diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History [M], London: Routledge, 2000, 2000,p. xv.
①详细参见“毒品常识”[EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011]:http://www.china.com.cn/law/zhuanti/yldp/2007-06/02/content 8332091.htm.
② Ibid.
③冰毒即兴奋剂甲基苯丙胺(Dim ethyl amphetamine),因其原料外观为纯白结晶体而被称为冰(Ice),故称“冰毒”[EB/OL][2 Feb.2011]:http://baike.baidu.com/view/9867.html?fromTaglist.
④摇头丸即冰毒的衍生物,以MDMA等苯丙胺类兴奋剂为主要成分,具有兴奋与幻觉两种作用。外观多呈五颜六色的片剂,使用后可随着音乐而出现长时间的头部摇摆现象而被称为“摇头丸”[EB/OL][2 Feb.2011]: http://baike.baidu.com/view/26889.htm.
⑤ Dwight B. Heather, cited in Schaler, Jeffrey A., Drugs [M], New York: Prometheus Books,1998, p.139.
①David R. Bewlay-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, 19O9-1997\M\, London & New York: Continuum, 2001, p. 12.
②William B. Mcallister, Drug diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History [M], London: Routledge, 2000, p. xvii.
① F. Zimring and G. Hawkins, The Search for Rational Drug Control [M], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.32.
②“公安部、卫生部第115号令”[EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011]: http://vip.chinalawinfo.com/newlaw2002/slc/slc.asp?db=chl&gid=144951.
③ Dole, V. P.& Nyswander, M. E., Heroin Addiction-A metabolic Disease [J], New York: Arch Intern Med., vol.120, July 1967.
① E. Drugker, From Morphine to Methadone [EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011]:http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
② David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opaite Addiction in America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.7.
①王晓德.美国对外关系史散论[M].北京；中华书局,2007年,第29页。
① Geoffrey Hunt & Anna Xiao Dong Sun, The Drug Treatment System in the United States: A Panacea for the Drug War?. Cited Klingemann, Harald & Hunt, Geoffrey, Drug Treatment System in an International perspective [M], SAGE Publications, Thousand oaks.California,1998, p.6.
② Chanles E. Terry & Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M]. N.Y. Committee on Drug Addictions, Burear of Social Hygiene, Inc.,1928.
①在早期吸毒人群中,尤其是大量的女性吸毒者中,因医学知识缺乏而导致的被动吸毒成瘾现象屡见不鲜。与战后“反主流文化“中所出现的以康乐型吸毒为主的年轻吸毒者相比,早期的吸毒者中,中老年人口居多的现象也是前后两个时代所存在的不同之处—笔者按。
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York; Oxford University Press,1999.
③ Edward M. Brecher et al. Licit and Illicit Drug [M], Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1972.
① Edward M. Brecher et al. Licit and Illicit Drug [M], Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1972, pp.521-539.
② Arnold H. Taylor, American diplomacy and the narcotics traffic,1900-1939 [M] Durham: Duke University Press, 1969.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor. The United States and international drug control,1909-1997, New York: continuum,2001.
②哈里·安斯林格(1892.5.20-1975.11.14),美国禁毒体制的奠基者之一。“联邦麻醉品管理局”(FBN=Federal Bureau of Narcotics)第一任专员。
② David R. Bewley-Taylor. op. cit.,2001, pp.47-48.
①Nancy D. Campbell, et al. The Narcotic Farm t The Rise and Fall of America s First Prison for Drug Addicts [M],New York: Abrams, 2008.
②Harald Klingemann & GeoHrey Hunt, Drug Treatment System in an International perspective. [M], California:SAGE Publieations,1998.
①罗运炎.毒品问题(上、下)[M].上海：商务出版社,1936年版.
②刘心武.美国吸毒成因论[j].美国研究参考资料,1985年第五期；戴增义.美国毒品问题面面[J].同上期刊,1987年第一期.
③秦斌详.美国毒品问题[J].同上期刊,1990年第五期.
④万心慧.美国的吸毒、贩毒、制毒、禁毒与缉毒[J].九江师专学报,1997年第一期.
⑤高英东.美国的毒品问题及禁毒政策[J].社会,1998年第十期；美国毒品问题初探[J].美国研究,1998年第四期；美国文化与毒品泛滥[J].社会,2001年第二期.
⑥刘永涛.当代美国社会[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2001年版；赵翔等.毒品问题研究—从全球视角看贵州毒品问题[M].北京：人民公安大学出版社,2005年版；金伟峰等.禁毒法律制度研究[J].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009年版.
⑦瞿帆.《哈里森法》与美国社会的毒品问题[J].鞍山师范学院学报,2000年第二期；美国国会在对外禁毒活动中的作用[J].南开学报,2000年第三期；20世纪美国毒品政策的演变[D].南开大学历史研究所,2000年博士论文.
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②在可查的台湾硕博论文中,相关问题的研究成果分别有：赵瑞.美国青少年药物犯罪问题之研究[D].淡江大学美国研究所,1988年硕士论文；黄乃琦.美国药物(毒品)滥用之危机处理—美国药物政策之探讨[D].淡江大学美国研究所,1988年硕士论文.
③ Thomas C. Rowe. Federal narcotics laws and the war on drugs:money down a rat hole [M]. New York: The Haworth Press,2006.
① Doris M. Provine. Unequal under the law: race in the war on drug [M], Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007.
② Steven R. Belenko, ed.. Drug and Drug Policy in America:A Documentary History [M], Greenwood Press,2000.
①David R, Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control 1909-1997 [M], New York: Continuum,1999,p.4
①Ethan A. Nadelmann, 'Global prohibition regimes: the evolution of norms in international society' [J], International ogranziation 44,(4)1990,P.503.
① Robert Keel, Drug Law Timeline, University of Missouri at Saint Louis, Originally prepared for his Soc.180 class [EB/OL][2 Jan.2011]:http://www.umsl.edu/-keelr/180/law.html.
①王晓德.美国对外关系史散论[M].北京：中华书局,2007年,第21页.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor. The United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.48.
③ Letter from Anslinger to Reginald Wright Kaufman, editor of the Bangor Daily News, [N] 19 March 1945, AP Box 3: File 22.
①Alfred R. Lindesmith. Addiction and Opiates [Ml. Chicago: Aldine. 1968. D. 207.
① K. McMahon, The fall of the God of Money: Opium Smoking in Nineteenth-Century China [M], New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.,2002, p.36.
② D. Owen, British Opium Policy in China and India [M], New Haven: Yale University Press,1934, p.52.
③ W. B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M] London: Routledge,2000, p.13.
④ Carl A. Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy:A Study of the Asian Opium Trade [M], New York & London: Routledge,1999, p.3.
⑤陈胜粦.清末新政时期的禁烟运动[J].历史研究,1990年4期.转摘自王宏斌.禁毒史鉴[M],长沙：岳麓书社,1997,第一页(序).
① J. D. Spence, Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture [M], New York: Norton,1992, p.119.
② E. M. Brecher, Licit & Illicit Drugs [M], Boston:Little Brown and Company,1972, p.5.
③ W. Dodd, The Factory System Illustrated (1842), p.149, cited in Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class [M], New York: Vintage Books,1963, p.328.
④ "Report by Dr. Hunter, Henry Julian on the Excessive Mortality of Infants in Some Rural Districts of England," Public Health,1864, p.459.
⑤ K. Marx, Capital I [M], p.399, cited in E. M. Brecher, op. cit.,1972, p.5.
① Medical Times and Gazette 2, July 19,1873, p.73.
② C. F. Brockington, Public Health in the Nineteenth Century [M], London:E.& S. Livingstone, Ltd.,1965, pp.225-226.
① Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs, And Pepe Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs [M], New York: Scribner,1996, Contents.
② David F. Musto, "Opium, Cocaine, and Marijuana in American History" [J], Scientific American 265, no.l,1991, cited in Jeffrey A. Schaller, Drugs [M], New York: Prometheus Books,1998, p.17.
③ Steven B. Duke & Albert C. Gross, America's Longest War: Rethinking Our Tragic Crusade against Drugs [M], New York: GP. Putnam's Sons,1993, pp.78-102.
④本文采纳的观点是：《哈里森法》颁布前的19世纪末至20世纪初乃是美国毒品泛滥的第一个时期—笔者按。
⑤“医源性的麻醉品成瘾者”指的是那些最初因疾病而接受医生的麻醉品处方并因此而致成瘾的人群；而“非医源性成瘾者”则指那些与疾病无关、以康乐性享用麻醉品为目的而导致成瘾的人群—笔者按。
⑥E. M. Brecher, Licit & Illicit Drugs [M], Boston:Little Brown and Company,1972, p.3.
①David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press, 2001, p. 9.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 5.
③ Stephen R. Kandall, Substance and the Shadow: A History of Women and Addiction in the United States [M], NewYork: Harvard University Press, 1996. p. 36.
④ Hamilton Wright, "Report on the International Opium Commission and on the Opium Problem as Seen within theUnited States and Its Possessions," contained in Opium Problem: Message from the President of the United States,Senate Doc. no. 377,61st Cong., 22nd Sess., 21 Feb. 1910, p. 47.
⑤ David F. Musto, op. cit, 1991, p. 20.
① Hubert S. Howe, "A Physician's Blueprint for the Management and Prevention of Narcotic Addiction" [J], New York State Journal of Medicine,55, February 1,1955, pp.341-348.
② Virgil G Eaton, "How the Opium Habit Is Acquired" [J], Popular Science Monthly 33,1888, p.666.
③ Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Committee on Drug Addictions, Bureau of Social Hygiene, Inc.,1928, p.6.
④ Ibid, pp.6,18.
① Alonzo Calkins, Opium and the Opium Appetite [Ml, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1871. p.6.
② Charles B. Towns,'"The Peril of the Drug Habit" [J], Century Magazine 84,1912, pp.580-587.
③ Proceedings, American Pharmaceutical Association 13,1865, p.51.
④ Perry M. Lichtenstein,"'Thirteen years' Observation on Drug Addiction at the Tombs Prison" [J], Narcotic Education, ed. H. s. Middlerniss, Proceedings of the First World Conference on Narcotic Education, July 5-9,1926, Philadelphia (Washinton, D. C.,1926), p.123.
① Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Massachusetts,1871, p.7.
② D. M. R. Culbrith, Materia Medica and Pharmacology,3rd ed (1903), cited in Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellense, op. cit.,1928, p.7.
③ "Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942", Public Law 797,77th Cong., approved 11 Dec.1942.
④ Doris Marie Provine, Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, pp.65-66.
⑤ "The Opium Habit" [J], Catholic World 33, September,1881, p.829.
① "The Opium Habit" [J], Catholic World 33, September 1881, p.828.
②本节参考了李庆余先生的“评述关于美西战争的两次论战”一文的部分内容：南京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),1986年第二期.
③胡立利,刘辉等.中国—世界最后一个超级大国[N].联合早报(电子版)[EB/OL][2010-6-5]: http://www.zaobao.com/forum/pages2/forum_us.100.605a.shtml.
①缅因舰(Maine)是美国早期的大型战列舰。1898年2月15日,为保护美国在古巴的侨民而停泊在哈瓦那港外时突然发生爆炸沉没,造成二百多人死亡。美国以此为借口向西班牙宣战。爆炸原因至今还是一个谜。一说是由于燃煤导致舰内弹药库爆炸—笔者按。
② "Official Report of the Naval Court of Inquiry into the loss of the Battleship MAINE (Sampson Board)", Spanamwar.com.22 March 1898. [22 September 2010]参见：http://www.spanamwar.com/mainerpt.htm.
③杨生茂等.美西战争资料选辑[M].北京：人民出版社,1981年版；李庆余.美西战争[M],北京；商务印书馆,1984年版.
①杨生茂等.美西战争资料选辑,同上。
②李庆余.评述关于美西战争的两次论战[J].南京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),1986年第二期.
③ Walter Millis, The Martial Spirit [M], Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1931, p.148.
④ Marcus M. Wilkerson, Public Opinion and the Spanish-American War, A Study in War Propaganda [M], Baton Rouge: Louisiana State university Press,1932.
① Joseph Ezra Wisan, The Cuban as Reflected in the New York Press.1895-1898[M]. New York: Columbia University Press,1934.
② Julius W. Pratt, "the 'large policy' of 1898" [J], The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Sep.1932, p.237.
③ Julius W. Pratt, "American Business and the Spanish-American War" [J], Hispanic American Historical review ⅹⅳ, 1934, p.164;.also see, Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898 [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press,1936, pp.234—243.
④ Julius W. Pratt, op. cit.,1932, p.238.
⑤ Ibid, p.242.
① Philip S. Foner, the Anti-Imperialist Reader [M], New York: Holmes and Meier Publishers,1984, vol.1, Introduction, p. ⅹⅹⅲ.
② H. Faulkner, American EeconomicHistory [M], New York: Harper & brothers,1938,4th. Ed. pp.622,624-625.
③ Charles A. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization [M], New York: Macmillan co.,1927, vol.2, p.480.
④[美国]福克讷,《美国经济史》 [M]中译本,1964年版下册,第260页。
① William A. Williams, the Tragedy of American Diplomacy [M], New York:W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,1959, p. 28.
② Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: Interpretation of American Expansion [M], Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1967, p.370.
③ Ibid., p.352.
④ Thomas J. McCormick, China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire,1893-1901 [M], Chicago: Quadrangle, 1967, p.107.
①王晓德.美国文化与外交(修订版)[M].天津：天津教育出版社,2008年,第一页.
② John P. Lovell, "The United States as Ally and Adversary in East Asia" [J].转载自王晓德.美国文化与外交,同上,第三页。
④ "The World against Opium," The Chinese Students' Monthly, Vol. Ⅵ, No.3, January,1911;当时菲律宾总人口的7,635,426人中,华人人口为55,000人。参见：Report on the international Opium Commission and on the Opium Problem as Seen within the US and Its Possessions, prepared by Hamilton Wright in U.S. Congress, Senate,61st Congress,2nd Session, Senate Document No.377, January 1,1910, p.26.
① Ibid, p.63.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.25-26.
③[日]中野聡 [フイリヒツ独立问题史] 龙渓书舎,1997年,第106页。
④ W. F. Craft, Memorandum Concerning Concerted International Restraint of the Traffic in Intoxicants and Opium among Aboriginal Races, a Pamphlet dated 22 Feb.1907, pp.2,7.
⑤ David F. Musto, op. cit.,1999, p.26.
①《菲律宾报告书》[EB/OL][3 Sep.2010],全文可参阅：http://www.drugtext.org/Philipine-Commissions/philippine-commision.html.
② Use of Opium and Traffic Therein, U. S. Congress, Senate,59th Congress,1st session, Senate Document No.265, p. 20.
③ Ibid, p.59.
④调查团的各地采访及内容汇编[EB/OL][3 Sep.2010],全文可参阅：http://www.drugtext.org/Philipine-Commissions/appendix-c-interviews.html; http://www.drugtext.org/Philipine-Commissions/proceedings.html.以下无特别注明的内容均处于此处。
①Letter from Charles H. Brent to William H. Taft, 6 Feb. 1904. BP (Brent Papers), container 6.
②The Report of the Committee Appointed by the Philippine Commission to Investigate the Use of Opium and theTrqfficTerein....., Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept., 1905, pp. 129-172; Arnold H.Taylor, American Diplomacy andthe Narcotic Traffic, 1900-1939, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1969, pp. 31-45; P. D. Lowes, The Genesis of International Narcotics Control [M], Geneva: Librairie, Droz, 1966, pp. 102-106.
①"Uncle Sam is the Worst Drug Fiend in the World." New York Times, March 12,1911.
②The Friend of China, ⅩⅩⅣ-6, July,1906, London, p.92.
③[日]笠原陽子.同上,2006年,第148页。
④Parliamentary Debates,4th ser., vol.158,30 May 1906, pp.494-516.
①于恩德.中国禁烟法令变迁史[M].上海；上海中华书局,1934年版,第118页。
② Kathleen L. Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 [M], Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,1996, p.36.
① Kathleen L. Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 [M], Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,1996, p.97.
② Letter from J.T. Morgan to DuBose, January 31,1905 in The Anti-Opium League in China (ed.), Opium in the Orient:Report of the Philippine Commission [M] Shanghai: The North-China Office, n. d., p.1.
③ Kathleen L. Lodwick, op. cit.,1996, p.115.
④ Hampden C. DuBose, The Great Anti-Opium Year 1906-7, Annual Report of the Anti-Opium League, n.d. pp.1,3;于恩德.中国禁烟法令变迁史[M].上海；上海中华书局,1934年版,第120页.
② Thomas J. McCormick, China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire,1893-1901[M], Chicago: Quadrangle, 1967, p.107.
③约翰·海(John Milton Hay,1838-1905),美国政治家,同时也是外交家、作家、记者。他曾是林肯总统的私人秘书及助理。其主要贡献是确立了对华的“门户开放政策”。—笔者按
④ Yoneyuki Sugita, "The Rise of an American Principle in China: A Reinterpretation of the First Open Door Notes toward China" in Richard Jensen, Jon Dabidann and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the twentieth century [M], Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.,2003, pp 3-20.
⑤门户开放政策的详细内容可参见英文版。[EB/OL][27 Sep.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Door_Policy#cite_note-0;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hay.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control 1909-1997 [M], New York: Continuum, 1999, David R. p.18.
② Philippine Tariff Revision Act,3 March 1905,33 States Laws,944.
③ D W. W. Willoughby, Opium as an International Problem: The Geneva Conferences [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1925, p.21.
①Ernest van den Haag, "The business ofAmerican foreign policy" [S], Foreign Affairs 63, Jan. 1985, p. 113.
②Karl Von Vorys, American National Interest: virtue and Power in Foreign Policy [MJ, Westport, CT: Praeger, 1990,p.19
①国际鸦片会议的时间有两种不同的版本：一是联合国毒品与犯罪办公室(UNODC)在1959年的相关叙述内容中,其时间为1909年2月5日-26日。二是由康奈尔大学(Cornell University)图书馆收藏的《上海国际鸦片会议报告书》(Report of the International Opium Commission[M], Shanghai:the North-China Daly News & Herald Ltd.,1909.)所显示的内容中,其时间为1909年2月1日-26日。本文采取后者的立场—笔者注。
②与会国家与正式代表人数如下：中国6人、英国5人、美国3人、法国3人、日本3人、暹罗(今泰国)3人、德国2人、荷兰2人、葡萄牙2人、意大利1人、奥匈帝国1人、俄罗斯1人、波斯(今伊朗)1人。参见：Report of the International Opium Commission Shanghai,China, February 1 to February 26,1909, Shanghai: Printed and Pubished by the North-China Daily News&Herald Ltd.1909, pp.3-6.
③ Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke University Press,1969, p.79.
④“宣统元年第一要政”[N],《申报》1909年1月31日。
① Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, "The Anti-Chinese Movement in California" [J], Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences, Vol.24, no.3. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,1939, pp.22-23.
② Doris Marie Provine, Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M],Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.69.
③ Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, op. cit.,1939, pp.48,57.
④ Steven B. Duke and Albert C. Gross, America's Longest War:Rethinking Our Tragic Crusade against Drugs [M], New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,1993, p.83.
① Jacob A. Riis, "How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York" [J], Report, New York: Sagamore Press,1890/1957, pp.70-72.
②蒲安臣(Anson Burlingame,1820-1870),是美国著名律师、政治家和外交家,美国对华合作政策的代表人物。他还是唯一的一位曾任美国驻华公使后又担任中国使节的美国人。《普安臣条约》是他代表中国出访美国时,于1868年7月28日以全权特使身份与美国国务卿西华德(William Henry Seward)分别代表中美两国政府签订的一项近代史上少见的平等条约。其中,中国劳工出口已及留美学生问题构成了该条约的一个重要内容。[EB/OL] [6 Sep.2010]:http://baike.baidu.com/view/685490.htm.
③ "U.S. Concludes Treaty with China." [EB/OL] [8 Aug.2010]: http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/events/11_17.
④ H. K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of American to World Power [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956, p,230.
⑤ Ibid, p.197.
① Charles Chaile-Long, "Why China Boycotts Us" [J], the World Today, March 1906, p.314.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.30.
③ Letter from Charles H. Brent to Theodore Roosevelt,24 July 1906, BP, Container 6.
④ H. K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of American to World Power [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956, p.197.
⑤ W. B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M] London: Routledge,2000, p.28.
① "The Shanghai Opium Commission", UNODC, Jan.1,1959, pp.45-46.
②万国禁烟会议议案.载《宣统己酉大政记》第十册卷七；王宏斌.禁毒史鉴.长沙；岳麓书社,1997年,第291-292页.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 36.
①《申报》1909年2月1日。
②Letter from H. Wright to C.H. Brent,29 Nov.1909, WP, entry 33.
③"The Shanghai Opium Commission", UNODC, Jan.1,1959, pp.45-46.
①W. W. Willoughby, Opium as an International Problem: The Geneva Conferences [M\, Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 1925, p. 21.
②David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp 36-37.
③ Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke UniversityPress, 1969, p. 69
④Rufiis King, The Drug Hang-Up, America's Fifty-Year Folly [M], Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1974, p. 209.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.21.
② Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke University Press,1969, p.60.
③ Dale Gieringer, "Marking 100 Years of Failed Drug Prohibition" [J], Counter Punch, February,2009, pp.6-8.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.23.
② UNODC "A Century of International Drug Control", the World Drug Report 2008 [M], Vienna: UNODC,2009, p. 49.
③ W. B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M], London: Routledge,2000, p.28.
① H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America:A Social History,1800-1980 [M], Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981, p.98.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.37,40.
① UNODC "A Century of International Drug Control", the World Drug Report 2008 [M], Vienna: UNODC,2009, p. 50.
② Bertil A. Renborg, International Drug Control [M], Washington D. C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1949, p.15ff.
③ Letter from C. H. Brent to H. Wright,24 June 1911, WP, entry 51.
④ William O. Walker Ⅲ,'An analytical overview', in Raphael F. Perl (ed.), Drugs and Foreign Policy: A Critical Review [M], Boulder: Westview Press,1994, pp.10-11.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.320.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 24-25.
③ H. Wright to C. H. Brent,29 October 1909, Papers of Wright, entry 33.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.40.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.25.
③ Special Message of the President:The Opium Traffic, Senate Doc. No.736,61st Cong.,3rd Sess.,11 Jan.1911, pp. 2,7.
④ Congress Record, Senate,48,62nd Cong.,7 Dec.1911, p.74.
⑤ Congress Record,49,63rd Cong.,3rd Sess,3 Dec.1912, pp.8,14.
① Arnold S. Trebach, The Heroin Solution [M], New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,1982, p.118.
② Robert H. Weibe, the Search for Order 1877-1920 [M], New York: Hill and Wang,1967, p.273.
③ Herbert L. May, "The international control of drugs" [J], International Conciliation 441,1948, p.323.
①指的是十月革命之后在欧美流行的布尔什维克主义对资本主义社会的威胁的恐惧—笔者按。
② Lloyd C. Gardner, Safe for Democracy [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1984, pp.258-260.
③ Joan Hoff-Wilson, American Business and Foreign Policy,1920-1933 [M], Lexington, KY:University of Kentucky Press,1971, pp. xiv-xvii.
④ Ursula P. Hubbard, the Cooperation of the U.S. with the League of Nations,1931-1936 [M], New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,1937, p.372.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 28-29.
② Rolleston Report, Ministry of Health, Departmental Committee on Morphine and Heroin Addiction [R], London: HMSO,1926, p.18.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.28.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.53.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease[M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.201-202.
② R.L. Buell, the International Opium Conference [M], Boston: World Peace Foundation,1925, p.100.
③ William O. Walker Ⅲ,& Lecture, Bernath:"Drug control and the issue of culture in American foreign relations" [J], Diplomatic History 12,1988, p.375; New York Times [N],3 June 1923.
④ W. W. Willoughby, Opium as an International Problem: The Geneva Conferences [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1925, p.147.
① Letter from Neville to Porter,13, Feb.1924, Prohibiting Importation, hearings on HR 7079, pp.42-43.
② William B. McAllister,'Conflicts of interest in the international drug control system' in Walker III, William O. (ed.), Drug Control Policy: Essays in Historical and Comparative Perspective [M], University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press,1992, p.146.
③ J. M. Scott, The White Poppy:The History of Opium [M], London: Heinemann,1969, p.146.
④ Brian Inglis, the Forbidden Game: A Social History of Drugs [M], London: Hodder and Stoughton,1975, pp.160-161.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 33-34.
② Ronald Hamowy (ed.), Dealing with Drugs: The Consequences of Government Control [M], Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,1987, p.60-61.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 35-36.
② H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History,1800-1980 [M], Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981, p.124.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.248.
④ Edward J. Epstein, Agency of Fear: Opiates and Political Power in American [M], London:Verso,1977, pp.23-31.
① John C. McWilliams, "Unsung partner against crime: Harry J. Anslinger and the FBN,1930-1962" [J], Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2,1988, p.210.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 39-40.
③ Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke University Press,1969, p.264.
① John C. Mc Williams, "Unsung partner against crime: Harry J. Anslinger and the FBN,1930-1962" [J], Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2,1988, p.48.
② Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2007, pp.82-84.
③ "Narcotics Policy-the Troubled 1920s and 1930s," Encyclopedia of the New American Nation [EB/OL] [12 Jan. 2011]:http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/E-N/Narcotics-Policy-The-troubled-1920s-and-1930s.html.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.42.
② Clayton Koppes, "The GNP and the nationalization of Mexican oil: a reinterpretation" [J], Journal of American History 79,1982, pp.80-81.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.43.
① William B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M], London and New York: Routledge,2000, p. 14.
① Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC:Duke University Press,1969, p.330.
①[美]泰勒·丹列特(Tyler Dennett),姚曾广译.美国人在东亚[M],北京；商务印书馆,1959年,pp.94-95.
② Jacques M. Downs, American Merchants and the China Opium Trade,1800-1840 [J], The Business History Review (Vol. XLII),1968, pp.418-442.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.2-3;不过,考特莱特认为,到20世纪40年代,鸦片烟才在美国得以根绝。参见：David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.6.
④傅有德.犹太教的弥赛亚观及其与基督教的分歧[J].世界宗教研究,1997年第2期.[EB/OL][13 Jan.2011]: http://www.sps.sdu.edu.cn/sps60/cms/attachment/071122132939.doc.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.10.
②有关北美清教徒文化对于美国外交政策的影响在王晓德先生的专著中有许多精辟的分析。参见：王晓德.美国对外关系史散论[M].北京：中华书局,2007年；美国文化与外交[M].天津：天津教育出版社,2008年.
③ Stanley Hoffama, Primacy or World Order: American Foreign Policy since the Cold War [M], New York:McGraw-Hill,1978, p.222.
④ Ernest van den Haag, The business of American foreign policy [J], Foreign Affairs 63,1985(1), p.113.
⑤ H. U. Faulkner, Politics, Reform, and Expansion,1890-1900 [M], New York: Haper and Row,1959, p.239.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Harward Univerxity Press,1999, p.310.
②约翰·韦斯罗普(1588-1649)早期美国殖民地时代的政治家及清教徒领袖。“山巅之城(city upon a hill)"等正是他留下的名言。[EB/OL] [10 Oct.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Winthrop#cite_ref-0.
② William O. Walker Ⅲ,'An analytical overview', in Raphael F. Perl (ed.), Drugs and Foreign Policy: A Critical Review [M], Boulder:Westview Press,1994, p.10.
③ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 [M], London: Fontana,1989, p.317.
① Philippine Tariff Revision Act,33 State Laws,944,3 March 1905.
② Letter from H. Wright to Jeremiah Jenks,18 March 1910, WP, entry 51.
① Kevin F. Ryan, "Globalizing the Problem: The United States and International Drug Control." Cited in Eric L. Jensen & Jurg Gerber (eds), The New War on Drugs: Symbolic Politics and Criminal Justice Policy [M], Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co. and the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences,1998, p.142.
② Letter from S. Potter to Secretary of State Charles E. Hughes,12 Feb.1923, printed in Limiting Producing of Habit-foming Narcotic Drugs and the Raw materials from which They are made:Report to Accompany HJR 453, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs,67 Cong.,4tn Sess.,22 Feb.1923, H. Rept.1678, pp.4-5.
③ H. K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of American to World Power [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956, p.197.
① Charles W. Kegley Jr.& Eugene R. Wittkopf, American Foreign Policy: Pattern and Process [M],4th edition, New York: Macmillan Education,1991, p.33.
② Karl Von Vorys, American National Interest: virtue and Power in Foreign Policy [M], Westport, CT: Praeger,1990, p.19.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.12.
④ Robert E. Osgood, Ideals and Self-Interest in America's Foreign Relations [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1953, cited in Charles W. Kegley Jr.,& Wittkopf, Eugene R., American Foreign Policy: Pattern and Process, 3rd edition, New York: Macmillan Education,1987, p.70.
① Ethan A. Nadelmann, Global prohibition regimes:the evolution of norms in international society [J], International organization 44,1990(4), p.503.
②因该体系的成员均为1961年通过并经1972年修订的联合国《麻醉品单一公约》的签约国而得名—笔者按。
① Letter from H. Wright to C. H. Brent,12 Nov.1909, WP, entry 33.
② Letter from H. Wright to Lloyd Bryan, The Hague,18 March 1913 & 31 May 1913, WP, entry 36.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.26.
④ David F. Musto, the American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.10.
① Robert Keel, Significant Events in the History of our Drug Laws [R], Soc.180 class of University of Missouri at Saint Louis.[EB/OL][10 Nov.2010]:http://www.umsl.edu/-rkeel/180/law.html.
② Prohibiting the Importation of Opium for the Manufacture of Heroin: Hearings on HR7079, House, Committee on Ways and Means,68th Cong.1st Sess.,3 April 1924, pp.41-43.
③ Jeffrey Wasserstrom, China and the U.S.:Too Big to Fail [J], Time, Thursday,4 Feb.,2010. [EB/OL][2010-02-11]: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1959001,00.html.
①LettetrfomnAslingertoeRginaldrWihtgKau加na,editorofhteBa馆orDaiylNe、’s19Mraeh一945,”Box3:File22.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999, p.5.
② E. G Eberle, "Chairman's Address, Minutes of the Section on Education and Legislation", Proc. APhA 50-559,1902.
③ Narcotic Education 2,1929, p.55.
④ "The Menace of the Drug Addict" [J], Current History, February 1925, p.743.
① John D. Buenker (eds.), Progressivism [M], Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publication Company,1986, Introduction.
②黄安年.二十世纪美国史[M].石家庄：河北人民出版社,1989年,第54页-77页.
①爱德华·罗斯.社会控制[M].北京：华夏出版社,1989年,译者序言,第59页.
②该法将先前通过的所有禁毒法及其执法活动统一于该法之下。[EB/OL][15 Oct.2004]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
①20世纪之初的美国立法、尤其是在道德层面上的立法内容可详细参照下列网页。[EB/OL][150ct.2010]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
② Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era,1910-1917 [M], New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1972, Introduction.
③ James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement,1900-1920 [M], Cambridge, MA.:Harvard University Press,1963, Contents.
④ Edward M. Brecher, licit & Illicit Drugs [M], Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.6.
⑤ K. Austin Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Salon League [M], New Haven: Yale University Press,1985, pp.55-56.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.65.
② H. H. Kane, Opium Smoking in America and China, New York,1882, cited in Charles E Terry & Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.73.
③ Anon., "The Opium Habit" [J] in Catholic World 33, September,1881, p.828.
④ John Witherspoon, "Oration on Medicine, A Protest Against Some of the Evils in the Profession of Medicine" [J], JAMA 34,1900, p.1591.
⑤ Paul Boyer, "Battling the saloon and Brothel: the great coercive crusades", in Allen F. Davis and Harold D. Woodman (eds.), Conflict and Consensus in Modern History [M], D.C. Heath,1992, p.264.
① Letter from HW to CHB,9 Feb.1910, WP, entry 31.
② H. H. Kane, Opium Smoking in America and China, New York,1882, cited in Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.73.
① Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.73.
② Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.45.
③ Laws of Pennsylvania of the Session of 1860, Act no.374, Title I, Section 70, "Selling Poisons", p.401; Ohio Laws: 1885-887, vol.82, p.49, passed 6 Feb.1885; Laws of Illinois, passed 1897, passed 11 June 1897, p.138.
④ Steven Wishnia, "Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory"[N], AlterNet, Drugs,21 Feb.2008. [EB/OL] [9 Oct. 2010]:http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/77339/?page=entire".
⑤查尔斯·特利同时也是美国早期毒品史巨著《鸦片问题(The Opium Problem)》的作者。1928年出版的该书是第一步系统介绍美国早期禁毒史的著作—笔者按。
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, pp.97-98.
② Public Acts of Tennessee,1913, Ch.11, pp.403-407.
③ Lucius P. Brown, "Enforcement of the Tennessee Anti-narcotic law", AJPH 5,1915, pp.323-333.
①Laws of New York, 1913,ch.470,pp.984-991.
②The Drug Evil and the Drug law[J],Monthly Bul. Dept.Health N.Y.City 9,1919,p.4.
③Editorially[N],New York Times,1 July 1914.
④Laws of New York, 1914,sect.249a,pp.1123-1124.
⑤Interpret Harrison Act[N],New York Times,6 June 1916.
① Stephen R. Kandall, Substance and the Shadow: A History of Women and Addiction in the United States [M], Ma.: Harvard University Press,1996, p.36.
① Annual Report, Michigan State Board of Health,1878, P.13.
② C. W. Earle, "The Opium Habit," Chicago Medical Review,1880, p.47.
③ J. M. Hull, The Opium Habit, Report of the State Board of Health, Iowa,1885, p.74,
④ C. W. Earle, op. cit,1880, p.47.
⑤ L. P. Brown, "Enforcement of the Tennessee Anti-Narcotic Law [J], American Journal of Public Health 5,1914, p. 71.
⑥Ibid, p. 76.
⑦ Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.17.
⑧ J. M. Hull, op. cit.,1885, p.17.
⑨ L. P. Brown, op. cit.,1914, p.76.
① J. M. Hull, The Opium Habit, Report of the State Board of Health, Iowa,1885, p.17.
② B. H. Hartwell, "The Sale and Use of Opium in Massachusetts," Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Massachusetts,20,1889, pp.137-156.
① Anon,"The Opium Habit" [J], Catholic World 33, September 1881, p.827.
② David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, p.1.
③ Ibid, p.3.
④“纽约市历史”[EB/OL][25 Feb.2011]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_York_City.
① David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp.1,110-111.
② Lawrence Kolb & A.G DuMez, The Prevalence and Trend of Drug Addiction in the United States and Factors Influencing It [R], Public Health Reports 39,1924, p.1203.
③ Phillip T. Smith, Drugs-Use and Sell [R], In International Association of Chiefs of Police, Proceedings of the 21st Annual Convention, Washington, D.C.:Byron S. Adams,1914, p.63.
④ Francis X. Dercum, Relative Infrequency of the Drug Habit among the Middle and Upper Classes: Treatment and Final Results [J], Pennsylvania Medical Journal 20,1917, p.362.
① W. A. Bloedorn. Studies of Drug Addiction [J], U.S. Naval Medical Bulletin 11.1917. pp.309-310.
② Charles E. Sceleth and Sidney Kuh, Drug Addiction [J], JAMA 82,1924, p.679.
③ David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.3.
④ W. Scheppegrell, "The Abuse and Dangers of Cocaine" [N], Med. News 73,1898, p.421.
⑤ J. W. Watson, New York Times [N],21 June 1903.
⑥ Literary Digest,28 March 1914, p.687.
⑦ The Chemist and Druggist 77,31 December 1910, p.44.
① Letter from H. Wright to C. H. Brian,29 Nov.1909. WP, entry 33.
② Letter from H. Wright to D. J. Foster,28 April 1910. WP, entry 51.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.41-42,317-318.
④ Letter from H. Wright to Charles B. Towns,21 April 1914. WP, entry 36.
① Importation and Use of Opium,31 May 1910, House,61st Cong.,2nd Sess., GPO,1910, p.503.
②“这项法案因为遭到制药行业以及那些认为它擅自扩大了联邦警察的权力而违宪之人群的反对而成废案。”(This bill Opposed by the pharmaceutical industry and by those who felt that it would be an unconstitutional expansion of federal police powers.) Drugs and the Whole Person [J], [EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]: http://drugsandwholeperson.tripod.com/id 15.html.
③ Special Message of the President: The Opium Traffic, Senate Doc. No.736,61st Cong.,3rd Sess.,11 Jan.1911, pp.2, 7.
