膳食脂肪酸摄入水平、体内脂肪酸组成谱及其与乳腺癌发病的相关性研究
|
摘要
乳腺癌是女性最常见的恶性肿瘤,严重威胁着女性的生命与健康。据美国癌症协会报道,2007年世界范围内共有130万浸润性乳腺癌新发病例,并有46.5万妇女死于乳腺癌。在西欧、北美等发达国家,乳腺癌发病率占女性恶性肿瘤首位。我国以往属乳腺癌的低发区,然而近年来随着居民生活方式和膳食结构的改变,我国乳腺癌的发病率正以每年平均3%的速度递增,成为妇女死亡率增长最快的恶性肿瘤,同时乳腺癌的发病年龄也呈逐渐年轻化的趋势,给患者和社会都带来了沉重的负担。
为了降低乳腺癌的发病风险,国内、外学者对乳腺癌的发病机制以及早期诊断和预防的方法进行了广泛研究。近期研究发现,在乳腺癌高危人群中适时开展健康教育、化学预防或必要的手术预防能显著降低该人群乳腺癌的发生率,并改善其生活质量。因此,研究人员目前正致力于建立和完善乳腺癌的风险预测模型,通过对乳腺癌危险因素及生物标记物的确认和归纳,以有效从人群水平上筛选出乳腺癌的高危人群,从而为该人群激素替代治疗及常规检查方案的选择以及化学预防和手术预防的实施提供依据,以进一步巩固乳腺癌在人群水平上的预防效果。
目前国际上已经确认的乳腺癌常规危险因素主要包括年龄、乳腺癌家族史、乳腺良性疾病史、膳食因素、生殖因素、社会因素、性激素水平等。然而,以上研究大都在高加索籍妇女中开展。我国开展的乳腺癌病因学研究相对较少,且由于研究人群、设计方案、样本量及统计方法等因素的差异,这些研究结果之间也缺乏统一性,因而也不清楚种族差异是否会影响这些常规危险因素与乳腺癌发生的相关性。此外,大量的动物实验及人群研究表明乳腺癌也是与膳食、营养因素,尤其是膳食脂肪关系最为密切的一类肿瘤。然而,进一步研究发现饱和脂肪酸(SFA)、单不饱和脂肪酸(MUFA)和多不饱和脂肪酸(PUFA)对乳腺癌的发生与发展存在不同的效应,且不同n-6 PUFA与n-3PUFA比例也会影响乳腺癌的发生。尽管全球范围内对膳食、营养与乳腺癌之间的关系进行了大量的研究,但是由于各地膳食模式的差异、膳食成分的多样性和膳食摄入量估计的复杂性等方面的问题,膳食、脂肪酸与乳腺癌之间的关系还不完全清楚。因此,探讨当前阶段我国妇女乳腺癌发生的危险因素,同时结合居民膳食结构变迁的实际,全面评价不同脂肪酸摄入对乳腺癌发生的影响,对正确认识膳食脂肪的营养价值,指导人们从膳食途径及行为途径上预防乳腺癌具有积极的意义,并为乳腺癌高危人群的筛选和临床防治提供理论依据。
基于以上分析,本课题围绕“膳食脂肪酸与乳腺癌”的关系开展研究。通过开展乳腺癌组、乳腺良性疾病组和健康对照组的病例-对照研究,按统一标准共纳入乳腺癌新发病例458名,乳腺良性疾病新发病例392名,健康对照者789名,并按月经状态分成绝经前期和绝经后期,探讨了重庆地区妇女乳腺癌及乳腺良性疾病的危险因素,采用半定量食物频数表调查了各研究人群的食物消费以及脂肪酸摄入情况,并通过气相色谱法和电化学发光法检测了各人群血浆的脂肪酸组成谱及性激素水平,使用SPSS13.0软件比较各组脂肪酸及性激素水平的差异并分析不同暴露水平与乳腺癌发生风险的相关性。同时,本课题复制了MNU诱导的SD大鼠乳腺癌模型。通过膳食干预实验,观察了不同膳食脂肪酸(SFA、MUFA、n-6 PUFA、n-3 PUFA、1:1 n-6/n-3、5:1 n-6/n-3、10:1 n-6/n-3以及1:2:1 S/M/P)干预对化学致癌剂MNU诱导下大鼠乳腺癌发生的影响,同时利用气相色谱法检测各组大鼠血浆的脂肪酸组成,并分析了不同血浆脂肪酸水平与乳腺癌发生率差异的关系。
主要研究结果:
一、人群试验
1.乳腺癌常规危险因素调查:重庆地区乳腺癌发病多为教育程度高、精神抑郁、初产年龄大且有乳腺良性疾病史以及乳腺癌家族史的妇女,而BMI值大、WHR值大、行经年数长及有生殖系统疾病史的绝经后妇女亦为乳腺癌发病的高危人群。此外,人际关系好、初潮年龄大以及累积哺乳时间长等因素能在绝经前、后不同程度地降低乳腺癌的发生风险。影响乳腺良性疾病发生的主要因素与此类似,主要是教育程度高、精神抑郁、累积哺乳时间长、行经年数长以及生殖系统疾病史和乳腺癌家族史等。
2.血浆性激素水平与乳腺癌发生的相关性:乳腺癌患者三个时期内的雌二醇水平、黄体期的孕酮水平和绝经后期的睾酮水平均显著高于健康对照组(P<0.05)。Logistic回归分析提示血浆雌二醇水平上升是重庆地区妇女乳腺癌发生的重要危险因素,而睾酮水平上升也与绝经后妇女乳腺癌风险呈显著的正相关。黄体期和绝经后期妇女血浆的雌二醇水平上升亦能增加乳腺良性疾病的发生风险。
3.膳食脂肪酸摄入与乳腺癌发生的相关性:各组间的SFA及n-3 PUFA的摄入水平在绝经前、后均无明显差异。但是,绝经前、后期乳腺癌组MUFA(主要为C18:1)摄入显著低于健康对照组,而膳食n-6 PUFA(主要为C18:2)摄入和n-6/n-3比值则显著高于健康对照组。进一步分析发现,MUFA、n-6 PUFA摄入量及膳食n-6/n-3比能显著影响乳腺癌的发生,而该类因素仅在绝经后期与乳腺良性疾病的发生呈显著相关。此外,调查结果还提示膳食中高水平的膳食纤维、Ca、Zn、Vit C和胡萝卜素摄入对乳腺癌及乳腺良性疾病的发生具有一定的保护作用。
4.血浆脂肪酸组成与乳腺癌发生的相关性:绝经前、后妇女血浆高水平的C16:0和C18:1对乳腺癌的发生具有保护作用,而高水平的C18:2和n-6/n-3比值则能显著增加乳腺癌的发生风险。此外,绝经前期女性血浆高水平的C18:0也能显著增加乳腺癌的发病风险。血浆C18:1、C18:2水平及n-6/n-3比值亦能显著影响绝经后妇女乳腺良性疾病的发生风险。
二、动物干预实验
1.大鼠乳腺癌模型的复制:采用甲基亚硝基脲(MNU)以50mg/kg体重的剂量一次性给50日龄SD清洁级雌性大鼠腹腔注射,经病理学确认成功复制出大鼠乳腺癌模型;
2.不同膳食脂肪酸构成比对MNU诱导大鼠乳腺癌发生的影响:1:1 n-6/n-3组大鼠的乳腺癌发生率、多发率等指标显著低于SFA组、MUFA组、n-6 PUFA组、5:1 n-6/n-3组、10:1 n-6/n-3组以及1:2:1 S/M/P组大鼠。实验期内未观察到n-3 PUFA组大鼠乳腺癌的发生。
3.不同膳食脂肪酸干预对大鼠血浆脂肪酸组成的影响:膳食脂肪酸干预能显著影响大鼠体内血浆的脂肪酸组成,其变化趋势与膳食脂肪酸干预模式基本一致。与无乳腺癌诱发或低乳腺癌诱发的n-3 PUFA和1: 1 n-6/n-3组相比,高乳腺癌诱发组大鼠的血浆中C18: 0、C18: 2和n-6/n-3比值显著上升,而EPA和DHA含量显著降低。以上结果提示,不同膳食脂肪酸干预下大鼠血浆脂肪酸组成的改变以及n-6/n-3比例失衡可能是各组间大鼠乳腺癌发生差异性的主要原因之一。