④《哈里森法》使用了联邦征税权力；《大麻税法》模仿了国家火器管理税法；《综合性药物滥用与控制法》则沿用了1914年州际贸易管理法的扩充性权力—笔者按。
⑤ Importation and Use of Opium, Hearings before the House Committee on Ways and Means,11 Jan.1911,61st Cong., 3rd Sess. GPO,1911, PP.49,84.
① J. H. Beal, Editorial, JAPHA 2,1913, pp.737-740.
② Cong. Rec., House,50, pt.3,63rd Cong.,1st Sess.,26 June 1913, GPO,1913, pp.2191-2211.
③ Senate Finance Committee's "Registration of Persons Dealing in Opium," senate report no.258,18 Feb.1914,63rd Cong., and Sess. GPO,1914.
① Bertil A. Renoerg, International Drug Control [M], Washington D. C.:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1949,pp.15ff.
② International Opium Conference, The Hague, December 1,1911-January 23,1912. Summary of the minutes (unofficial)(The Hague: National Printing Office,1912, p.105.
③ Cong. Rec., Senate 50,21 April 1913,63rd Cong. Special Sess. p.265.
④ Second International opium Conference, Senate Doc., no.157,63rd Cong.,1st Sess. GPO,1913.
⑤ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.53.
①"The NDTC operated and its initial membership", JAPHA2,1913, pp. 238-239.
② Cong. Rec, House 50, pt3,26 June 1913,63rd Cong., 1st Sess. p. 2210.
③The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act. Public Law, No. 223,63rd Congress.
④Registration of Producers and Importers of OpiumfR], House Rept. No. 23? 24 June 1913,63rd Cong.,lst Sess. GPO,1913.
① More about the Harrison Bill [J], JAPhA 3,1914, pp.1-4.
② JAPhA 2,1913, pp.628-633.
③ Editorial, JAPhA 4,1914, pp.4-8.
④ The Atlanta Constitution,27 Dec.1914.
⑤ New York Times,2 February 1914.
⑥ Christopher Koch, Literary Digest,28 March 1914, p.687.
① E. H. Williams, New York Times,8 February 1914.
② Williams, E. H., Opiate Addiction:Its Handling and treatment [M], New York: Macmillan,1922, pp.247-249.
③《哈里森法》的详细内容可参照The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914), Public Law No.223,63rd Cong.;或者参阅毒品图书馆相关资料[EB/OL] [23 Oct.2010]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/e1910/harrisonact.htm.
①Lawrence Kolb, & A. G DuMez, The Prevalence and Trend of Drug Addiction in the United States and Factors Influencing It [R], Public Health Report 39, no. 21,1924, pp. 1200-1202.
② Steven R. Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America [M], Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000, p. 60.
③ Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York, London and Oxford: The Haworth Press, 2006, p. 19.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.29.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999, p.65.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, op. cit.,1999, p.26.
④ "Drug Law Timeline" [EB/OL] [24 Oct.20101: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm; Record of NAABT:A History of Opiate Laws in the United States [EB/OL] [4 Dec.2010]:http://www.naabt.org/laws.cfm.
①Arnold. H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939[M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1969, pp.302-305.
② Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.56.
③ Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition [M], New York: Norton,1976, p. 222.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.25.
②“毒品战争”始用于1968年尼克松参选总统时的竞选口号,后来泛指美国禁毒政策乃至于世界范围的反毒品斗争,如墨西哥的“毒品战争”等—笔者按。
③“零宽容政策”是以美国为代表的禁毒政策。除了美国之外,世界上实行“零宽容政策”的主要国家还有中国、瑞典、意大利、日本、新加波、印度以及俄罗斯等。[EB/OL][12 Dec.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_tolerance.
①Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition [MJ, New York: Norton, 1976, p. 223.
①L. F. Schmeckebier and F. A. Eble, the Bureau of Internal Revenue: Its History, Activities, and Organization [M],Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1923, pp. 42-43.
② U. S. Treasury Department, Bureau of Internal Revenue, Report of the Commissioner for the Fiscal year ending June30,1915, GPO, 1915, p. 147. (jJfc/gfl&f^ "BIR Annual Report" )
③ D. Crothers, Morphinism among Physicians [J], Med. Record 55,1899, pp. 784-786.
④Treasury Decision of 9 March 1915, TD 2172.
①Treasury Decision of 9 March 1915, TD 2172.
②Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York-& London & Oxford: The Haworth Press, 2006, p. 16.
①David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 129.
②U. S v. Jin Fuey Moy, 241 U. S. 394 (1916 ) [D], U. S. Supreme Court Decision of 1916.
③ Ibid.
①New YorkMed J. 104,1916, pp. 905-906.
②"Report of the Commissioner for the Fiscal year ending June 30,1916", BIR Annual Report.
①David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 62-63.
②"More about the Harrison Bill" [J], JAPhA 3,1914, pp. 1-4.
①Editorial of JAPhA 4,1914, pp. 4-8.
②"Protection against Dangerous Drugs" [I], JAMA 46, 1906, pp. 1208-1209.
③"Morphinism among Physicians ", Med. Record 55:784-786,1899, Garb, S., "Drug Addiction in Physicians",Anesthesia and Analgesia 48:128-133,1969.
⑤Hunt, Geoffrey & Sun, Anna X. D., "The Drug Treatment System in the United States: APanacea for the DrugWar?" [J], cited in Klingemann, Harald & hunt, Geoffrey, Drug Treatment System in an International Perspective [M],
① Provine, Doris M., Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.88.
② Cong. Red., House,52, pt.1,63rd Cong.,3rd Sess.,22 Dec.1914, pp.495-616; New York Times [N],2 Jan.1915; David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.66-67.
③ Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed march 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury:Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, pp.9-19.
①Letter from Asst. Surgeon General to H. L. Lee, 24 March 1915, PHSR.
②Letter from Blue to SG Daniel C. Roper, 28 July 1919, PHSR.
③Letter from Greenfield to Blue, 31 May 1919, PHSR.
④Letter from A. G Dumez to the Surgeon General, 14 June 1921, PHSR.
①Supreme Court of 1919, U. S. v. Doremus, 249 U. S. 86, No. 367; Also see Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York- London- Oxford: The Haworth Press, 2006. pp. 16-17.
① Supreme Court of 1919, Webb, et al. v. United States,240 U.S.96, No.370.
② Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York·London·Oxford: The Haworth Press,2006. p.17.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.350.
① "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1926,4 Dec.1924,68th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.472.
② "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong.,1st Sess., p.473.
③ L. F. Schmeckebier and F. A. Eble, The Bureau of International Revenue [M], Service Monograph of the U. S. Government, Institute for Government Research, Baltimore:Johns Hopins Press,1923, p.143.
④ "Hearings before House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.475.
① BIR Annual Report for Year ending 30 June 1917, p.16.
② Daniel Roper, Fifty Years of Public Life [M], Durham, N. C.:Duke University Press,1941, pp.185-190.
③ Letter from Carl Voegtlin to the Surgeon General PHS,1 Aug.1918, PHSR.
④“第一次赤色恐惧”(First Red Scare,1919年-1920年)是指发生于第一次世界大战之后因俄国十月革命而产生的美国国家安全危机感；”第二次赤色恐惧”(Second Red Scare,1947年-1957年)则发生于二战后极端反共的“麦卡锡主义”时代。[EB/OL][13 Nov.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Scare.
① Supreme Court of 1919, Debs. v. United States,211.
② Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study of National Hysteria,1919-1920 [M], Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1955, pp.196ff.
③ New York Times,27,30 May 1919.
①Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed march 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in NarcoticDrugs (GPO, 1919), pp. 19-22.
② A, G DuMez, "Some Facts Concerning Drug Addiction", 9 Dec. 1918, PHSR.
③Traffic in Narcotic Drugs, op. cit. 1919, pp. 19-22.
④Department of Health of the City of New York, Annual Report, 1919, p. 103.
⑤Alexander Lambert, "The underlying Cause of the Narcotic Habit"[J], Modern Med. 2,1920,
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999. p.371.
② "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1927,2 Dec.1925,69th Cong.,1st Sess., pp.38-39.
③ "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1928,18 Nov.1926,69th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.341.
④ "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1931,29 Nov.1929,71st Cong.,2nd Sess., p.345.
⑤ "The Struggle of Mankind against Its Deadliest Foe" [J], Narcotic Education 1,1928, pp.51-54.
① "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1931,29 Nov.1929,71st Cong.,2nd Sess., p.175.
② The American Legion Weekly,30 Nov.1923, pp.7-8,27-28.
③当时的一些学者如劳伦斯·科尔博及安德鲁·杜梅之等虽然支持执行《哈里森法》,但不认为吸毒成瘾已构成对国家的重大威胁-笔者按。
① Steven B. Duke and Albert C. Gross, America's Longest War: Rethinking Our Tragic Crusade against Drugs [M], New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,1993, p.83.
② Charles E. Terry, "Drug Additions, A Public Health Problem" [J], AJPH 4,1914, p.28.
①David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp.147, 184, 208,357.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control 1909-1997 [M], New York: Continuum,1999,P.31
①The Traffic in Habit-Forming Drugs: hearings on HJR195, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, 21 Feb. 1924,68th Cong., lstSess.p. 35.
② Limiting Production of Habit-forming Narcotic Drugs and the Raw Materials from Which They are Made: Report toAccompany HJR453, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, 67th Cong., 4th Sess., 21 Feb. 1923, H. Rept 1678, pp. 5-6.
③Establishment of Two Federal Narcotic Farms, p. 42, Musto, op. cit, 1999, pp. 205-206.
④ Bureau of Narcotics: Hearings on HR 10,561, House, Committee on Ways and Means, 7-8 March 1930, 71st Cong.,2nd Sess., p. 45.
① 170.5 Records of the Federal Narcotics Control Board" [EB/OL] [2 Feb.20111: http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.3.
② Bureau of Narcotics: Hearings on HR 10,561, House, Committee on Ways and Means,7-8 March 1930,71st Cong., 2nd Sess.,1930, p.57.
③安斯林格(Harry J.Anslinger,1892-1975),在出任FBN专员之前,曾任“麻醉品处”领导,1962年从专员任上卸职之后,出任联合国麻醉品委员会美国代表。安斯林格在1964年退休,1975年去世,享年83岁,被作家麦克威廉姆斯(John C. McWilliams)誉为美国的“保护者”(Protector)。有关安斯林格的具体内容可参见：McWilliams, John C., The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics,1930-1962 [M], Newark: University of Delaware Press,1990; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_J._Anslinger.
④DEA的相关内容参见[EB/OL][15 Dec.2010]:http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/history/1970-1975.pdf; http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.1.
①1919年宪法第18条修定成功,其内容为禁酒法的通过奠定了基础。1933年,为了废止此修正案而通过了第21条修正案。这是美国历史上唯一的为了禁止又为了废止某同一措施而进行的两次宪法修正措施[EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]:http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.htm.
② Arguments for and against Drug Prohibition [EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arguments_for_and_against_drug_prohibition#cite ref-79.
③美国宪法[EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]:http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.ht.
④从1789年实施到1992年为止的两百多年时间里,美国仅通过了27条修正案,其中还包括两条有关禁酒的修正案。可见其修正之难。宪法修正案所需条件参见同上“美国宪法[EB/OL]"的内容。
① David F. Musto, The American Disease[M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999,pp.9-10.
② A Memorandum by Dr. Reid Hunt of the PHS,2 Nov.1908, PHSR.
③ Cong. Rec.43,1 Feb.1909,60th Cong.,2nd Sess. P.1683.
① Letter from H. Wright to J. Remington,26 April 1910, WP, entry 51.
② Letter from H. Wright to Charles B. Towns,21 April 1914, WP, entry 36.
③ Supreme Court, Webb, et al. v. United States,249 U.S.96 of 1919.
④ Mai Ngai, Impossible Subjects:Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America [M], Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,2004, p.135.
⑤《国家火器法》(The National Firearms Act,略称为NFA),1934年6月26日通过。它规定了枪支弹药在生产与交易过程中纳税与登记的内容[EB/OL][15 Dec.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National Firearms Act of 1934.
⑤ "Marihuana Tax Act of 1937" [EB/OL] [11 Oct.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marihuana_Tax_Act_of_1937.
⑥ Public Law,91-513,84 United States Statutes at Large 1236, enacted 27 Oct.1970.
①有关州际商业贸易的联邦权力的详细内容可参见美国联邦贸易委员会网页内容,[EB/OL][22 Dec.2010]: http://so.hudong.com/s/doc/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E8%B4%B8%E6%98%93%E 5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A.
② Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs, And Pepe Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs [M], New York: Scribner,1996.
③ David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise:A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge and Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.2.
① Special Message of the President: The Opium Traffic, Senate Doc. No.736,61st Cong.,3rd Sess.,11 Jan.1911, pp. 2,7; Letter from H. Wright to Lloyd Bryce, Minister, The Hague,18 March 1913, WP, entry 36; Letter from H. Wright to W. J. Bryan,31 May 1913, WP, entry 36.
② Kevin F. Ryan, "Globalizing the Problem: The United States and International Drug Control", In The New War on Drugs: Symbolic Politics and Criminal Justice Policy [M], Eric L. Jensen and Jurg Gerber, ed., Cincinnati: Anderson, 1998, p.142.
① Hamilton Wright, Report on the International Opium and on the Opium Problem as Seen Within the United States and Its Possessions,61st Cong.,2nd sess., February 21.1910. S. Doc. P.45.
② John Helmer, Drugs and Minority Oppression [M], New York:Seabury,1975, pp.51-52.
③ H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in American:A Social History,1800-1880 [M], Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981, pp.8,16,18.
④ "Negro Cocaine 'Fiends' New Southern Menace" [N], New York Times, Sunday February 8,1914.
⑤ Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.74.
⑥ "Negro Cocaine Evil" [N],New York Times, March 20,1905.
① Hamilton Wright, Report on the International Opium and on the Opium Problem as Seen Within the United States and Its Possessions,61st Cong.,2nd sess., February 21.1910. S. Doc. p.48, pp.48-49.
② John Helmer, Drugs and Minority Oppression [M], New York: Seabury,1975, pp.51-52.
③ Martin Booth, Opium: A History [M], London: Simon & Schuster Ltd,1996, p.198.
① Steven Wishnia, "Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory", AlterNet, Drugs, Feb.21,2008[EB/OL], http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/77339/?page=entire".
② Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.82.
③ Richard J. Bonnie, & Charles H. Whitebread Ⅱ, The Marihuana Conviction: History of Marihuana Prohibition in the United States [M], Charlottesville:University Press of Virginia,1974, pp.43,71.
④ Mai Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America [M], Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2004, p.135.
⑤ New York Times. Sept.16,1934a; Oct.8,1934b; Oct.18,1934c; Oct.19,1934d; Oct.20,1934e; Dec.9,1934f; Dec.10, 1934g;Dec.1l,1934h.
① Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.86.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.295.
① Robert C. Lieberman, Ideas, Institutions, and Political Order: Explaining Political Change [J], American Political Science Review,96,2002, pp.697-712.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.75-76.
② Charles E. Terry, Drug Addiction, a Public Health Problem [J], AJPHA 4,1914, pp.28-29.
③ Daniel C. Roper, Fifty Years of Public Life [M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1941, p.185.
①.Alfred R. Lindesmith, Addiction and Opiates [M], Chicago:Aldine,1968, p.207.
②资料源自英文版维基百科之罂粟内容[EB/OL] [24 Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papaver_somniferum.
③资料源自英文版维基百科全书之大麻内容[EB/OL][24 Dec.2010]:http://en.wtkipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug).
①资料源自英文版维基百科之海洛因内容[EB/OL][5 Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin.
② Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Committee on Drug Addictions, Bureau of Social Hygiene, Inc.,1928, pp.50-51.
③ William Hammond, Dr. Hammond's Remarks on Coca [J], Trans. Med. Soc. Virginia,1887, p.213.
④ H. E. Sigerist, Laudanum in the Works of Paracelsus [J], Bull. Hist. Med.9:1941, p.530-544.
⑤ Jonathan Pareira, The Elements ofMateria Medica and Therapeutics [M],3rd American ed., edited by Joseph Carson,2 vols. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea,1854(2), pp.1039-1046 passim.
① George B. Wood, A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology or Materia Medica [M],3rd ed.,2 vols, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1868 (1), pp.712-713.
② Ibid, p.761.
③ George B. Wood, A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology or Materia Medica [M],3rd ed.,2 vols, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1868 (1), p.762.
④ Ernest Drucker, "From morphine to Methadone: Maintenance Drugs in the Treatment of Opiate Addiction" [EB/OL][5 May 2010], http://www.drugtext.org/index.php/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
① John Jones, The Mysteries of Opium Revealed [M], London: Richard Smith,1700, d.32.
② Samuel Crumpe, An Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium [M], London: G..G. and J. Robinson,1793, p. 177.
③ Jonathan Pareira, The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics [M],3rd American ed., edited by Joseph Carson,2 vols. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea,1854(2), p.1039.
① George B. Wood, A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology or Materia Medica[M],3rd ed.,2 vols, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1868(1), pp.725-728.
② Clifford Allbutt, On the Abuse of Hypodermic Injections of Morphine [J], Practitioner 3,1870, p.327.
③ Edward Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia [M], Trans, by C. Harrer, London: Elder Smith,1878, pp.6ff.
④ Doris Marie Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs[M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, pp.65-66.
① J. Townley Crane, "Drugs as an Indulgence" [J], Methodist Quarterly Review 40,1858, p.562.
② A. Jaffe, Reform in American Medical Science: The Inebriety Movement and the Origins of the Psychological Disease Theory of Addiction,1870-1920 [J], British Journal ofAddiction 73,1978, pp.139-147.
③ Norman Dain, Concepts of Insanity in the United States,1789-1865 [M], New Brunswick and N.J.:Rutgers University Press,1964, p. 111
④ George M. Beard, Stimulants and Narcotics; Medically, Philosophically, and Morally Considered [M], New York: G P. Putnam & Sons,1871, pp.19-20.
⑤ T. D. Crothers, Morphinism and Narcomanias from Other Drugs: Their Etiology, Treatment, and Medicolegal Relations [M], Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders & Co.,1902, pp.48-49,64; Sterne, Albert E., Have Drug Addictions a Pathological Basis? [J], JAMA 44,1905, pp.609-612.
① Barbara Sicherman, The Uses of a Diagnosis: Doctors, Patients and Neurasthenia, in Sickness and Health in America; Reading in the History of medicine and Public Health, Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds. Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,1978, p.27.
② J. D. Roberts, Opium Habit in the Negro [J], North Carolina Medical Journal 15,1885, p.207.
③ P. Sollier, La Demorphinisation. Mecanisme Physiologique. Consequences au point de vue therapeutique [J], Presse Med.,23 April 1898, vol.1, no.34, pp.210-202, see abstract in Journal of Inebriety 20,1898, pp.436-440.
④ E. S. Faust, Uber die ursachen der Gewohnung an Morphin [J], Arch. Exper. Path. Pharmakol.44,1900, pp.217-238.
⑤ M. Cloetta, Uber das Verhalten des Morphins im Organismus und die Ursachen der Angewohnung an Dasselbe [J], Arch. Exper. Path. Pharmakol.50,1903, pp.453-480.
① Edward Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia [M], Trans, by C. Harrer, London:Elder Smith,1878, pp.6ff.
② Ernest S. Bishop, Some Fundamental Considerations of the Problem of Drug Addiction [J], American Med.21,1915, pp.807-816.
③ Jonathan Pareira, The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics [M],3rd American ed., edited by Joseph Carson,2 vols. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea,1854(2), p.1039.
④ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.75.
① The Opium Habit [J], Catholic World 33, September 1881, p.827.
② F. X. Dercum, Relative Infrequency of Drug Habit [J], Penna. Med. J.20,1917, pp.362-367.
③ Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.7.
④ Charles B. Towns, Drugs and Alcohol Sickness [M], New York: M. M. Barbour,1932, pp.15-16.
① C. P. Pearson, The Treatment of Morphinism [J], Med. Times 42,1914, p.246.
② Narcotic Method of Treating Morphinism [J], Med. Record 74,1908, pp.404-405.
③ Charles B. Towns, The Physician's Guide for the Treatment of the Drug Habit and Alcoholism [M], n. p., n. d.1914, p.7.
④ Edward Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia [M], Trans, by C. Harrer, London: Elder Smith,1878, pp.6ff.
⑤ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.89.
① Charles E. Terry, Narcotic Drug Addiction and Rational Administration [J], American Medicine 26,1915, pp.30,31.
② Charles E. Terry, Some Recent Experiments in Narcotic Control [J], American Journal of public Health 11,1921, p.41.
③ Willis P. Butler, How One American City is Meeting the Public Health Problems of Narcotic Drug Addiction [J], American Medicine 28,1922, p.159.
① Ernest S. Bishop, "Narcotic Addiction-A Systemic Disease Condition" [J], JAMA 60,1913, pp.431-434.
② Ernest S. Bishop, "An Analysis of Narcotic Drug Addiction" [J], New York Med.J.101,1915, pp.399-403.
③ Ernest S. Bishop, "Some Fundamental Considerations of the Problem of Drug Addiction" [J], Amer. Med.21,1915, pp.807-816.
④ Ernest S. Bishop, The Narcotic Drug Problem [M], New York: MacMillan Co.,1920, esp. p.35-49; also see David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp. 128-129.
⑤ Charles E. Terry, "Narcotic Drug Addiction and Rational Administration" [J], American Medicine 26,1915, pp.32, 489-490.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.335-336, esp. note 40.
① Report of the Committee on the Narcotic Drug Situation in the United States [J], JAMA 74,1920, pp.1326-1328.
① Lawrence Kolb, Pleasure and Deterioration from Narcotic Addiction [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, p.723.
② Lawrence Kolb, Drug Addiction: A Study of Some of Medical Cases [J], Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 20, 1928, p.174.
③ Lawrence Kolb, The Relation of Intelligence to the Etiology of Drug Addiction [J], American Journal of Psychiatry, n.s.5,1925, pp.163-167.
④ Lawrence Kolb, The Opium Addict and His Treatment [J], Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 40,1938, p.5.
⑤ Lawrence Kolb, Drug Addiction in Its Relation to Crime [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.74-89; Pleasure and Deterioration from Narcotic Addiction [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.699-744;Types and Characteristics of Drug Addicts [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.300-313.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.338.
② Lawrence Kolb and Ossenfort, W. F., The Treatment of Drug Addicts at the Lexington Hospital [J], Southern Medical Journal 31,1938, pp.914,917.
③ Lawrence Kolb, Drug Addiction: A Medical Problem [M], Springfield, Ⅲ.:Charles C. Thomas,1962, p.169.
④ Lawrence C. Kolb, Drug Addiction:A Statement before a Committee of the United States Senate [J], Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine,41,1965, pp.306-309.
⑤ Robert H. Felix, Lawrence Kolb,1881-1972 [J], American Journal of Psychiatry 130,1973, pp.718-719.
① A. Jaffe, "Reform in American Medical Science: The Inebriety Movement and the Origins of the Psychological disease theory of Addiction,1870-1920" [J], British Journal of Addiction 73,1978, pp.240-242.
② David. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England:Harvard University Press, 2001, p.132.
③ Report of the Mayor's Committee on Drug Addiction [J], Medical Hygiene 9,1925, p.723.
④ M. J. Pescor, "Prognosis in Drug Addiction" [J], American journal Psychiat 97,1941, pp.1419-1433.
①G.H. Hunt & M. E. Odoroff, "Fallow-up Study of Narcotic Drug Addicts after Hospitalization" [J], Public Health Reports 77,1962, pp.41-54.
② R. M. Glasscote & J. Jaffe (et al.), The treatment of Drug Abuse: Programs, Problems and Prospects [M], Washington, D. C.: Joint Information Service of the American Psychiatric Association and the National Association for Mental Health,1972, p. xi.
③ William Osler & T. McCrae (eds.), Modern Medicine [M],2nd rev.2 vols. cha.2, Philadelphia:Lea and Febiger, 1914, p.499.
④ E. J. Pellini, N. Y. State Journal Medicine 20,1920, p.119.
① E. J. Pellini, "Report of the Special Committee on Public Health of the Greater City of New York to the House of Delegates of the New York State Medical Society", N. Y. State J. Med.20,1920, p.117.
① David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp.3,113.
② W. A. Bloedom, Studies of Drug Addiction [J], U.S. Naval Medical Bulletin 11,1917, pp.309-310.
③ Charles E. Sceleth & Sidney Kuh, Drug Addiction [J], JAMA 82,1924, p.679.
④ Charles E. Terry, Some Recent Experiments in Narcotic Control [J], American Journal of public Health 11,1921, p. 33.
① Jill Jonnes, The Rise of the Modern Addict [J], American Journal of Public Health,1995,85:p.1158.
② Ernest S. Bishop, "Narcotic Addiction-A Systemic Disease Condition"[J], JAMA 60,1913, pp.431-434.
① David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp.3-4.
② Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor [M], New York:Farrar, Straus & Giroux,1978, p.28.
① Philippine Commission Eighth Annual Report,1907, Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept. GPO,1907, part 2, p.18.
② Philippine Commission Eighth Annual Report,1909, Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept. GPO,1909, p.102.
③ Arnold H. Taylor,, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1969, pp.43-45.
④详细内容可见本文的第八章内容—笔者按。
④ Hamilton Wright,9 January 1908, WP, entry 51.
① Letter from C. B. Towns to H. Wright,13 June 1911. WP, entry 36.
② Samuel Merwin, Fighting the Deadly Habits: The Story of Charles B. Towns [J], American Magazine, Oct.1912, pp. 707-717.
③ Ernest Drucker, From Morphine to Methadone [EB/OL] [30 Dec.2011]:http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
① Ibid.
② New York Times,23 March 1919, cited in Musto, op. cit.,1999, p.140.
③ Exportation of Opium, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Ways and Means on HR 14,500, House, 67th Cong.,3rd. Sess.,8 and 11 Dec.1920 and 3 and Jan.1921 [GPO,1921], p.47.
④ Laws of Massachusetts, Ch.694, sect.2, Acts of 1914.
⑤ Laws of Pennsylvania, Act no.282, sect.8, approved 11 July 1917.
⑥ J. A. Cutter, Medical Economics of the Boylan Law [J], Medical Economist 2,1914, p.296.
① Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed March 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, pp.3,9-15
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p. 139.
① Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed March 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, pp.19-22.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.139.
③ President's Home Commission [D], Senate Doc., no.644,60th Cong.,2nd Sess.,8 Jan.1909, p.258.
④ France Bill,66th Cong.,1st Sess., S 2785 on 15 Aug.1919.
① Letter from D. C. Roper to Sectary of Treasury,15 July 1919. PHSR.
② Charles E.Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.887.
③ A. G. DuMez, Some Facts Concerning Drug Addiction [R], Memorandum dated 9 Dec.1918, sent to the Surgeon General from the Hygienic Laboratory,16 Dec.1918. PHSR.
①罗波的个人简历参见Roper, Daniel C. [EB/OL] [31Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper.
② Daniel C. Roper, Fifty Years of Public Life [M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1941, pp.186,189-193.
③这是国税局在1921年4月30日时的统计数字。参见：Letter from O.G. Forrer, Assistant Director, Narcotic Field Force, to L. g. Nutt, Director,30 April 1921, RPU。如果计算到1925年为止以及算上国税局无法把握的诊所,其数量则可能更多。
①格令(grain)为衡量中的最小单位,可略写为gr.,每格令相当于0.0648克—笔者按。
② New York Times [N],12 & 13 April 1919.
③ Letter from R. S. Copeland to Thomas Cooper, Treasury Department, BIR,16 Oct.1919.
④ S. D. Hubbard, "New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction"[J], Monthly Bull. Depart of Health N. Y. City 10,1920, pp.46-47,40.
① T. F. Joyce, "Denarcotizing the Addict" [J], Monthly Bull. Department Health N. Y. City, June 1921, pp.132-136.
② S. D. Hubbard, "New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction"[J], Monthly Bull. Depart of Health N. Y. City 10,1920, pp.46-47.
③罗波于1917年9月26日-1920年3月31日任职于国税局专员。其后任为威廉·威廉姆斯(William M. Williams,1920年4月1日-1921年4月11日)。[EB/OL] [2 Jan.2011]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_of_Internal_Revenue.
① Lambert, Alexander, The Underlying Causes of the Narcotic Habit [J], Modern Med.1,1920, p.8.
② S. D. Hubbard, New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction [J], Monthly Bull. Depart of Health N. Y. City 10,1920, pp.34,42,44.
③ S. D. Hubbard, Some Fallacies Regarding Narcotic Drug Addiction [J]. JAMA 74,1920, pp.1440-1441.
④ S. D. Hubbard, Some Fallacies Regarding Narcotic Drug Addiction [J], JAMA 74,1920, pp.1439-1441; Municipal Narcotic Dispensaries [J], Public Health Reports 35,26 March 1920, pp.771-773.
① A. R. Braulich, Treatment of Drug Addiction at Riverside Hospital [J], Monthly Bull. Dept. Health N. Y. City, Feb. 1920, pp.47-49; T. F. Joyce, The Treatment of Drug Addictions [J], Weekly Bull, Dept. Health N. Y. City,9 Oct.1920, pp.322-324.
② Department of health, City of New York, Annual Report,1920, p.257.
③ T. F. Joyce, Denarcotizing the Addict [J], Monthly Bull. Dept. health N. Y. City, June 1921, p.136.
① A. G DuMez, Treatment of Drug Addiction [R], Memorandum to the Surgeon General,28 Feb.1919, PHSR.
② Letter from Dr. J. C. Perry to Dr. Oscar Dowling,29 Nov.1920. PHSR.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.179.
④ Letter from L. V. Nutt to Prohibition Commissioner John F. Kramer,5 May 1920, RPU.
① Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed March 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, p.3.
① Pearce Bailey, The Drug Habit in the United States [J], New Republic,16 March 1921, pp.67-69.
② T. F. Joyce, Denarcotizing the Addict [J], Monthly Bull. Department Health N. Y. City, June 1921, p.133..
③ Letter from Levi G. Nutt to John F. Kramer,5 May 1920, RPU.
④ U. S. Treasury Dept., Bureau of Internal Revenue, Amending M-Mim 2212 dated 31 July 1919 and Outlining Treatment of Narcotic Drug Addiction Permissible under the Harrison Narcotic Law, Pro-Mimeograph, pro., no.217, 19 Oct.1921, GPO,1921.
⑤ Hearings before House Appropriation Committee, Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong., 2nd Sess., p.475.
① Hearings before House Appropriation committee [R], Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.475.
② Albert S. Gregg, United Stated narcotic Farms [J], Narcotic Education 2,1928, pp.9-10.
③ Cong., Rec, Home,69, pt.9,70th Cong.,1st Sess.,21 May 1928, pp.9412-13.
④ Federal Narcotic Farm [J], California and Western Medicine, Vol.42, No.3, March 1935, pp.228-229.
⑤ Federal Medical Center, Lexington [EB/OL], [4 Jan.2011]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Medical_Center,_Lexington；此外,有关“列克星敦麻醉品农场”相关的历史、相片以及杂志等内容可详细参见：Campbell, Nancy D.& Olsen, JP & Walden, Luke, The Narcotic Farm [M], New York: Abrams,2008.
① Hunt, G. H. and Odoroff, M. E., "Follow-up Study of Narcotic Drug Addicts after Hospitalization"[J], Public Health Repots 77,1962, pp.41-54.
② Campbell, Nancy D.& Olsen, JP & Walden, Luke, The Narcotic Farm [M], New York: Abrams,2008, Cover page.
① Exportation of Opium, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Ways and Means on HR 14,500, House, 66th Cong.,3rd Sess.,8 and 11 Dec.1920 and 3 and 4 Jan.1921, GPO,1921, pp.105,108,133.
② Lawrence Kolb, Pleasure and Deterioration from Narcotic Addiction [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.699-724.
③ Editorial, JAMA 60,1913, p.1364.
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19.美国第一项地方禁止大麻非医学使用的法律：[EB/OL][16 Jan.2011] http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
20.美国宪法：[EB/OL][11 Sep.2010] http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.htm.
21. This bill "Opposed by the pharmaceutical industry and by those who felt that it would be an unconstitutional expansion of federal police powers." "Drugs and the Whole Person":[EB/OL] [12 Jan. 2010] http://drugsandwholeperson.tripod.com/idl5.html.
22. The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914):[EB/OL] [23 Oct.2010] http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/e 1910/harrisonact.htm.
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29. http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/history/1970-1975.pdf
30. http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.1
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36.州际商业贸易的联邦权力：[EB/OL][25 Dec.2010] http://tupian.hudong.com/a0_70_29_01300000802987128144292466568_jpg.html?prd=zhengwenye_left_neirong_tupian
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49.嬉皮士(Hippie or hippy):[EB/OL] [27 Jan.2011] http://baike.baidu.com/view/61912.htm#5.
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51. "Drug Law Timeline":[EB/OL] [3 Feb.2011] http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
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53. Drugker, E., From Morphine to Methadone:[EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011] http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
54. Keel, Robert, "Significant Events in the History of our Drug Laws", Soc.180 class of University of Missouri at Saint Louis:[EB/OL] [2 Jan.2011] http://www.umsl.edu/～rkeel/180/law.html.
②F. Zimring and G Hawkins, The Search for Rational Drug Control [M], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, pp. 31-32.
③ William B. Mcallister, Drug diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History [M], London: Routledge, 2000, 2000,p. xv.
①详细参见“毒品常识”[EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011]:http://www.china.com.cn/law/zhuanti/yldp/2007-06/02/content 8332091.htm.
② Ibid.
③冰毒即兴奋剂甲基苯丙胺(Dim ethyl amphetamine),因其原料外观为纯白结晶体而被称为冰(Ice),故称“冰毒”[EB/OL][2 Feb.2011]:http://baike.baidu.com/view/9867.html?fromTaglist.
④摇头丸即冰毒的衍生物,以MDMA等苯丙胺类兴奋剂为主要成分,具有兴奋与幻觉两种作用。外观多呈五颜六色的片剂,使用后可随着音乐而出现长时间的头部摇摆现象而被称为“摇头丸”[EB/OL][2 Feb.2011]: http://baike.baidu.com/view/26889.htm.
⑤ Dwight B. Heather, cited in Schaler, Jeffrey A., Drugs [M], New York: Prometheus Books,1998, p.139.
①David R. Bewlay-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control, 19O9-1997\M\, London & New York: Continuum, 2001, p. 12.
②William B. Mcallister, Drug diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History [M], London: Routledge, 2000, p. xvii.
① F. Zimring and G. Hawkins, The Search for Rational Drug Control [M], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.32.
②“公安部、卫生部第115号令”[EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011]: http://vip.chinalawinfo.com/newlaw2002/slc/slc.asp?db=chl&gid=144951.
③ Dole, V. P.& Nyswander, M. E., Heroin Addiction-A metabolic Disease [J], New York: Arch Intern Med., vol.120, July 1967.
① E. Drugker, From Morphine to Methadone [EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011]:http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
② David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opaite Addiction in America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.7.
①王晓德.美国对外关系史散论[M].北京；中华书局,2007年,第29页。
① Geoffrey Hunt & Anna Xiao Dong Sun, The Drug Treatment System in the United States: A Panacea for the Drug War?. Cited Klingemann, Harald & Hunt, Geoffrey, Drug Treatment System in an International perspective [M], SAGE Publications, Thousand oaks.California,1998, p.6.
② Chanles E. Terry & Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M]. N.Y. Committee on Drug Addictions, Burear of Social Hygiene, Inc.,1928.
①在早期吸毒人群中,尤其是大量的女性吸毒者中,因医学知识缺乏而导致的被动吸毒成瘾现象屡见不鲜。与战后“反主流文化“中所出现的以康乐型吸毒为主的年轻吸毒者相比,早期的吸毒者中,中老年人口居多的现象也是前后两个时代所存在的不同之处—笔者按。
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York; Oxford University Press,1999.
③ Edward M. Brecher et al. Licit and Illicit Drug [M], Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1972.
① Edward M. Brecher et al. Licit and Illicit Drug [M], Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1972, pp.521-539.
② Arnold H. Taylor, American diplomacy and the narcotics traffic,1900-1939 [M] Durham: Duke University Press, 1969.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor. The United States and international drug control,1909-1997, New York: continuum,2001.
②哈里·安斯林格(1892.5.20-1975.11.14),美国禁毒体制的奠基者之一。“联邦麻醉品管理局”(FBN=Federal Bureau of Narcotics)第一任专员。
② David R. Bewley-Taylor. op. cit.,2001, pp.47-48.
①Nancy D. Campbell, et al. The Narcotic Farm t The Rise and Fall of America s First Prison for Drug Addicts [M],New York: Abrams, 2008.