综上所述,本研究从病例-对照研究和动物实验两方面,探讨了重庆地区乳腺癌发病的相关危险因素,并重点分析了膳食脂肪酸摄入、体内脂肪酸组成与乳腺癌发生的相关性。研究发现教育程度高、精神抑郁、经常痛经、BMI值大、行经年数长、乳腺良性疾病史、恶性肿瘤家族史、生殖系统疾病史以及血浆雌二醇和睾酮水平上升是重庆地区妇女乳腺癌发病的重要危险因素,而保持良好的人际关系、初潮年龄大、月经规则以及累积哺乳时间长则有助于预防乳腺癌的发生。影响乳腺良性疾病发生的危险因素与此类似,但在暴露程度和效应关系上有所不同。膳食因素在绝经前、后的乳腺癌发生中均起着重要作用,膳食纤维、Ca、Zn、Vit C、胡萝卜素摄入能有效预防乳腺癌的发生。同时,膳食MUFA的摄入能降低乳腺癌的发生风险,而n-6 PUFA摄入水平及膳食n-6/n-3比升高能增加乳腺癌的风险。人群血浆脂肪酸组成分析和动物实验结果与之类似,进一步提示合理的膳食脂肪酸构成比对预防乳腺癌的发生起着重要的作用,且膳食来源和体内血浆水平的n-6/n-3比例失衡是乳腺癌及乳腺良性疾病的重要危险因素。以上结果提示女性应在日常生活中保持良好的精神心理状态并选择合理的生活方式及生育方式;同时积极调整饮食平衡,保证蔬菜和水果的摄入,并在合理控制总脂肪、总SFA的基础上,适当降低n-6 PUFA的摄入而保证n-3 PUFA、MUFA的摄入,以从行为途径和膳食途径上更好地预防乳腺癌的发生。
Breast cancer, the most common malignancy tumor in women, severely threatens women’s health and life. According to the report of American Cancer Society, about 1.3 million new cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed among women worldwide in 2007, and 465,000 women were died from breast cancer. Breast cancer has the highest incidence rate than the other malignant tumors among women in the developed countries, such as in Western Europe and North America. Chinese women had traditionally lower incidence of breast cancer in the past. However, with the change of life style and dietary structure in the recent twenty years, breast cancer incidence has been increased by 3% per year in China, accompanied by the largely increased breast cancer mortalities. At the same time, the age of women who developed breast cancer became younger than before.
Obviously, Breast cancer has imposed heavy burdens on the patients and society. To decrease the incidence rate of breast cancer, extensive studies has been conducted on the pathogenesis, early diagnose and preventive methods of breast cancer at home and abroad. According to the recent foundings, health education, chemoprevention and prophylactic surgery can significantly lower the incidence of breast cancer among those people who were at higher risk of breast cancer, and subsequently improve their quality of life. Therefore, researchers are engaged to establish and modify the risk predict mode for breast cancer, and to effectively screen the women at higher breast cancer risk from the general population through confirming and inducing the risk factors and biomarkers of breast cancer. These achievements are expected to provide rational advice on the hormone replacement therapy, routine breast examination, or essential chemoprevention and prophylactic surgery on these women.
According to the comprehensive etiology studies of breast cancer, the established conventional risk factors of breast cancer are believed to include age, family history of breast cancer, history of breast benign diseases, dietary factors, reproductive factors, social factors and sex hormones. However, these data were mainly obtained from Caucasian women. In our country, there were much fewer studies on breast cancer etiology. Due to the differences of study population, research protocols, sample size and statistical method among these researches, the findings lack uniformity. Consequently, it is still unclear whether racial inheritance affects the relationship between conventional risk factors and breast cancer risk. In addition, large animal experiments and cohort studies indicated that breast cancer has a close relationship with dietary factors, especially in dietary fat. However, further studies suggested that saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) had different effects on the breast carcinogenesis. Furthermore, different ratio of n-3/n-6 PUFA had different effects on the breast carcinogenesis. Although large quantities of researches had been conducted on the relationship between dietary nutrition intake and breast cancer risk, the relations between dietary fatty acid and breast cancer is still unclear due to different dietary mode, diversity of food composition and complexity of food intake estimation. As a result, the study on the risk factors of breast cancer among Chinese women and evaluation on the relationship between dietary fatty acid intake levels and breast cancer risk has important significance on the dietary and behavior prevention of breast cancer.
This project was designed to mainly evaluate the relationship between dietary fatty acid and women health. A case-control study was carried out to explore the conventional risk factors of breast cancer and breast benign disease. A total of 458 newly incident and histologically confirmed breast cancer, 392 breast benign disease patients and 789 healthy controls were enrolled into our study from February 2004 to December 2006. Subjects were divided into the premenopausal and postmenopausal group according to their menstrual status. All of the eligible participants were Chongqing female residents and consent to participate in our study. Semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire table was used to investigate the dietary pattern and fatty acid intake in the recent year. Gas chromatography was used to determine the plasma fatty acid composition, and the electrochemiluminescene immunoassay (ECLIA) technique was used to determine plasma sex hormone levels. Software SPSS 13.0 was applied to analyze the difference of fatty acid and sex hormone levels among different groups, and to evaluate the associations of breast cancer risk with plasma fatty acid compostion and sex steroid hormone levels. At the same time, animal experiment was conducted to study the intervention effect of the different fatty acid composition dietary (SFA、MUFA、n-6 PUFA、n-3 PUFA、1:1 n-6/n-3、5:1 n-6/n-3、10:1 n-6/n-3 and 1:2:1 S/M/P) on the incidence of the MNU induced breast cancer. We also determined the plasma fatty acid composition using gas chromatography and explored the underlying mechanism of different fatty acid compositions on the mammary carcinogenesis.