②Harald Klingemann & GeoHrey Hunt, Drug Treatment System in an International perspective. [M], California:SAGE Publieations,1998.
①罗运炎.毒品问题(上、下)[M].上海：商务出版社,1936年版.
②刘心武.美国吸毒成因论[j].美国研究参考资料,1985年第五期；戴增义.美国毒品问题面面[J].同上期刊,1987年第一期.
③秦斌详.美国毒品问题[J].同上期刊,1990年第五期.
④万心慧.美国的吸毒、贩毒、制毒、禁毒与缉毒[J].九江师专学报,1997年第一期.
⑤高英东.美国的毒品问题及禁毒政策[J].社会,1998年第十期；美国毒品问题初探[J].美国研究,1998年第四期；美国文化与毒品泛滥[J].社会,2001年第二期.
⑥刘永涛.当代美国社会[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2001年版；赵翔等.毒品问题研究—从全球视角看贵州毒品问题[M].北京：人民公安大学出版社,2005年版；金伟峰等.禁毒法律制度研究[J].杭州：浙江大学出版社,2009年版.
⑦瞿帆.《哈里森法》与美国社会的毒品问题[J].鞍山师范学院学报,2000年第二期；美国国会在对外禁毒活动中的作用[J].南开学报,2000年第三期；20世纪美国毒品政策的演变[D].南开大学历史研究所,2000年博士论文.
①张勇安.埃里克·古德：《政治与理性之间：毒品合法化之争》[J].中国学术,2003年第十五期；试析布什政府的毒品管制战略[J].美国研究(季刊),2004年第二期；《美国毒品和毒品政策文献史》述评[J].世界历史,2004年第三期；20世纪美国毒品政策史的多视角解读[J].美国研究(季刊),2004年第四期；美国大麻政策研究[D].复旦大学.2004年博士论文；美国州与大麻管制‘联邦化’的形成[J].史学月刊,2005年第四期；美国大麻政策史研究：文献的整理与批评[J].历史研究,2006年第一期；变动社会中政策选择：美国大麻政策研究[M].上海：东方出版中心,2009年版.
②在可查的台湾硕博论文中,相关问题的研究成果分别有：赵瑞.美国青少年药物犯罪问题之研究[D].淡江大学美国研究所,1988年硕士论文；黄乃琦.美国药物(毒品)滥用之危机处理—美国药物政策之探讨[D].淡江大学美国研究所,1988年硕士论文.
③ Thomas C. Rowe. Federal narcotics laws and the war on drugs:money down a rat hole [M]. New York: The Haworth Press,2006.
① Doris M. Provine. Unequal under the law: race in the war on drug [M], Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007.
② Steven R. Belenko, ed.. Drug and Drug Policy in America:A Documentary History [M], Greenwood Press,2000.
①David R, Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control 1909-1997 [M], New York: Continuum,1999,p.4
①Ethan A. Nadelmann, 'Global prohibition regimes: the evolution of norms in international society' [J], International ogranziation 44,(4)1990,P.503.
① Robert Keel, Drug Law Timeline, University of Missouri at Saint Louis, Originally prepared for his Soc.180 class [EB/OL][2 Jan.2011]:http://www.umsl.edu/-keelr/180/law.html.
①王晓德.美国对外关系史散论[M].北京：中华书局,2007年,第21页.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor. The United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.48.
③ Letter from Anslinger to Reginald Wright Kaufman, editor of the Bangor Daily News, [N] 19 March 1945, AP Box 3: File 22.
①Alfred R. Lindesmith. Addiction and Opiates [Ml. Chicago: Aldine. 1968. D. 207.
① K. McMahon, The fall of the God of Money: Opium Smoking in Nineteenth-Century China [M], New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc.,2002, p.36.
② D. Owen, British Opium Policy in China and India [M], New Haven: Yale University Press,1934, p.52.
③ W. B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M] London: Routledge,2000, p.13.
④ Carl A. Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy:A Study of the Asian Opium Trade [M], New York & London: Routledge,1999, p.3.
⑤陈胜粦.清末新政时期的禁烟运动[J].历史研究,1990年4期.转摘自王宏斌.禁毒史鉴[M],长沙：岳麓书社,1997,第一页(序).
① J. D. Spence, Chinese Roundabout: Essays in History and Culture [M], New York: Norton,1992, p.119.
② E. M. Brecher, Licit & Illicit Drugs [M], Boston:Little Brown and Company,1972, p.5.
③ W. Dodd, The Factory System Illustrated (1842), p.149, cited in Thompson, E. P., The Making of the English Working Class [M], New York: Vintage Books,1963, p.328.
④ "Report by Dr. Hunter, Henry Julian on the Excessive Mortality of Infants in Some Rural Districts of England," Public Health,1864, p.459.
⑤ K. Marx, Capital I [M], p.399, cited in E. M. Brecher, op. cit.,1972, p.5.
① Medical Times and Gazette 2, July 19,1873, p.73.
② C. F. Brockington, Public Health in the Nineteenth Century [M], London:E.& S. Livingstone, Ltd.,1965, pp.225-226.
① Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs, And Pepe Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs [M], New York: Scribner,1996, Contents.
② David F. Musto, "Opium, Cocaine, and Marijuana in American History" [J], Scientific American 265, no.l,1991, cited in Jeffrey A. Schaller, Drugs [M], New York: Prometheus Books,1998, p.17.
③ Steven B. Duke & Albert C. Gross, America's Longest War: Rethinking Our Tragic Crusade against Drugs [M], New York: GP. Putnam's Sons,1993, pp.78-102.
④本文采纳的观点是：《哈里森法》颁布前的19世纪末至20世纪初乃是美国毒品泛滥的第一个时期—笔者按。
⑤“医源性的麻醉品成瘾者”指的是那些最初因疾病而接受医生的麻醉品处方并因此而致成瘾的人群；而“非医源性成瘾者”则指那些与疾病无关、以康乐性享用麻醉品为目的而导致成瘾的人群—笔者按。
⑥E. M. Brecher, Licit & Illicit Drugs [M], Boston:Little Brown and Company,1972, p.3.
①David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts:Harvard University Press, 2001, p. 9.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 5.
③ Stephen R. Kandall, Substance and the Shadow: A History of Women and Addiction in the United States [M], NewYork: Harvard University Press, 1996. p. 36.
④ Hamilton Wright, "Report on the International Opium Commission and on the Opium Problem as Seen within theUnited States and Its Possessions," contained in Opium Problem: Message from the President of the United States,Senate Doc. no. 377,61st Cong., 22nd Sess., 21 Feb. 1910, p. 47.
⑤ David F. Musto, op. cit, 1991, p. 20.
① Hubert S. Howe, "A Physician's Blueprint for the Management and Prevention of Narcotic Addiction" [J], New York State Journal of Medicine,55, February 1,1955, pp.341-348.
② Virgil G Eaton, "How the Opium Habit Is Acquired" [J], Popular Science Monthly 33,1888, p.666.
③ Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Committee on Drug Addictions, Bureau of Social Hygiene, Inc.,1928, p.6.
④ Ibid, pp.6,18.
① Alonzo Calkins, Opium and the Opium Appetite [Ml, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1871. p.6.
② Charles B. Towns,'"The Peril of the Drug Habit" [J], Century Magazine 84,1912, pp.580-587.
③ Proceedings, American Pharmaceutical Association 13,1865, p.51.
④ Perry M. Lichtenstein,"'Thirteen years' Observation on Drug Addiction at the Tombs Prison" [J], Narcotic Education, ed. H. s. Middlerniss, Proceedings of the First World Conference on Narcotic Education, July 5-9,1926, Philadelphia (Washinton, D. C.,1926), p.123.
① Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Massachusetts,1871, p.7.
② D. M. R. Culbrith, Materia Medica and Pharmacology,3rd ed (1903), cited in Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellense, op. cit.,1928, p.7.
③ "Opium Poppy Control Act of 1942", Public Law 797,77th Cong., approved 11 Dec.1942.
④ Doris Marie Provine, Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, pp.65-66.
⑤ "The Opium Habit" [J], Catholic World 33, September,1881, p.829.
① "The Opium Habit" [J], Catholic World 33, September 1881, p.828.
②本节参考了李庆余先生的“评述关于美西战争的两次论战”一文的部分内容：南京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),1986年第二期.
③胡立利,刘辉等.中国—世界最后一个超级大国[N].联合早报(电子版)[EB/OL][2010-6-5]: http://www.zaobao.com/forum/pages2/forum_us.100.605a.shtml.
①缅因舰(Maine)是美国早期的大型战列舰。1898年2月15日,为保护美国在古巴的侨民而停泊在哈瓦那港外时突然发生爆炸沉没,造成二百多人死亡。美国以此为借口向西班牙宣战。爆炸原因至今还是一个谜。一说是由于燃煤导致舰内弹药库爆炸—笔者按。
② "Official Report of the Naval Court of Inquiry into the loss of the Battleship MAINE (Sampson Board)", Spanamwar.com.22 March 1898. [22 September 2010]参见：http://www.spanamwar.com/mainerpt.htm.
③杨生茂等.美西战争资料选辑[M].北京：人民出版社,1981年版；李庆余.美西战争[M],北京；商务印书馆,1984年版.
①杨生茂等.美西战争资料选辑,同上。
②李庆余.评述关于美西战争的两次论战[J].南京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),1986年第二期.
③ Walter Millis, The Martial Spirit [M], Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1931, p.148.
④ Marcus M. Wilkerson, Public Opinion and the Spanish-American War, A Study in War Propaganda [M], Baton Rouge: Louisiana State university Press,1932.
① Joseph Ezra Wisan, The Cuban as Reflected in the New York Press.1895-1898[M]. New York: Columbia University Press,1934.
② Julius W. Pratt, "the 'large policy' of 1898" [J], The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, Sep.1932, p.237.
③ Julius W. Pratt, "American Business and the Spanish-American War" [J], Hispanic American Historical review ⅹⅳ, 1934, p.164;.also see, Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898 [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press,1936, pp.234—243.
④ Julius W. Pratt, op. cit.,1932, p.238.
⑤ Ibid, p.242.
① Philip S. Foner, the Anti-Imperialist Reader [M], New York: Holmes and Meier Publishers,1984, vol.1, Introduction, p. ⅹⅹⅲ.
② H. Faulkner, American EeconomicHistory [M], New York: Harper & brothers,1938,4th. Ed. pp.622,624-625.
③ Charles A. Beard, The Rise of American Civilization [M], New York: Macmillan co.,1927, vol.2, p.480.
④[美国]福克讷,《美国经济史》 [M]中译本,1964年版下册,第260页。
① William A. Williams, the Tragedy of American Diplomacy [M], New York:W.W. Norton & Company, Inc.,1959, p. 28.
② Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: Interpretation of American Expansion [M], Ithaca, N.Y.:Cornell University Press, 1967, p.370.
③ Ibid., p.352.
④ Thomas J. McCormick, China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire,1893-1901 [M], Chicago: Quadrangle, 1967, p.107.
①王晓德.美国文化与外交(修订版)[M].天津：天津教育出版社,2008年,第一页.
② John P. Lovell, "The United States as Ally and Adversary in East Asia" [J].转载自王晓德.美国文化与外交,同上,第三页。
④ "The World against Opium," The Chinese Students' Monthly, Vol. Ⅵ, No.3, January,1911;当时菲律宾总人口的7,635,426人中,华人人口为55,000人。参见：Report on the international Opium Commission and on the Opium Problem as Seen within the US and Its Possessions, prepared by Hamilton Wright in U.S. Congress, Senate,61st Congress,2nd Session, Senate Document No.377, January 1,1910, p.26.
① Ibid, p.63.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.25-26.
③[日]中野聡 [フイリヒツ独立问题史] 龙渓书舎,1997年,第106页。
④ W. F. Craft, Memorandum Concerning Concerted International Restraint of the Traffic in Intoxicants and Opium among Aboriginal Races, a Pamphlet dated 22 Feb.1907, pp.2,7.
⑤ David F. Musto, op. cit.,1999, p.26.
①《菲律宾报告书》[EB/OL][3 Sep.2010],全文可参阅：http://www.drugtext.org/Philipine-Commissions/philippine-commision.html.
② Use of Opium and Traffic Therein, U. S. Congress, Senate,59th Congress,1st session, Senate Document No.265, p. 20.
③ Ibid, p.59.
④调查团的各地采访及内容汇编[EB/OL][3 Sep.2010],全文可参阅：http://www.drugtext.org/Philipine-Commissions/appendix-c-interviews.html; http://www.drugtext.org/Philipine-Commissions/proceedings.html.以下无特别注明的内容均处于此处。
①Letter from Charles H. Brent to William H. Taft, 6 Feb. 1904. BP (Brent Papers), container 6.
②The Report of the Committee Appointed by the Philippine Commission to Investigate the Use of Opium and theTrqfficTerein....., Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept., 1905, pp. 129-172; Arnold H.Taylor, American Diplomacy andthe Narcotic Traffic, 1900-1939, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1969, pp. 31-45; P. D. Lowes, The Genesis of International Narcotics Control [M], Geneva: Librairie, Droz, 1966, pp. 102-106.
①"Uncle Sam is the Worst Drug Fiend in the World." New York Times, March 12,1911.
②The Friend of China, ⅩⅩⅣ-6, July,1906, London, p.92.
③[日]笠原陽子.同上,2006年,第148页。
④Parliamentary Debates,4th ser., vol.158,30 May 1906, pp.494-516.
①于恩德.中国禁烟法令变迁史[M].上海；上海中华书局,1934年版,第118页。
② Kathleen L. Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 [M], Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,1996, p.36.
① Kathleen L. Lodwick, Crusaders against Opium: Protestant Missionaries in China 1874-1917 [M], Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,1996, p.97.
② Letter from J.T. Morgan to DuBose, January 31,1905 in The Anti-Opium League in China (ed.), Opium in the Orient:Report of the Philippine Commission [M] Shanghai: The North-China Office, n. d., p.1.
③ Kathleen L. Lodwick, op. cit.,1996, p.115.
④ Hampden C. DuBose, The Great Anti-Opium Year 1906-7, Annual Report of the Anti-Opium League, n.d. pp.1,3;于恩德.中国禁烟法令变迁史[M].上海；上海中华书局,1934年版,第120页.
② Thomas J. McCormick, China Market: America's Quest for Informal Empire,1893-1901[M], Chicago: Quadrangle, 1967, p.107.
③约翰·海(John Milton Hay,1838-1905),美国政治家,同时也是外交家、作家、记者。他曾是林肯总统的私人秘书及助理。其主要贡献是确立了对华的“门户开放政策”。—笔者按
④ Yoneyuki Sugita, "The Rise of an American Principle in China: A Reinterpretation of the First Open Door Notes toward China" in Richard Jensen, Jon Dabidann and Yoneyuki Sugita, eds. Trans-Pacific relations: America, Europe, and Asia in the twentieth century [M], Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.,2003, pp 3-20.
⑤门户开放政策的详细内容可参见英文版。[EB/OL][27 Sep.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Door_Policy#cite_note-0;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hay.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control 1909-1997 [M], New York: Continuum, 1999, David R. p.18.
② Philippine Tariff Revision Act,3 March 1905,33 States Laws,944.
③ D W. W. Willoughby, Opium as an International Problem: The Geneva Conferences [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1925, p.21.
①Ernest van den Haag, "The business ofAmerican foreign policy" [S], Foreign Affairs 63, Jan. 1985, p. 113.
②Karl Von Vorys, American National Interest: virtue and Power in Foreign Policy [MJ, Westport, CT: Praeger, 1990,p.19
①国际鸦片会议的时间有两种不同的版本：一是联合国毒品与犯罪办公室(UNODC)在1959年的相关叙述内容中,其时间为1909年2月5日-26日。二是由康奈尔大学(Cornell University)图书馆收藏的《上海国际鸦片会议报告书》(Report of the International Opium Commission[M], Shanghai:the North-China Daly News & Herald Ltd.,1909.)所显示的内容中,其时间为1909年2月1日-26日。本文采取后者的立场—笔者注。
②与会国家与正式代表人数如下：中国6人、英国5人、美国3人、法国3人、日本3人、暹罗(今泰国)3人、德国2人、荷兰2人、葡萄牙2人、意大利1人、奥匈帝国1人、俄罗斯1人、波斯(今伊朗)1人。参见：Report of the International Opium Commission Shanghai,China, February 1 to February 26,1909, Shanghai: Printed and Pubished by the North-China Daily News&Herald Ltd.1909, pp.3-6.
③ Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke University Press,1969, p.79.
④“宣统元年第一要政”[N],《申报》1909年1月31日。
① Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, "The Anti-Chinese Movement in California" [J], Illinois Studies in the Social Sciences, Vol.24, no.3. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,1939, pp.22-23.
② Doris Marie Provine, Unequal Under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M],Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.69.
③ Elmer Clarence Sandmeyer, op. cit.,1939, pp.48,57.
④ Steven B. Duke and Albert C. Gross, America's Longest War:Rethinking Our Tragic Crusade against Drugs [M], New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,1993, p.83.
① Jacob A. Riis, "How the Other Half Lives: Studies among the Tenements of New York" [J], Report, New York: Sagamore Press,1890/1957, pp.70-72.
②蒲安臣(Anson Burlingame,1820-1870),是美国著名律师、政治家和外交家,美国对华合作政策的代表人物。他还是唯一的一位曾任美国驻华公使后又担任中国使节的美国人。《普安臣条约》是他代表中国出访美国时,于1868年7月28日以全权特使身份与美国国务卿西华德(William Henry Seward)分别代表中美两国政府签订的一项近代史上少见的平等条约。其中,中国劳工出口已及留美学生问题构成了该条约的一个重要内容。[EB/OL] [6 Sep.2010]:http://baike.baidu.com/view/685490.htm.
③ "U.S. Concludes Treaty with China." [EB/OL] [8 Aug.2010]: http://millercenter.org/academic/americanpresident/events/11_17.
④ H. K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of American to World Power [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956, p,230.
⑤ Ibid, p.197.
① Charles Chaile-Long, "Why China Boycotts Us" [J], the World Today, March 1906, p.314.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.30.
③ Letter from Charles H. Brent to Theodore Roosevelt,24 July 1906, BP, Container 6.
④ H. K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of American to World Power [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956, p.197.
⑤ W. B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M] London: Routledge,2000, p.28.
① "The Shanghai Opium Commission", UNODC, Jan.1,1959, pp.45-46.