Main results
1. Population study
1.1 Study on the conventional risk factors of breast cancer: Our study suggested that higher education extent, mental depression, older at first live birth, with breast benign disease history and with family history of breast cancer were the risk factors of breast cancer among both pre- and post-menopausal women. Besides, higher BMI value, higher WHR value, longer duration of menstruation and with history of reproductive disease could also significantly increased the breast camcer risk among postmenopausal women. On the contray, better human relationship, older at menarche, longer duration of breastfeeding could effectively decrease the risk of breast cancer. Similar to breast cancer, factors affecting benign breast disease include higher education degree, spirit hurt, longer cumulative duration of lactation, longer duration of menstruation, history of reproductive disease and family history of breast cancer.
1.2 Plasma sex hormone levels and risk of breast cancer: Study period was divided into follicle phase, luteal phase and postmenopausal period here. We observed that levels of estrodiol in three periods, progesterone in the luteal phase, testosterone in the postmenopausal women were significantly higher than the respective healthy controls (P< 0.05). Furthermore, we observed significantly positive associations with the risk of breast cancer for estrodiol in all periods, progesterone in the luteal phase and testosterone in the postmenopausal period. Higher level of estrodiol in the luteal phase and in the postmenopausal period could also increase the incidence risk of breast benign disease.
1.3 Dietary fatty acid intake and its relevance to the breast cancer: There was no difference in SFA and n-3 PUFA intake among the three groups both in pre- and post-menopausal women. However, the intake of MUFA (mainly C18:1) in the breast cancer group were significantly lower than the healthy controls while n-6 PUFA (mainly C18:2) intake and ratio of n-6/n-3 were significantly higher than controls. Further analysis indicated that MUFA, n-6 PUFA intake and ratio of n-6/n-3 could significantly influence the incidence of breast cancer. While the MUFA, n-6 PUFA intake and ratio of n-6/n-3 had significant correlation with breast benign disease only in the postmenopausal women. In addition, We observed the corresponding protective effects of dietary fiber, Ca, Zn, Vit C and carotene on the incidence of breast cancer and breast benign disease.
1.4 Plasma fatty acid composition and its association with breast cancer risk: We observed high plasma levels of C16:0 and C18:1 were protective factors, while C18:2 and the ratio of n-6/n-3 were the risk factors of breast cancer both in pre- and post-menopausal women. We also observed that high plasma level of C18:0 could significantly increase the incidence risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women. Plasma levels of C18:1 and C18:2 and the ratio of n-6/n-3 could significantly influence the incidence risk of breast benign disease in post-menopause women.
2. Animal intervention experiment
2.1 SD rat mammary carcinogenesis model replication: The SD female rats (50 days old) of SPF grade were given MNU 50mg/kg once through intraperitoneal injection. The replication of SD rat mammary carcinogenesis model was confirmed by histopathology observation.
2.2 The effects of different fatty acid composition intervention on the incidence of MNU induced mammary tumors: The incidence rate and multiple sites incidence rate of mammary tumors were significantly lower in rats of 1:1 n-6/n-3 group than those in groups of SFA, MUFA, n-6 PUFA, 5:1 n-6/n-3, 10:1 n-6/n-3 and 1:2:1 S/M/P. We did not observed the breast carcinogenesis in rats of n-3 PUFA group.
2.3 The effects of different fatty acid composition intervention on the plasma fatty acid composition: The intervention of different dietary fatty acid could significantly influence the plasma fatty acid composition in rats, and the compositions were changed according to the corresponding mode of dietary fatty acid. Compared with n-3 PUFA group and 1:1 n-6/n-3 PUFA group which had no breast carcinogenesis or low breast tumor incidence, the plasma level of C18:0, C18:2 and ratio of n-6/n-3 increased significantly while the plasma level of EPA and DHA reduced significantly in the other groups with high mammary tumor incidence. The above results suggest that the changes of plasma fatty acid compositions might be the important factors to affect the incidence of mammary tumor.
In summary, through the above population study and animal experiment, our project investigated the risk factors of breast cancer in Chongqing, evaluated the associations of dietary fatty acid intake, plasma fatty acid composition and plasma sex hormone levels with breast cancer risk. We observed that higher education extent, mental depression, higher BMI values, longer duration of menstruation, history of breast benign disease, family history of breast cancer, history of reproductive disease, higher levels of estradiol and testosterone were the important risk factors of breast cancer in Chongqing women. Besides, good human relationship, older at menarche, and longer duration of breastfeeding were the protective factors of breast cancer. The risk factors influencing the breast benign disease were similar with those influencing the breast cancer. Dietary factors are also closely related with breast cancer risk both in pre- and post-menopause women. Dietary fiber, Ca, Zn, Vit C, carotene and MUFA intake might effectively prevent the breast cancer, while dietary n-6 PUFA intake and increased ration of n-6/n-3 might increase the risk of breast cancer. The above factors could influence breast benign disease risk in postmenopausal women as well. Combined with the results of dietary fatty acid intake, plasma fatty acid composition and animal experiment, we found that MUFA and n-6 PUFA levels are closely related with breast cancer risk. Besides, the unbalanced ratio of n-6/n-3 in dietary intake and plasma fatty acid composition might also be the important risk factor of breast cancer and breast benign disease. In consideration of the residents’current dietary structure and life style, the above results suggested that women should keep good mental state and reasonable life style (including possible selection of menstruation and reproductive style). At the same time, basing on the rational dietary structure, they should control the intake level of total fat and total SFA, reduce the intake of n-6 PUFA and assure the intake of n-3 PUFA, MUFA and dietary fiber, so as to eventually prevent breast cancer from behavior and dietary pathways.
为了降低乳腺癌的发病风险,国内、外学者对乳腺癌的发病机制以及早期诊断和预防的方法进行了广泛研究。近期研究发现,在乳腺癌高危人群中适时开展健康教育、化学预防或必要的手术预防能显著降低该人群乳腺癌的发生率,并改善其生活质量。因此,研究人员目前正致力于建立和完善乳腺癌的风险预测模型,通过对乳腺癌危险因素及生物标记物的确认和归纳,以有效从人群水平上筛选出乳腺癌的高危人群,从而为该人群激素替代治疗及常规检查方案的选择以及化学预防和手术预防的实施提供依据,以进一步巩固乳腺癌在人群水平上的预防效果。
目前国际上已经确认的乳腺癌常规危险因素主要包括年龄、乳腺癌家族史、乳腺良性疾病史、膳食因素、生殖因素、社会因素、性激素水平等。然而,以上研究大都在高加索籍妇女中开展。我国开展的乳腺癌病因学研究相对较少,且由于研究人群、设计方案、样本量及统计方法等因素的差异,这些研究结果之间也缺乏统一性,因而也不清楚种族差异是否会影响这些常规危险因素与乳腺癌发生的相关性。此外,大量的动物实验及人群研究表明乳腺癌也是与膳食、营养因素,尤其是膳食脂肪关系最为密切的一类肿瘤。然而,进一步研究发现饱和脂肪酸(SFA)、单不饱和脂肪酸(MUFA)和多不饱和脂肪酸(PUFA)对乳腺癌的发生与发展存在不同的效应,且不同n-6 PUFA与n-3PUFA比例也会影响乳腺癌的发生。尽管全球范围内对膳食、营养与乳腺癌之间的关系进行了大量的研究,但是由于各地膳食模式的差异、膳食成分的多样性和膳食摄入量估计的复杂性等方面的问题,膳食、脂肪酸与乳腺癌之间的关系还不完全清楚。因此,探讨当前阶段我国妇女乳腺癌发生的危险因素,同时结合居民膳食结构变迁的实际,全面评价不同脂肪酸摄入对乳腺癌发生的影响,对正确认识膳食脂肪的营养价值,指导人们从膳食途径及行为途径上预防乳腺癌具有积极的意义,并为乳腺癌高危人群的筛选和临床防治提供理论依据。