②万国禁烟会议议案.载《宣统己酉大政记》第十册卷七；王宏斌.禁毒史鉴.长沙；岳麓书社,1997年,第291-292页.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 36.
①《申报》1909年2月1日。
②Letter from H. Wright to C.H. Brent,29 Nov.1909, WP, entry 33.
③"The Shanghai Opium Commission", UNODC, Jan.1,1959, pp.45-46.
①W. W. Willoughby, Opium as an International Problem: The Geneva Conferences [M\, Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 1925, p. 21.
②David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp 36-37.
③ Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic, 1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke UniversityPress, 1969, p. 69
④Rufiis King, The Drug Hang-Up, America's Fifty-Year Folly [M], Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1974, p. 209.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.21.
② Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke University Press,1969, p.60.
③ Dale Gieringer, "Marking 100 Years of Failed Drug Prohibition" [J], Counter Punch, February,2009, pp.6-8.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.23.
② UNODC "A Century of International Drug Control", the World Drug Report 2008 [M], Vienna: UNODC,2009, p. 49.
③ W. B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M], London: Routledge,2000, p.28.
① H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America:A Social History,1800-1980 [M], Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981, p.98.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.37,40.
① UNODC "A Century of International Drug Control", the World Drug Report 2008 [M], Vienna: UNODC,2009, p. 50.
② Bertil A. Renborg, International Drug Control [M], Washington D. C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1949, p.15ff.
③ Letter from C. H. Brent to H. Wright,24 June 1911, WP, entry 51.
④ William O. Walker Ⅲ,'An analytical overview', in Raphael F. Perl (ed.), Drugs and Foreign Policy: A Critical Review [M], Boulder: Westview Press,1994, pp.10-11.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.320.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 24-25.
③ H. Wright to C. H. Brent,29 October 1909, Papers of Wright, entry 33.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.40.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.25.
③ Special Message of the President:The Opium Traffic, Senate Doc. No.736,61st Cong.,3rd Sess.,11 Jan.1911, pp. 2,7.
④ Congress Record, Senate,48,62nd Cong.,7 Dec.1911, p.74.
⑤ Congress Record,49,63rd Cong.,3rd Sess,3 Dec.1912, pp.8,14.
① Arnold S. Trebach, The Heroin Solution [M], New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,1982, p.118.
② Robert H. Weibe, the Search for Order 1877-1920 [M], New York: Hill and Wang,1967, p.273.
③ Herbert L. May, "The international control of drugs" [J], International Conciliation 441,1948, p.323.
①指的是十月革命之后在欧美流行的布尔什维克主义对资本主义社会的威胁的恐惧—笔者按。
② Lloyd C. Gardner, Safe for Democracy [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1984, pp.258-260.
③ Joan Hoff-Wilson, American Business and Foreign Policy,1920-1933 [M], Lexington, KY:University of Kentucky Press,1971, pp. xiv-xvii.
④ Ursula P. Hubbard, the Cooperation of the U.S. with the League of Nations,1931-1936 [M], New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace,1937, p.372.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 28-29.
② Rolleston Report, Ministry of Health, Departmental Committee on Morphine and Heroin Addiction [R], London: HMSO,1926, p.18.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.28.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.53.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease[M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.201-202.
② R.L. Buell, the International Opium Conference [M], Boston: World Peace Foundation,1925, p.100.
③ William O. Walker Ⅲ,& Lecture, Bernath:"Drug control and the issue of culture in American foreign relations" [J], Diplomatic History 12,1988, p.375; New York Times [N],3 June 1923.
④ W. W. Willoughby, Opium as an International Problem: The Geneva Conferences [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,1925, p.147.
① Letter from Neville to Porter,13, Feb.1924, Prohibiting Importation, hearings on HR 7079, pp.42-43.
② William B. McAllister,'Conflicts of interest in the international drug control system' in Walker III, William O. (ed.), Drug Control Policy: Essays in Historical and Comparative Perspective [M], University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press,1992, p.146.
③ J. M. Scott, The White Poppy:The History of Opium [M], London: Heinemann,1969, p.146.
④ Brian Inglis, the Forbidden Game: A Social History of Drugs [M], London: Hodder and Stoughton,1975, pp.160-161.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 33-34.
② Ronald Hamowy (ed.), Dealing with Drugs: The Consequences of Government Control [M], Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,1987, p.60-61.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 35-36.
② H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in America: A Social History,1800-1980 [M], Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981, p.124.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.248.
④ Edward J. Epstein, Agency of Fear: Opiates and Political Power in American [M], London:Verso,1977, pp.23-31.
① John C. McWilliams, "Unsung partner against crime: Harry J. Anslinger and the FBN,1930-1962" [J], Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2,1988, p.210.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, pp. 39-40.
③ Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC: Duke University Press,1969, p.264.
① John C. Mc Williams, "Unsung partner against crime: Harry J. Anslinger and the FBN,1930-1962" [J], Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 2,1988, p.48.
② Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London:The University of Chicago Press,2007, pp.82-84.
③ "Narcotics Policy-the Troubled 1920s and 1930s," Encyclopedia of the New American Nation [EB/OL] [12 Jan. 2011]:http://www.americanforeignrelations.com/E-N/Narcotics-Policy-The-troubled-1920s-and-1930s.html.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.42.
② Clayton Koppes, "The GNP and the nationalization of Mexican oil: a reinterpretation" [J], Journal of American History 79,1982, pp.80-81.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.43.
① William B. McAllister, Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century [M], London and New York: Routledge,2000, p. 14.
① Arnold H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, NC:Duke University Press,1969, p.330.
①[美]泰勒·丹列特(Tyler Dennett),姚曾广译.美国人在东亚[M],北京；商务印书馆,1959年,pp.94-95.
② Jacques M. Downs, American Merchants and the China Opium Trade,1800-1840 [J], The Business History Review (Vol. XLII),1968, pp.418-442.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.2-3;不过,考特莱特认为,到20世纪40年代,鸦片烟才在美国得以根绝。参见：David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.6.
④傅有德.犹太教的弥赛亚观及其与基督教的分歧[J].世界宗教研究,1997年第2期.[EB/OL][13 Jan.2011]: http://www.sps.sdu.edu.cn/sps60/cms/attachment/071122132939.doc.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,2001, p.10.
②有关北美清教徒文化对于美国外交政策的影响在王晓德先生的专著中有许多精辟的分析。参见：王晓德.美国对外关系史散论[M].北京：中华书局,2007年；美国文化与外交[M].天津：天津教育出版社,2008年.
③ Stanley Hoffama, Primacy or World Order: American Foreign Policy since the Cold War [M], New York:McGraw-Hill,1978, p.222.
④ Ernest van den Haag, The business of American foreign policy [J], Foreign Affairs 63,1985(1), p.113.
⑤ H. U. Faulkner, Politics, Reform, and Expansion,1890-1900 [M], New York: Haper and Row,1959, p.239.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Harward Univerxity Press,1999, p.310.
②约翰·韦斯罗普(1588-1649)早期美国殖民地时代的政治家及清教徒领袖。“山巅之城(city upon a hill)"等正是他留下的名言。[EB/OL] [10 Oct.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Winthrop#cite_ref-0.
② William O. Walker Ⅲ,'An analytical overview', in Raphael F. Perl (ed.), Drugs and Foreign Policy: A Critical Review [M], Boulder:Westview Press,1994, p.10.
③ Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 [M], London: Fontana,1989, p.317.
① Philippine Tariff Revision Act,33 State Laws,944,3 March 1905.
② Letter from H. Wright to Jeremiah Jenks,18 March 1910, WP, entry 51.
① Kevin F. Ryan, "Globalizing the Problem: The United States and International Drug Control." Cited in Eric L. Jensen & Jurg Gerber (eds), The New War on Drugs: Symbolic Politics and Criminal Justice Policy [M], Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing Co. and the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences,1998, p.142.
② Letter from S. Potter to Secretary of State Charles E. Hughes,12 Feb.1923, printed in Limiting Producing of Habit-foming Narcotic Drugs and the Raw materials from which They are made:Report to Accompany HJR 453, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs,67 Cong.,4tn Sess.,22 Feb.1923, H. Rept.1678, pp.4-5.
③ H. K. Beale, Theodore Roosevelt and the Rise of American to World Power [M], Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1956, p.197.
① Charles W. Kegley Jr.& Eugene R. Wittkopf, American Foreign Policy: Pattern and Process [M],4th edition, New York: Macmillan Education,1991, p.33.
② Karl Von Vorys, American National Interest: virtue and Power in Foreign Policy [M], Westport, CT: Praeger,1990, p.19.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.12.
④ Robert E. Osgood, Ideals and Self-Interest in America's Foreign Relations [M], Chicago: University of Chicago Press,1953, cited in Charles W. Kegley Jr.,& Wittkopf, Eugene R., American Foreign Policy: Pattern and Process, 3rd edition, New York: Macmillan Education,1987, p.70.
① Ethan A. Nadelmann, Global prohibition regimes:the evolution of norms in international society [J], International organization 44,1990(4), p.503.
②因该体系的成员均为1961年通过并经1972年修订的联合国《麻醉品单一公约》的签约国而得名—笔者按。
① Letter from H. Wright to C. H. Brent,12 Nov.1909, WP, entry 33.
② Letter from H. Wright to Lloyd Bryan, The Hague,18 March 1913 & 31 May 1913, WP, entry 36.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.26.
④ David F. Musto, the American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.10.
① Robert Keel, Significant Events in the History of our Drug Laws [R], Soc.180 class of University of Missouri at Saint Louis.[EB/OL][10 Nov.2010]:http://www.umsl.edu/-rkeel/180/law.html.
② Prohibiting the Importation of Opium for the Manufacture of Heroin: Hearings on HR7079, House, Committee on Ways and Means,68th Cong.1st Sess.,3 April 1924, pp.41-43.
③ Jeffrey Wasserstrom, China and the U.S.:Too Big to Fail [J], Time, Thursday,4 Feb.,2010. [EB/OL][2010-02-11]: http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1959001,00.html.
①LettetrfomnAslingertoeRginaldrWihtgKau加na,editorofhteBa馆orDaiylNe、’s19Mraeh一945,”Box3:File22.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999, p.5.
② E. G Eberle, "Chairman's Address, Minutes of the Section on Education and Legislation", Proc. APhA 50-559,1902.
③ Narcotic Education 2,1929, p.55.
④ "The Menace of the Drug Addict" [J], Current History, February 1925, p.743.
① John D. Buenker (eds.), Progressivism [M], Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publication Company,1986, Introduction.
②黄安年.二十世纪美国史[M].石家庄：河北人民出版社,1989年,第54页-77页.
①爱德华·罗斯.社会控制[M].北京：华夏出版社,1989年,译者序言,第59页.
②该法将先前通过的所有禁毒法及其执法活动统一于该法之下。[EB/OL][15 Oct.2004]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
①20世纪之初的美国立法、尤其是在道德层面上的立法内容可详细参照下列网页。[EB/OL][150ct.2010]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
② Arthur S. Link, Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era,1910-1917 [M], New York: Harpercollins Publishers, 1972, Introduction.
③ James H. Timberlake, Prohibition and the Progressive Movement,1900-1920 [M], Cambridge, MA.:Harvard University Press,1963, Contents.
④ Edward M. Brecher, licit & Illicit Drugs [M], Boston: Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.6.
⑤ K. Austin Kerr, Organized for Prohibition: A New History of the Anti-Salon League [M], New Haven: Yale University Press,1985, pp.55-56.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.65.
② H. H. Kane, Opium Smoking in America and China, New York,1882, cited in Charles E Terry & Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.73.
③ Anon., "The Opium Habit" [J] in Catholic World 33, September,1881, p.828.
④ John Witherspoon, "Oration on Medicine, A Protest Against Some of the Evils in the Profession of Medicine" [J], JAMA 34,1900, p.1591.
⑤ Paul Boyer, "Battling the saloon and Brothel: the great coercive crusades", in Allen F. Davis and Harold D. Woodman (eds.), Conflict and Consensus in Modern History [M], D.C. Heath,1992, p.264.
① Letter from HW to CHB,9 Feb.1910, WP, entry 31.
② H. H. Kane, Opium Smoking in America and China, New York,1882, cited in Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.73.
① Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.73.
② Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.45.
③ Laws of Pennsylvania of the Session of 1860, Act no.374, Title I, Section 70, "Selling Poisons", p.401; Ohio Laws: 1885-887, vol.82, p.49, passed 6 Feb.1885; Laws of Illinois, passed 1897, passed 11 June 1897, p.138.
④ Steven Wishnia, "Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory"[N], AlterNet, Drugs,21 Feb.2008. [EB/OL] [9 Oct. 2010]:http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/77339/?page=entire".
⑤查尔斯·特利同时也是美国早期毒品史巨著《鸦片问题(The Opium Problem)》的作者。1928年出版的该书是第一步系统介绍美国早期禁毒史的著作—笔者按。
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, pp.97-98.
② Public Acts of Tennessee,1913, Ch.11, pp.403-407.
③ Lucius P. Brown, "Enforcement of the Tennessee Anti-narcotic law", AJPH 5,1915, pp.323-333.
①Laws of New York, 1913,ch.470,pp.984-991.
②The Drug Evil and the Drug law[J],Monthly Bul. Dept.Health N.Y.City 9,1919,p.4.
③Editorially[N],New York Times,1 July 1914.
④Laws of New York, 1914,sect.249a,pp.1123-1124.
⑤Interpret Harrison Act[N],New York Times,6 June 1916.
① Stephen R. Kandall, Substance and the Shadow: A History of Women and Addiction in the United States [M], Ma.: Harvard University Press,1996, p.36.
① Annual Report, Michigan State Board of Health,1878, P.13.
② C. W. Earle, "The Opium Habit," Chicago Medical Review,1880, p.47.
③ J. M. Hull, The Opium Habit, Report of the State Board of Health, Iowa,1885, p.74,
④ C. W. Earle, op. cit,1880, p.47.
⑤ L. P. Brown, "Enforcement of the Tennessee Anti-Narcotic Law [J], American Journal of Public Health 5,1914, p. 71.
⑥Ibid, p. 76.
⑦ Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.17.
⑧ J. M. Hull, op. cit.,1885, p.17.
⑨ L. P. Brown, op. cit.,1914, p.76.
① J. M. Hull, The Opium Habit, Report of the State Board of Health, Iowa,1885, p.17.
② B. H. Hartwell, "The Sale and Use of Opium in Massachusetts," Annual Report of the State Board of Health, Massachusetts,20,1889, pp.137-156.
① Anon,"The Opium Habit" [J], Catholic World 33, September 1881, p.827.
② David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, p.1.
③ Ibid, p.3.
④“纽约市历史”[EB/OL][25 Feb.2011]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_New_York_City.
① David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp.1,110-111.
② Lawrence Kolb & A.G DuMez, The Prevalence and Trend of Drug Addiction in the United States and Factors Influencing It [R], Public Health Reports 39,1924, p.1203.
③ Phillip T. Smith, Drugs-Use and Sell [R], In International Association of Chiefs of Police, Proceedings of the 21st Annual Convention, Washington, D.C.:Byron S. Adams,1914, p.63.
④ Francis X. Dercum, Relative Infrequency of the Drug Habit among the Middle and Upper Classes: Treatment and Final Results [J], Pennsylvania Medical Journal 20,1917, p.362.
① W. A. Bloedorn. Studies of Drug Addiction [J], U.S. Naval Medical Bulletin 11.1917. pp.309-310.
② Charles E. Sceleth and Sidney Kuh, Drug Addiction [J], JAMA 82,1924, p.679.
③ David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.3.
④ W. Scheppegrell, "The Abuse and Dangers of Cocaine" [N], Med. News 73,1898, p.421.
⑤ J. W. Watson, New York Times [N],21 June 1903.
⑥ Literary Digest,28 March 1914, p.687.
⑦ The Chemist and Druggist 77,31 December 1910, p.44.
① Letter from H. Wright to C. H. Brian,29 Nov.1909. WP, entry 33.
② Letter from H. Wright to D. J. Foster,28 April 1910. WP, entry 51.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.41-42,317-318.
④ Letter from H. Wright to Charles B. Towns,21 April 1914. WP, entry 36.
① Importation and Use of Opium,31 May 1910, House,61st Cong.,2nd Sess., GPO,1910, p.503.
②“这项法案因为遭到制药行业以及那些认为它擅自扩大了联邦警察的权力而违宪之人群的反对而成废案。”(This bill Opposed by the pharmaceutical industry and by those who felt that it would be an unconstitutional expansion of federal police powers.) Drugs and the Whole Person [J], [EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]: http://drugsandwholeperson.tripod.com/id 15.html.
③ Special Message of the President: The Opium Traffic, Senate Doc. No.736,61st Cong.,3rd Sess.,11 Jan.1911, pp.2, 7.
④《哈里森法》使用了联邦征税权力；《大麻税法》模仿了国家火器管理税法；《综合性药物滥用与控制法》则沿用了1914年州际贸易管理法的扩充性权力—笔者按。
⑤ Importation and Use of Opium, Hearings before the House Committee on Ways and Means,11 Jan.1911,61st Cong., 3rd Sess. GPO,1911, PP.49,84.
① J. H. Beal, Editorial, JAPHA 2,1913, pp.737-740.
② Cong. Rec., House,50, pt.3,63rd Cong.,1st Sess.,26 June 1913, GPO,1913, pp.2191-2211.
③ Senate Finance Committee's "Registration of Persons Dealing in Opium," senate report no.258,18 Feb.1914,63rd Cong., and Sess. GPO,1914.
① Bertil A. Renoerg, International Drug Control [M], Washington D. C.:Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1949,pp.15ff.
② International Opium Conference, The Hague, December 1,1911-January 23,1912. Summary of the minutes (unofficial)(The Hague: National Printing Office,1912, p.105.
③ Cong. Rec., Senate 50,21 April 1913,63rd Cong. Special Sess. p.265.
④ Second International opium Conference, Senate Doc., no.157,63rd Cong.,1st Sess. GPO,1913.
⑤ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.53.
①"The NDTC operated and its initial membership", JAPHA2,1913, pp. 238-239.
② Cong. Rec, House 50, pt3,26 June 1913,63rd Cong., 1st Sess. p. 2210.
③The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act. Public Law, No. 223,63rd Congress.
④Registration of Producers and Importers of OpiumfR], House Rept. No. 23? 24 June 1913,63rd Cong.,lst Sess. GPO,1913.
① More about the Harrison Bill [J], JAPhA 3,1914, pp.1-4.