基于以上分析,本课题围绕“膳食脂肪酸与乳腺癌”的关系开展研究。通过开展乳腺癌组、乳腺良性疾病组和健康对照组的病例-对照研究,按统一标准共纳入乳腺癌新发病例458名,乳腺良性疾病新发病例392名,健康对照者789名,并按月经状态分成绝经前期和绝经后期,探讨了重庆地区妇女乳腺癌及乳腺良性疾病的危险因素,采用半定量食物频数表调查了各研究人群的食物消费以及脂肪酸摄入情况,并通过气相色谱法和电化学发光法检测了各人群血浆的脂肪酸组成谱及性激素水平,使用SPSS13.0软件比较各组脂肪酸及性激素水平的差异并分析不同暴露水平与乳腺癌发生风险的相关性。同时,本课题复制了MNU诱导的SD大鼠乳腺癌模型。通过膳食干预实验,观察了不同膳食脂肪酸(SFA、MUFA、n-6 PUFA、n-3 PUFA、1:1 n-6/n-3、5:1 n-6/n-3、10:1 n-6/n-3以及1:2:1 S/M/P)干预对化学致癌剂MNU诱导下大鼠乳腺癌发生的影响,同时利用气相色谱法检测各组大鼠血浆的脂肪酸组成,并分析了不同血浆脂肪酸水平与乳腺癌发生率差异的关系。
主要研究结果:
一、人群试验
1.乳腺癌常规危险因素调查:重庆地区乳腺癌发病多为教育程度高、精神抑郁、初产年龄大且有乳腺良性疾病史以及乳腺癌家族史的妇女,而BMI值大、WHR值大、行经年数长及有生殖系统疾病史的绝经后妇女亦为乳腺癌发病的高危人群。此外,人际关系好、初潮年龄大以及累积哺乳时间长等因素能在绝经前、后不同程度地降低乳腺癌的发生风险。影响乳腺良性疾病发生的主要因素与此类似,主要是教育程度高、精神抑郁、累积哺乳时间长、行经年数长以及生殖系统疾病史和乳腺癌家族史等。
2.血浆性激素水平与乳腺癌发生的相关性:乳腺癌患者三个时期内的雌二醇水平、黄体期的孕酮水平和绝经后期的睾酮水平均显著高于健康对照组(P<0.05)。Logistic回归分析提示血浆雌二醇水平上升是重庆地区妇女乳腺癌发生的重要危险因素,而睾酮水平上升也与绝经后妇女乳腺癌风险呈显著的正相关。黄体期和绝经后期妇女血浆的雌二醇水平上升亦能增加乳腺良性疾病的发生风险。
3.膳食脂肪酸摄入与乳腺癌发生的相关性:各组间的SFA及n-3 PUFA的摄入水平在绝经前、后均无明显差异。但是,绝经前、后期乳腺癌组MUFA(主要为C18:1)摄入显著低于健康对照组,而膳食n-6 PUFA(主要为C18:2)摄入和n-6/n-3比值则显著高于健康对照组。进一步分析发现,MUFA、n-6 PUFA摄入量及膳食n-6/n-3比能显著影响乳腺癌的发生,而该类因素仅在绝经后期与乳腺良性疾病的发生呈显著相关。此外,调查结果还提示膳食中高水平的膳食纤维、Ca、Zn、Vit C和胡萝卜素摄入对乳腺癌及乳腺良性疾病的发生具有一定的保护作用。
4.血浆脂肪酸组成与乳腺癌发生的相关性:绝经前、后妇女血浆高水平的C16:0和C18:1对乳腺癌的发生具有保护作用,而高水平的C18:2和n-6/n-3比值则能显著增加乳腺癌的发生风险。此外,绝经前期女性血浆高水平的C18:0也能显著增加乳腺癌的发病风险。血浆C18:1、C18:2水平及n-6/n-3比值亦能显著影响绝经后妇女乳腺良性疾病的发生风险。
二、动物干预实验
1.大鼠乳腺癌模型的复制:采用甲基亚硝基脲(MNU)以50mg/kg体重的剂量一次性给50日龄SD清洁级雌性大鼠腹腔注射,经病理学确认成功复制出大鼠乳腺癌模型;
2.不同膳食脂肪酸构成比对MNU诱导大鼠乳腺癌发生的影响:1:1 n-6/n-3组大鼠的乳腺癌发生率、多发率等指标显著低于SFA组、MUFA组、n-6 PUFA组、5:1 n-6/n-3组、10:1 n-6/n-3组以及1:2:1 S/M/P组大鼠。实验期内未观察到n-3 PUFA组大鼠乳腺癌的发生。
3.不同膳食脂肪酸干预对大鼠血浆脂肪酸组成的影响:膳食脂肪酸干预能显著影响大鼠体内血浆的脂肪酸组成,其变化趋势与膳食脂肪酸干预模式基本一致。与无乳腺癌诱发或低乳腺癌诱发的n-3 PUFA和1: 1 n-6/n-3组相比,高乳腺癌诱发组大鼠的血浆中C18: 0、C18: 2和n-6/n-3比值显著上升,而EPA和DHA含量显著降低。以上结果提示,不同膳食脂肪酸干预下大鼠血浆脂肪酸组成的改变以及n-6/n-3比例失衡可能是各组间大鼠乳腺癌发生差异性的主要原因之一。
综上所述,本研究从病例-对照研究和动物实验两方面,探讨了重庆地区乳腺癌发病的相关危险因素,并重点分析了膳食脂肪酸摄入、体内脂肪酸组成与乳腺癌发生的相关性。研究发现教育程度高、精神抑郁、经常痛经、BMI值大、行经年数长、乳腺良性疾病史、恶性肿瘤家族史、生殖系统疾病史以及血浆雌二醇和睾酮水平上升是重庆地区妇女乳腺癌发病的重要危险因素,而保持良好的人际关系、初潮年龄大、月经规则以及累积哺乳时间长则有助于预防乳腺癌的发生。影响乳腺良性疾病发生的危险因素与此类似,但在暴露程度和效应关系上有所不同。膳食因素在绝经前、后的乳腺癌发生中均起着重要作用,膳食纤维、Ca、Zn、Vit C、胡萝卜素摄入能有效预防乳腺癌的发生。同时,膳食MUFA的摄入能降低乳腺癌的发生风险,而n-6 PUFA摄入水平及膳食n-6/n-3比升高能增加乳腺癌的风险。人群血浆脂肪酸组成分析和动物实验结果与之类似,进一步提示合理的膳食脂肪酸构成比对预防乳腺癌的发生起着重要的作用,且膳食来源和体内血浆水平的n-6/n-3比例失衡是乳腺癌及乳腺良性疾病的重要危险因素。以上结果提示女性应在日常生活中保持良好的精神心理状态并选择合理的生活方式及生育方式;同时积极调整饮食平衡,保证蔬菜和水果的摄入,并在合理控制总脂肪、总SFA的基础上,适当降低n-6 PUFA的摄入而保证n-3 PUFA、MUFA的摄入,以从行为途径和膳食途径上更好地预防乳腺癌的发生。
Breast cancer, the most common malignancy tumor in women, severely threatens women’s health and life. According to the report of American Cancer Society, about 1.3 million new cases of invasive breast cancer were diagnosed among women worldwide in 2007, and 465,000 women were died from breast cancer. Breast cancer has the highest incidence rate than the other malignant tumors among women in the developed countries, such as in Western Europe and North America. Chinese women had traditionally lower incidence of breast cancer in the past. However, with the change of life style and dietary structure in the recent twenty years, breast cancer incidence has been increased by 3% per year in China, accompanied by the largely increased breast cancer mortalities. At the same time, the age of women who developed breast cancer became younger than before.
Obviously, Breast cancer has imposed heavy burdens on the patients and society. To decrease the incidence rate of breast cancer, extensive studies has been conducted on the pathogenesis, early diagnose and preventive methods of breast cancer at home and abroad. According to the recent foundings, health education, chemoprevention and prophylactic surgery can significantly lower the incidence of breast cancer among those people who were at higher risk of breast cancer, and subsequently improve their quality of life. Therefore, researchers are engaged to establish and modify the risk predict mode for breast cancer, and to effectively screen the women at higher breast cancer risk from the general population through confirming and inducing the risk factors and biomarkers of breast cancer. These achievements are expected to provide rational advice on the hormone replacement therapy, routine breast examination, or essential chemoprevention and prophylactic surgery on these women.
According to the comprehensive etiology studies of breast cancer, the established conventional risk factors of breast cancer are believed to include age, family history of breast cancer, history of breast benign diseases, dietary factors, reproductive factors, social factors and sex hormones. However, these data were mainly obtained from Caucasian women. In our country, there were much fewer studies on breast cancer etiology. Due to the differences of study population, research protocols, sample size and statistical method among these researches, the findings lack uniformity. Consequently, it is still unclear whether racial inheritance affects the relationship between conventional risk factors and breast cancer risk. In addition, large animal experiments and cohort studies indicated that breast cancer has a close relationship with dietary factors, especially in dietary fat. However, further studies suggested that saturated fatty acid (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) had different effects on the breast carcinogenesis. Furthermore, different ratio of n-3/n-6 PUFA had different effects on the breast carcinogenesis. Although large quantities of researches had been conducted on the relationship between dietary nutrition intake and breast cancer risk, the relations between dietary fatty acid and breast cancer is still unclear due to different dietary mode, diversity of food composition and complexity of food intake estimation. As a result, the study on the risk factors of breast cancer among Chinese women and evaluation on the relationship between dietary fatty acid intake levels and breast cancer risk has important significance on the dietary and behavior prevention of breast cancer.