② JAPhA 2,1913, pp.628-633.
③ Editorial, JAPhA 4,1914, pp.4-8.
④ The Atlanta Constitution,27 Dec.1914.
⑤ New York Times,2 February 1914.
⑥ Christopher Koch, Literary Digest,28 March 1914, p.687.
① E. H. Williams, New York Times,8 February 1914.
② Williams, E. H., Opiate Addiction:Its Handling and treatment [M], New York: Macmillan,1922, pp.247-249.
③《哈里森法》的详细内容可参照The Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914), Public Law No.223,63rd Cong.;或者参阅毒品图书馆相关资料[EB/OL] [23 Oct.2010]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/e1910/harrisonact.htm.
①Lawrence Kolb, & A. G DuMez, The Prevalence and Trend of Drug Addiction in the United States and Factors Influencing It [R], Public Health Report 39, no. 21,1924, pp. 1200-1202.
② Steven R. Belenko, Drugs and Drug Policy in America [M], Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000, p. 60.
③ Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York, London and Oxford: The Haworth Press, 2006, p. 19.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.29.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999, p.65.
③ David R. Bewley-Taylor, op. cit.,1999, p.26.
④ "Drug Law Timeline" [EB/OL] [24 Oct.20101: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm; Record of NAABT:A History of Opiate Laws in the United States [EB/OL] [4 Dec.2010]:http://www.naabt.org/laws.cfm.
①Arnold. H. Taylor, American Diplomacy and Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939[M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1969, pp.302-305.
② Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.56.
③ Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition [M], New York: Norton,1976, p. 222.
① David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p.25.
②“毒品战争”始用于1968年尼克松参选总统时的竞选口号,后来泛指美国禁毒政策乃至于世界范围的反毒品斗争,如墨西哥的“毒品战争”等—笔者按。
③“零宽容政策”是以美国为代表的禁毒政策。除了美国之外,世界上实行“零宽容政策”的主要国家还有中国、瑞典、意大利、日本、新加波、印度以及俄罗斯等。[EB/OL][12 Dec.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_tolerance.
①Norman H. Clark, Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition [MJ, New York: Norton, 1976, p. 223.
①L. F. Schmeckebier and F. A. Eble, the Bureau of Internal Revenue: Its History, Activities, and Organization [M],Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1923, pp. 42-43.
② U. S. Treasury Department, Bureau of Internal Revenue, Report of the Commissioner for the Fiscal year ending June30,1915, GPO, 1915, p. 147. (jJfc/gfl&f^ "BIR Annual Report" )
③ D. Crothers, Morphinism among Physicians [J], Med. Record 55,1899, pp. 784-786.
④Treasury Decision of 9 March 1915, TD 2172.
①Treasury Decision of 9 March 1915, TD 2172.
②Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York-& London & Oxford: The Haworth Press, 2006, p. 16.
①David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 129.
②U. S v. Jin Fuey Moy, 241 U. S. 394 (1916 ) [D], U. S. Supreme Court Decision of 1916.
③ Ibid.
①New YorkMed J. 104,1916, pp. 905-906.
②"Report of the Commissioner for the Fiscal year ending June 30,1916", BIR Annual Report.
①David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 62-63.
②"More about the Harrison Bill" [J], JAPhA 3,1914, pp. 1-4.
①Editorial of JAPhA 4,1914, pp. 4-8.
②"Protection against Dangerous Drugs" [I], JAMA 46, 1906, pp. 1208-1209.
③"Morphinism among Physicians ", Med. Record 55:784-786,1899, Garb, S., "Drug Addiction in Physicians",Anesthesia and Analgesia 48:128-133,1969.
⑤Hunt, Geoffrey & Sun, Anna X. D., "The Drug Treatment System in the United States: APanacea for the DrugWar?" [J], cited in Klingemann, Harald & hunt, Geoffrey, Drug Treatment System in an International Perspective [M],
① Provine, Doris M., Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.88.
② Cong. Red., House,52, pt.1,63rd Cong.,3rd Sess.,22 Dec.1914, pp.495-616; New York Times [N],2 Jan.1915; David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.66-67.
③ Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed march 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury:Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, pp.9-19.
①Letter from Asst. Surgeon General to H. L. Lee, 24 March 1915, PHSR.
②Letter from Blue to SG Daniel C. Roper, 28 July 1919, PHSR.
③Letter from Greenfield to Blue, 31 May 1919, PHSR.
④Letter from A. G Dumez to the Surgeon General, 14 June 1921, PHSR.
①Supreme Court of 1919, U. S. v. Doremus, 249 U. S. 86, No. 367; Also see Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York- London- Oxford: The Haworth Press, 2006. pp. 16-17.
① Supreme Court of 1919, Webb, et al. v. United States,240 U.S.96, No.370.
② Thomas C. Rowe, Federal Narcotics Laws and the War on Drugs [M], New York·London·Oxford: The Haworth Press,2006. p.17.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.350.
① "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1926,4 Dec.1924,68th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.472.
② "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong.,1st Sess., p.473.
③ L. F. Schmeckebier and F. A. Eble, The Bureau of International Revenue [M], Service Monograph of the U. S. Government, Institute for Government Research, Baltimore:Johns Hopins Press,1923, p.143.
④ "Hearings before House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.475.
① BIR Annual Report for Year ending 30 June 1917, p.16.
② Daniel Roper, Fifty Years of Public Life [M], Durham, N. C.:Duke University Press,1941, pp.185-190.
③ Letter from Carl Voegtlin to the Surgeon General PHS,1 Aug.1918, PHSR.
④“第一次赤色恐惧”(First Red Scare,1919年-1920年)是指发生于第一次世界大战之后因俄国十月革命而产生的美国国家安全危机感；”第二次赤色恐惧”(Second Red Scare,1947年-1957年)则发生于二战后极端反共的“麦卡锡主义”时代。[EB/OL][13 Nov.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Scare.
① Supreme Court of 1919, Debs. v. United States,211.
② Robert K. Murray, Red Scare: A Study of National Hysteria,1919-1920 [M], Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1955, pp.196ff.
③ New York Times,27,30 May 1919.
①Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed march 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in NarcoticDrugs (GPO, 1919), pp. 19-22.
② A, G DuMez, "Some Facts Concerning Drug Addiction", 9 Dec. 1918, PHSR.
③Traffic in Narcotic Drugs, op. cit. 1919, pp. 19-22.
④Department of Health of the City of New York, Annual Report, 1919, p. 103.
⑤Alexander Lambert, "The underlying Cause of the Narcotic Habit"[J], Modern Med. 2,1920,
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999. p.371.
② "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1927,2 Dec.1925,69th Cong.,1st Sess., pp.38-39.
③ "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1928,18 Nov.1926,69th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.341.
④ "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1931,29 Nov.1929,71st Cong.,2nd Sess., p.345.
⑤ "The Struggle of Mankind against Its Deadliest Foe" [J], Narcotic Education 1,1928, pp.51-54.
① "Hearing before the House Appropriation Committee", Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1931,29 Nov.1929,71st Cong.,2nd Sess., p.175.
② The American Legion Weekly,30 Nov.1923, pp.7-8,27-28.
③当时的一些学者如劳伦斯·科尔博及安德鲁·杜梅之等虽然支持执行《哈里森法》,但不认为吸毒成瘾已构成对国家的重大威胁-笔者按。
① Steven B. Duke and Albert C. Gross, America's Longest War: Rethinking Our Tragic Crusade against Drugs [M], New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons,1993, p.83.
② Charles E. Terry, "Drug Additions, A Public Health Problem" [J], AJPH 4,1914, p.28.
①David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, pp.147, 184, 208,357.
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, The United States and International Drug Control 1909-1997 [M], New York: Continuum,1999,P.31
①The Traffic in Habit-Forming Drugs: hearings on HJR195, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, 21 Feb. 1924,68th Cong., lstSess.p. 35.
② Limiting Production of Habit-forming Narcotic Drugs and the Raw Materials from Which They are Made: Report toAccompany HJR453, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, 67th Cong., 4th Sess., 21 Feb. 1923, H. Rept 1678, pp. 5-6.
③Establishment of Two Federal Narcotic Farms, p. 42, Musto, op. cit, 1999, pp. 205-206.
④ Bureau of Narcotics: Hearings on HR 10,561, House, Committee on Ways and Means, 7-8 March 1930, 71st Cong.,2nd Sess., p. 45.
① 170.5 Records of the Federal Narcotics Control Board" [EB/OL] [2 Feb.20111: http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.3.
② Bureau of Narcotics: Hearings on HR 10,561, House, Committee on Ways and Means,7-8 March 1930,71st Cong., 2nd Sess.,1930, p.57.
③安斯林格(Harry J.Anslinger,1892-1975),在出任FBN专员之前,曾任“麻醉品处”领导,1962年从专员任上卸职之后,出任联合国麻醉品委员会美国代表。安斯林格在1964年退休,1975年去世,享年83岁,被作家麦克威廉姆斯(John C. McWilliams)誉为美国的“保护者”(Protector)。有关安斯林格的具体内容可参见：McWilliams, John C., The Protectors: Harry J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics,1930-1962 [M], Newark: University of Delaware Press,1990; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_J._Anslinger.
④DEA的相关内容参见[EB/OL][15 Dec.2010]:http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/history/1970-1975.pdf; http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.1.
①1919年宪法第18条修定成功,其内容为禁酒法的通过奠定了基础。1933年,为了废止此修正案而通过了第21条修正案。这是美国历史上唯一的为了禁止又为了废止某同一措施而进行的两次宪法修正措施[EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]:http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.htm.
② Arguments for and against Drug Prohibition [EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arguments_for_and_against_drug_prohibition#cite ref-79.
③美国宪法[EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010]:http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.ht.
④从1789年实施到1992年为止的两百多年时间里,美国仅通过了27条修正案,其中还包括两条有关禁酒的修正案。可见其修正之难。宪法修正案所需条件参见同上“美国宪法[EB/OL]"的内容。
① David F. Musto, The American Disease[M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999,pp.9-10.
② A Memorandum by Dr. Reid Hunt of the PHS,2 Nov.1908, PHSR.
③ Cong. Rec.43,1 Feb.1909,60th Cong.,2nd Sess. P.1683.
① Letter from H. Wright to J. Remington,26 April 1910, WP, entry 51.
② Letter from H. Wright to Charles B. Towns,21 April 1914, WP, entry 36.
③ Supreme Court, Webb, et al. v. United States,249 U.S.96 of 1919.
④ Mai Ngai, Impossible Subjects:Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America [M], Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,2004, p.135.
⑤《国家火器法》(The National Firearms Act,略称为NFA),1934年6月26日通过。它规定了枪支弹药在生产与交易过程中纳税与登记的内容[EB/OL][15 Dec.2010]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National Firearms Act of 1934.
⑤ "Marihuana Tax Act of 1937" [EB/OL] [11 Oct.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marihuana_Tax_Act_of_1937.
⑥ Public Law,91-513,84 United States Statutes at Large 1236, enacted 27 Oct.1970.
①有关州际商业贸易的联邦权力的详细内容可参见美国联邦贸易委员会网页内容,[EB/OL][22 Dec.2010]: http://so.hudong.com/s/doc/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E8%B4%B8%E6%98%93%E 5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A.
② Jill Jonnes, Hep-Cats, Narcs, And Pepe Dreams: A History of America's Romance with Illegal Drugs [M], New York: Scribner,1996.
③ David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise:A History of Opiate Addiction in America [M], Cambridge and Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,2001, p.2.
① Special Message of the President: The Opium Traffic, Senate Doc. No.736,61st Cong.,3rd Sess.,11 Jan.1911, pp. 2,7; Letter from H. Wright to Lloyd Bryce, Minister, The Hague,18 March 1913, WP, entry 36; Letter from H. Wright to W. J. Bryan,31 May 1913, WP, entry 36.
② Kevin F. Ryan, "Globalizing the Problem: The United States and International Drug Control", In The New War on Drugs: Symbolic Politics and Criminal Justice Policy [M], Eric L. Jensen and Jurg Gerber, ed., Cincinnati: Anderson, 1998, p.142.
① Hamilton Wright, Report on the International Opium and on the Opium Problem as Seen Within the United States and Its Possessions,61st Cong.,2nd sess., February 21.1910. S. Doc. P.45.
② John Helmer, Drugs and Minority Oppression [M], New York:Seabury,1975, pp.51-52.
③ H. Wayne Morgan, Drugs in American:A Social History,1800-1880 [M], Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981, pp.8,16,18.
④ "Negro Cocaine 'Fiends' New Southern Menace" [N], New York Times, Sunday February 8,1914.
⑤ Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.74.
⑥ "Negro Cocaine Evil" [N],New York Times, March 20,1905.
① Hamilton Wright, Report on the International Opium and on the Opium Problem as Seen Within the United States and Its Possessions,61st Cong.,2nd sess., February 21.1910. S. Doc. p.48, pp.48-49.
② John Helmer, Drugs and Minority Oppression [M], New York: Seabury,1975, pp.51-52.
③ Martin Booth, Opium: A History [M], London: Simon & Schuster Ltd,1996, p.198.
① Steven Wishnia, "Debunking the Hemp Conspiracy Theory", AlterNet, Drugs, Feb.21,2008[EB/OL], http://www.alternet.org/drugreporter/77339/?page=entire".
② Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.82.
③ Richard J. Bonnie, & Charles H. Whitebread Ⅱ, The Marihuana Conviction: History of Marihuana Prohibition in the United States [M], Charlottesville:University Press of Virginia,1974, pp.43,71.
④ Mai Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America [M], Princeton, NJ:Princeton University Press,2004, p.135.
⑤ New York Times. Sept.16,1934a; Oct.8,1934b; Oct.18,1934c; Oct.19,1934d; Oct.20,1934e; Dec.9,1934f; Dec.10, 1934g;Dec.1l,1934h.
① Doris M. Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs [M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, p.86.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.295.
① Robert C. Lieberman, Ideas, Institutions, and Political Order: Explaining Political Change [J], American Political Science Review,96,2002, pp.697-712.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.75-76.
② Charles E. Terry, Drug Addiction, a Public Health Problem [J], AJPHA 4,1914, pp.28-29.
③ Daniel C. Roper, Fifty Years of Public Life [M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1941, p.185.
①.Alfred R. Lindesmith, Addiction and Opiates [M], Chicago:Aldine,1968, p.207.
②资料源自英文版维基百科之罂粟内容[EB/OL] [24 Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papaver_somniferum.
③资料源自英文版维基百科全书之大麻内容[EB/OL][24 Dec.2010]:http://en.wtkipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug).
①资料源自英文版维基百科之海洛因内容[EB/OL][5 Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin.
② Charles E. Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Committee on Drug Addictions, Bureau of Social Hygiene, Inc.,1928, pp.50-51.
③ William Hammond, Dr. Hammond's Remarks on Coca [J], Trans. Med. Soc. Virginia,1887, p.213.
④ H. E. Sigerist, Laudanum in the Works of Paracelsus [J], Bull. Hist. Med.9:1941, p.530-544.
⑤ Jonathan Pareira, The Elements ofMateria Medica and Therapeutics [M],3rd American ed., edited by Joseph Carson,2 vols. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea,1854(2), pp.1039-1046 passim.
① George B. Wood, A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology or Materia Medica [M],3rd ed.,2 vols, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1868 (1), pp.712-713.
② Ibid, p.761.
③ George B. Wood, A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology or Materia Medica [M],3rd ed.,2 vols, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1868 (1), p.762.
④ Ernest Drucker, "From morphine to Methadone: Maintenance Drugs in the Treatment of Opiate Addiction" [EB/OL][5 May 2010], http://www.drugtext.org/index.php/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
① John Jones, The Mysteries of Opium Revealed [M], London: Richard Smith,1700, d.32.
② Samuel Crumpe, An Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Opium [M], London: G..G. and J. Robinson,1793, p. 177.
③ Jonathan Pareira, The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics [M],3rd American ed., edited by Joseph Carson,2 vols. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea,1854(2), p.1039.
① George B. Wood, A Treatise on Therapeutics and Pharmacology or Materia Medica[M],3rd ed.,2 vols, Philadelphia: Lippincott,1868(1), pp.725-728.
② Clifford Allbutt, On the Abuse of Hypodermic Injections of Morphine [J], Practitioner 3,1870, p.327.
③ Edward Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia [M], Trans, by C. Harrer, London: Elder Smith,1878, pp.6ff.
④ Doris Marie Provine, Unequal under Law: Race in the War on Drugs[M], Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press,2007, pp.65-66.
① J. Townley Crane, "Drugs as an Indulgence" [J], Methodist Quarterly Review 40,1858, p.562.
② A. Jaffe, Reform in American Medical Science: The Inebriety Movement and the Origins of the Psychological Disease Theory of Addiction,1870-1920 [J], British Journal ofAddiction 73,1978, pp.139-147.
③ Norman Dain, Concepts of Insanity in the United States,1789-1865 [M], New Brunswick and N.J.:Rutgers University Press,1964, p. 111
④ George M. Beard, Stimulants and Narcotics; Medically, Philosophically, and Morally Considered [M], New York: G P. Putnam & Sons,1871, pp.19-20.
⑤ T. D. Crothers, Morphinism and Narcomanias from Other Drugs: Their Etiology, Treatment, and Medicolegal Relations [M], Philadelphia:W. B. Saunders & Co.,1902, pp.48-49,64; Sterne, Albert E., Have Drug Addictions a Pathological Basis? [J], JAMA 44,1905, pp.609-612.
① Barbara Sicherman, The Uses of a Diagnosis: Doctors, Patients and Neurasthenia, in Sickness and Health in America; Reading in the History of medicine and Public Health, Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, eds. Madison:University of Wisconsin Press,1978, p.27.
② J. D. Roberts, Opium Habit in the Negro [J], North Carolina Medical Journal 15,1885, p.207.
③ P. Sollier, La Demorphinisation. Mecanisme Physiologique. Consequences au point de vue therapeutique [J], Presse Med.,23 April 1898, vol.1, no.34, pp.210-202, see abstract in Journal of Inebriety 20,1898, pp.436-440.
④ E. S. Faust, Uber die ursachen der Gewohnung an Morphin [J], Arch. Exper. Path. Pharmakol.44,1900, pp.217-238.
⑤ M. Cloetta, Uber das Verhalten des Morphins im Organismus und die Ursachen der Angewohnung an Dasselbe [J], Arch. Exper. Path. Pharmakol.50,1903, pp.453-480.
① Edward Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia [M], Trans, by C. Harrer, London:Elder Smith,1878, pp.6ff.
② Ernest S. Bishop, Some Fundamental Considerations of the Problem of Drug Addiction [J], American Med.21,1915, pp.807-816.
③ Jonathan Pareira, The Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics [M],3rd American ed., edited by Joseph Carson,2 vols. Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea,1854(2), p.1039.
④ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York:Oxford University Press,1999, p.75.
① The Opium Habit [J], Catholic World 33, September 1881, p.827.
② F. X. Dercum, Relative Infrequency of Drug Habit [J], Penna. Med. J.20,1917, pp.362-367.
③ Edward M. Brecher, Licit and illicit Drugs [M], Boston-Toronto:Little, Brown and Company,1972, p.7.
④ Charles B. Towns, Drugs and Alcohol Sickness [M], New York: M. M. Barbour,1932, pp.15-16.
① C. P. Pearson, The Treatment of Morphinism [J], Med. Times 42,1914, p.246.
② Narcotic Method of Treating Morphinism [J], Med. Record 74,1908, pp.404-405.
③ Charles B. Towns, The Physician's Guide for the Treatment of the Drug Habit and Alcoholism [M], n. p., n. d.1914, p.7.
④ Edward Levinstein, Morbid Craving for Morphia [M], Trans, by C. Harrer, London: Elder Smith,1878, pp.6ff.
⑤ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.89.
① Charles E. Terry, Narcotic Drug Addiction and Rational Administration [J], American Medicine 26,1915, pp.30,31.
② Charles E. Terry, Some Recent Experiments in Narcotic Control [J], American Journal of public Health 11,1921, p.41.
③ Willis P. Butler, How One American City is Meeting the Public Health Problems of Narcotic Drug Addiction [J], American Medicine 28,1922, p.159.
① Ernest S. Bishop, "Narcotic Addiction-A Systemic Disease Condition" [J], JAMA 60,1913, pp.431-434.
② Ernest S. Bishop, "An Analysis of Narcotic Drug Addiction" [J], New York Med.J.101,1915, pp.399-403.
③ Ernest S. Bishop, "Some Fundamental Considerations of the Problem of Drug Addiction" [J], Amer. Med.21,1915, pp.807-816.
④ Ernest S. Bishop, The Narcotic Drug Problem [M], New York: MacMillan Co.,1920, esp. p.35-49; also see David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp. 128-129.
⑤ Charles E. Terry, "Narcotic Drug Addiction and Rational Administration" [J], American Medicine 26,1915, pp.32, 489-490.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, pp.335-336, esp. note 40.
① Report of the Committee on the Narcotic Drug Situation in the United States [J], JAMA 74,1920, pp.1326-1328.
① Lawrence Kolb, Pleasure and Deterioration from Narcotic Addiction [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, p.723.
② Lawrence Kolb, Drug Addiction: A Study of Some of Medical Cases [J], Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 20, 1928, p.174.
③ Lawrence Kolb, The Relation of Intelligence to the Etiology of Drug Addiction [J], American Journal of Psychiatry, n.s.5,1925, pp.163-167.
④ Lawrence Kolb, The Opium Addict and His Treatment [J], Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry 40,1938, p.5.
⑤ Lawrence Kolb, Drug Addiction in Its Relation to Crime [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.74-89; Pleasure and Deterioration from Narcotic Addiction [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.699-744;Types and Characteristics of Drug Addicts [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.300-313.
① David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.338.
② Lawrence Kolb and Ossenfort, W. F., The Treatment of Drug Addicts at the Lexington Hospital [J], Southern Medical Journal 31,1938, pp.914,917.
③ Lawrence Kolb, Drug Addiction: A Medical Problem [M], Springfield, Ⅲ.:Charles C. Thomas,1962, p.169.
④ Lawrence C. Kolb, Drug Addiction:A Statement before a Committee of the United States Senate [J], Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine,41,1965, pp.306-309.
⑤ Robert H. Felix, Lawrence Kolb,1881-1972 [J], American Journal of Psychiatry 130,1973, pp.718-719.
① A. Jaffe, "Reform in American Medical Science: The Inebriety Movement and the Origins of the Psychological disease theory of Addiction,1870-1920" [J], British Journal of Addiction 73,1978, pp.240-242.
② David. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England:Harvard University Press, 2001, p.132.
③ Report of the Mayor's Committee on Drug Addiction [J], Medical Hygiene 9,1925, p.723.
④ M. J. Pescor, "Prognosis in Drug Addiction" [J], American journal Psychiat 97,1941, pp.1419-1433.
①G.H. Hunt & M. E. Odoroff, "Fallow-up Study of Narcotic Drug Addicts after Hospitalization" [J], Public Health Reports 77,1962, pp.41-54.
② R. M. Glasscote & J. Jaffe (et al.), The treatment of Drug Abuse: Programs, Problems and Prospects [M], Washington, D. C.: Joint Information Service of the American Psychiatric Association and the National Association for Mental Health,1972, p. xi.
③ William Osler & T. McCrae (eds.), Modern Medicine [M],2nd rev.2 vols. cha.2, Philadelphia:Lea and Febiger, 1914, p.499.
④ E. J. Pellini, N. Y. State Journal Medicine 20,1920, p.119.
① E. J. Pellini, "Report of the Special Committee on Public Health of the Greater City of New York to the House of Delegates of the New York State Medical Society", N. Y. State J. Med.20,1920, p.117.
① David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp.3,113.
② W. A. Bloedom, Studies of Drug Addiction [J], U.S. Naval Medical Bulletin 11,1917, pp.309-310.
③ Charles E. Sceleth & Sidney Kuh, Drug Addiction [J], JAMA 82,1924, p.679.
④ Charles E. Terry, Some Recent Experiments in Narcotic Control [J], American Journal of public Health 11,1921, p. 33.
① Jill Jonnes, The Rise of the Modern Addict [J], American Journal of Public Health,1995,85:p.1158.
② Ernest S. Bishop, "Narcotic Addiction-A Systemic Disease Condition"[J], JAMA 60,1913, pp.431-434.
① David T. Courtwright, Dark Paradise [M], Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England: Harvard University Press,2001, pp.3-4.
② Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor [M], New York:Farrar, Straus & Giroux,1978, p.28.
① Philippine Commission Eighth Annual Report,1907, Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept. GPO,1907, part 2, p.18.
② Philippine Commission Eighth Annual Report,1909, Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept. GPO,1909, p.102.
③ Arnold H. Taylor,, American Diplomacy and the Narcotics Traffic,1900-1939 [M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1969, pp.43-45.
④详细内容可见本文的第八章内容—笔者按。
④ Hamilton Wright,9 January 1908, WP, entry 51.
① Letter from C. B. Towns to H. Wright,13 June 1911. WP, entry 36.
② Samuel Merwin, Fighting the Deadly Habits: The Story of Charles B. Towns [J], American Magazine, Oct.1912, pp. 707-717.
③ Ernest Drucker, From Morphine to Methadone [EB/OL] [30 Dec.2011]:http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
① Ibid.
② New York Times,23 March 1919, cited in Musto, op. cit.,1999, p.140.
③ Exportation of Opium, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Ways and Means on HR 14,500, House, 67th Cong.,3rd. Sess.,8 and 11 Dec.1920 and 3 and Jan.1921 [GPO,1921], p.47.
④ Laws of Massachusetts, Ch.694, sect.2, Acts of 1914.
⑤ Laws of Pennsylvania, Act no.282, sect.8, approved 11 July 1917.
⑥ J. A. Cutter, Medical Economics of the Boylan Law [J], Medical Economist 2,1914, p.296.
① Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed March 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, pp.3,9-15
② David R. Bewley-Taylor, the United States and International Drug Control [M], New York: Continuum,1999, p. 139.
① Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed March 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, pp.19-22.
② David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.139.
③ President's Home Commission [D], Senate Doc., no.644,60th Cong.,2nd Sess.,8 Jan.1909, p.258.
④ France Bill,66th Cong.,1st Sess., S 2785 on 15 Aug.1919.
① Letter from D. C. Roper to Sectary of Treasury,15 July 1919. PHSR.
② Charles E.Terry and Mildred Pellens, The Opium Problem [M], New York: Bureau of Social Hygiene,1928, p.887.
③ A. G. DuMez, Some Facts Concerning Drug Addiction [R], Memorandum dated 9 Dec.1918, sent to the Surgeon General from the Hygienic Laboratory,16 Dec.1918. PHSR.
①罗波的个人简历参见Roper, Daniel C. [EB/OL] [31Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper.
② Daniel C. Roper, Fifty Years of Public Life [M], Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press,1941, pp.186,189-193.
③这是国税局在1921年4月30日时的统计数字。参见：Letter from O.G. Forrer, Assistant Director, Narcotic Field Force, to L. g. Nutt, Director,30 April 1921, RPU。如果计算到1925年为止以及算上国税局无法把握的诊所,其数量则可能更多。
①格令(grain)为衡量中的最小单位,可略写为gr.,每格令相当于0.0648克—笔者按。
② New York Times [N],12 & 13 April 1919.
③ Letter from R. S. Copeland to Thomas Cooper, Treasury Department, BIR,16 Oct.1919.
④ S. D. Hubbard, "New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction"[J], Monthly Bull. Depart of Health N. Y. City 10,1920, pp.46-47,40.
① T. F. Joyce, "Denarcotizing the Addict" [J], Monthly Bull. Department Health N. Y. City, June 1921, pp.132-136.
② S. D. Hubbard, "New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction"[J], Monthly Bull. Depart of Health N. Y. City 10,1920, pp.46-47.
③罗波于1917年9月26日-1920年3月31日任职于国税局专员。其后任为威廉·威廉姆斯(William M. Williams,1920年4月1日-1921年4月11日)。[EB/OL] [2 Jan.2011]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_of_Internal_Revenue.
① Lambert, Alexander, The Underlying Causes of the Narcotic Habit [J], Modern Med.1,1920, p.8.
② S. D. Hubbard, New York City Narcotic Clinic and Differing Points of View on Narcotic Addiction [J], Monthly Bull. Depart of Health N. Y. City 10,1920, pp.34,42,44.
③ S. D. Hubbard, Some Fallacies Regarding Narcotic Drug Addiction [J]. JAMA 74,1920, pp.1440-1441.
④ S. D. Hubbard, Some Fallacies Regarding Narcotic Drug Addiction [J], JAMA 74,1920, pp.1439-1441; Municipal Narcotic Dispensaries [J], Public Health Reports 35,26 March 1920, pp.771-773.
① A. R. Braulich, Treatment of Drug Addiction at Riverside Hospital [J], Monthly Bull. Dept. Health N. Y. City, Feb. 1920, pp.47-49; T. F. Joyce, The Treatment of Drug Addictions [J], Weekly Bull, Dept. Health N. Y. City,9 Oct.1920, pp.322-324.
② Department of health, City of New York, Annual Report,1920, p.257.
③ T. F. Joyce, Denarcotizing the Addict [J], Monthly Bull. Dept. health N. Y. City, June 1921, p.136.
① A. G DuMez, Treatment of Drug Addiction [R], Memorandum to the Surgeon General,28 Feb.1919, PHSR.
② Letter from Dr. J. C. Perry to Dr. Oscar Dowling,29 Nov.1920. PHSR.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.179.
④ Letter from L. V. Nutt to Prohibition Commissioner John F. Kramer,5 May 1920, RPU.
① Special Committee of Investigation, Appointed March 25,1918, by the Secretary of the Treasury: Traffic in Narcotic Drugs [R], GPO,1919, p.3.
① Pearce Bailey, The Drug Habit in the United States [J], New Republic,16 March 1921, pp.67-69.
② T. F. Joyce, Denarcotizing the Addict [J], Monthly Bull. Department Health N. Y. City, June 1921, p.133..
③ Letter from Levi G. Nutt to John F. Kramer,5 May 1920, RPU.
④ U. S. Treasury Dept., Bureau of Internal Revenue, Amending M-Mim 2212 dated 31 July 1919 and Outlining Treatment of Narcotic Drug Addiction Permissible under the Harrison Narcotic Law, Pro-Mimeograph, pro., no.217, 19 Oct.1921, GPO,1921.
⑤ Hearings before House Appropriation Committee, Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong., 2nd Sess., p.475.
① Hearings before House Appropriation committee [R], Treasury Dept. Appropriation Bill 1930,23 Nov.1928,70th Cong.,2nd Sess., p.475.
② Albert S. Gregg, United Stated narcotic Farms [J], Narcotic Education 2,1928, pp.9-10.
③ Cong., Rec, Home,69, pt.9,70th Cong.,1st Sess.,21 May 1928, pp.9412-13.
④ Federal Narcotic Farm [J], California and Western Medicine, Vol.42, No.3, March 1935, pp.228-229.
⑤ Federal Medical Center, Lexington [EB/OL], [4 Jan.2011]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Medical_Center,_Lexington；此外,有关“列克星敦麻醉品农场”相关的历史、相片以及杂志等内容可详细参见：Campbell, Nancy D.& Olsen, JP & Walden, Luke, The Narcotic Farm [M], New York: Abrams,2008.
① Hunt, G. H. and Odoroff, M. E., "Follow-up Study of Narcotic Drug Addicts after Hospitalization"[J], Public Health Repots 77,1962, pp.41-54.
② Campbell, Nancy D.& Olsen, JP & Walden, Luke, The Narcotic Farm [M], New York: Abrams,2008, Cover page.
① Exportation of Opium, Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Ways and Means on HR 14,500, House, 66th Cong.,3rd Sess.,8 and 11 Dec.1920 and 3 and 4 Jan.1921, GPO,1921, pp.105,108,133.
② Lawrence Kolb, Pleasure and Deterioration from Narcotic Addiction [J], Mental Hygiene 9,1925, pp.699-724.
③ Editorial, JAMA 60,1913, p.1364.
① American Pharmaceutical Association Archives, box 31, Washington D. C., pp.86-87.
② U. S. v. Behrman,258 U. S.280,27 March 1922 [EB/OL] [5 Jan.2011]: http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/legal/11920/united_states_v_behrman.htm.
③ David F. Musto, The American Disease [M], New York: Oxford University Press,1999, p.186.
④ "House Investigation of Narcotics", House Res. no.258,67th Cong.,2nd Sess.,4 Jan.1922, Cong., Rec., vol.62, pt. 1, p.808.
① Proceedings of the St. Louis Session,23 May 1922 [J], JAMA 78,1922, p.1715.
② United State Supreme Court Distrusts the Harrison Narcotic Act [J], Editorial, JAMA 86,1926, pp.627-638.
③ Interim and Final Reports of the Joint Committee on Narcotic Drugs, Drug Addiction: Crime or disease [M], Bloomington & London: Indiana University Press,1961, p.5.
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26.赤色恐惧：[EB/OL] [12 Dec.2010] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Scare.
27. "170.5 Records of the Federal Narcotics Control Board":[EB/OL] [14 Dec.2010] http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.3.
28.哈利·安斯林格：[EB/OL] [11 Oct.2010] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_J._Anslinger.
29. http://www.justice.gov/dea/pubs/history/1970-1975.pdf
30. http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/170.html#170.1
31.美国宪法第18条与21条修正案：[EB/OL] [12Dec.2010] http://www.dffy.com/faxuejieti/jd/200502/20050203215123.htm.
32. "Arguments for and against Drug Prohibition":[EB/OL] [3 Jan.2011] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arguments_for_and_against_drug_prohibition#cite_ref-79.
33. http://www.justice.gov/dea/history.htm
34. The National Firearms Act:[EB/OL] [23 Dec.2010] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Firearms_Act_of_1934.
35. "Marihuana Tax Act of 1937":[EB/OL] [9 June 2010] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marihuana_Tax_Act_of_1937
36.州际商业贸易的联邦权力：[EB/OL][25 Dec.2010] http://tupian.hudong.com/a0_70_29_01300000802987128144292466568_jpg.html?prd=zhengwenye_left_neirong_tupian
37.罂粟：[EB/OL] [24 Dec.2010]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papaver_somniferum.
38.大麻：[EB/OL] [24 Dec.2010] http://en.wtkipedia.org/wiki/Cannabis_(drug).
39.可卡因：[EB/OL] [24 Dec.2010] http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E5%8D%A1%E5%9B%A0.
40.海洛因：[EB/OL] [24 Dec.2010] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroin.
41. Drucker, Ernest, "From morphine to Methadone:Maintenance Drugs in the Treatment of Opiate Addiction":[EB/OL][24 Dec.2010] http://www.drugtext.org/index.php/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
42. Drucker, Ernest, "From Morphine to Methadone":[EB/OL] [30 Dec.2011] http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
43.罗波(Daniel C. Roper) [EB/OL] [31Dec.2010]:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_C._Roper; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioner_of_Internal_Revenue.
44. "Federal Medical Center, Lexington" [EB/OL], [4 Jan.2011]: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Medical_Center,_Lexington.
45. U. S. v. Behrman,258 U. S.280,27 March 1922:[EB/OL] [5 Jan.2011] http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/legal/11920/united_states_v_behrman.h.
46. "U.S Drug Control Timeline":[EB/OL] [3 Feb.2011] http://www.prisontalk.com/forums/showthread.php?t=125815
47. A History of Opiate Laws in the United States":[EB/OL] [3 Feb.2011] http://www.naabt.org/laws.cfm.tm.
48. Focus on Marijuana:[EB/OL] [8 Nov.2010] http://www.iandrinstitute.org/BW%202004-2%20(Marijuana).pdf.
49.嬉皮士(Hippie or hippy):[EB/OL] [27 Jan.2011] http://baike.baidu.com/view/61912.htm#5.
50. "U.S Drug Control Timeline":[EB/OL] [3 Feb.2011] http://www.prisontalk.com/forums/showthread.php?t=125815.
51. "Drug Law Timeline":[EB/OL] [3 Feb.2011] http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/history/drug_law_timeline.htm.
52. "A History of Opiate Laws in the United States":[EB/OL] [3 Feb.2011] http://www.naabt.org/laws.cfm.
53. Drugker, E., From Morphine to Methadone:[EB/OL] [2 Feb.2011] http://www.drugtext.org/Opiates-heroin-methadone/from-morphine-to-methadone.html.
54. Keel, Robert, "Significant Events in the History of our Drug Laws", Soc.180 class of University of Missouri at Saint Louis:[EB/OL] [2 Jan.2011] http://www.umsl.edu/～rkeel/180/law.html.