This project was designed to mainly evaluate the relationship between dietary fatty acid and women health. A case-control study was carried out to explore the conventional risk factors of breast cancer and breast benign disease. A total of 458 newly incident and histologically confirmed breast cancer, 392 breast benign disease patients and 789 healthy controls were enrolled into our study from February 2004 to December 2006. Subjects were divided into the premenopausal and postmenopausal group according to their menstrual status. All of the eligible participants were Chongqing female residents and consent to participate in our study. Semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire table was used to investigate the dietary pattern and fatty acid intake in the recent year. Gas chromatography was used to determine the plasma fatty acid composition, and the electrochemiluminescene immunoassay (ECLIA) technique was used to determine plasma sex hormone levels. Software SPSS 13.0 was applied to analyze the difference of fatty acid and sex hormone levels among different groups, and to evaluate the associations of breast cancer risk with plasma fatty acid compostion and sex steroid hormone levels. At the same time, animal experiment was conducted to study the intervention effect of the different fatty acid composition dietary (SFA、MUFA、n-6 PUFA、n-3 PUFA、1:1 n-6/n-3、5:1 n-6/n-3、10:1 n-6/n-3 and 1:2:1 S/M/P) on the incidence of the MNU induced breast cancer. We also determined the plasma fatty acid composition using gas chromatography and explored the underlying mechanism of different fatty acid compositions on the mammary carcinogenesis.
Main results
1. Population study
1.1 Study on the conventional risk factors of breast cancer: Our study suggested that higher education extent, mental depression, older at first live birth, with breast benign disease history and with family history of breast cancer were the risk factors of breast cancer among both pre- and post-menopausal women. Besides, higher BMI value, higher WHR value, longer duration of menstruation and with history of reproductive disease could also significantly increased the breast camcer risk among postmenopausal women. On the contray, better human relationship, older at menarche, longer duration of breastfeeding could effectively decrease the risk of breast cancer. Similar to breast cancer, factors affecting benign breast disease include higher education degree, spirit hurt, longer cumulative duration of lactation, longer duration of menstruation, history of reproductive disease and family history of breast cancer.
1.2 Plasma sex hormone levels and risk of breast cancer: Study period was divided into follicle phase, luteal phase and postmenopausal period here. We observed that levels of estrodiol in three periods, progesterone in the luteal phase, testosterone in the postmenopausal women were significantly higher than the respective healthy controls (P< 0.05). Furthermore, we observed significantly positive associations with the risk of breast cancer for estrodiol in all periods, progesterone in the luteal phase and testosterone in the postmenopausal period. Higher level of estrodiol in the luteal phase and in the postmenopausal period could also increase the incidence risk of breast benign disease.
1.3 Dietary fatty acid intake and its relevance to the breast cancer: There was no difference in SFA and n-3 PUFA intake among the three groups both in pre- and post-menopausal women. However, the intake of MUFA (mainly C18:1) in the breast cancer group were significantly lower than the healthy controls while n-6 PUFA (mainly C18:2) intake and ratio of n-6/n-3 were significantly higher than controls. Further analysis indicated that MUFA, n-6 PUFA intake and ratio of n-6/n-3 could significantly influence the incidence of breast cancer. While the MUFA, n-6 PUFA intake and ratio of n-6/n-3 had significant correlation with breast benign disease only in the postmenopausal women. In addition, We observed the corresponding protective effects of dietary fiber, Ca, Zn, Vit C and carotene on the incidence of breast cancer and breast benign disease.
1.4 Plasma fatty acid composition and its association with breast cancer risk: We observed high plasma levels of C16:0 and C18:1 were protective factors, while C18:2 and the ratio of n-6/n-3 were the risk factors of breast cancer both in pre- and post-menopausal women. We also observed that high plasma level of C18:0 could significantly increase the incidence risk of breast cancer in premenopausal women. Plasma levels of C18:1 and C18:2 and the ratio of n-6/n-3 could significantly influence the incidence risk of breast benign disease in post-menopause women.
2. Animal intervention experiment
2.1 SD rat mammary carcinogenesis model replication: The SD female rats (50 days old) of SPF grade were given MNU 50mg/kg once through intraperitoneal injection. The replication of SD rat mammary carcinogenesis model was confirmed by histopathology observation.
2.2 The effects of different fatty acid composition intervention on the incidence of MNU induced mammary tumors: The incidence rate and multiple sites incidence rate of mammary tumors were significantly lower in rats of 1:1 n-6/n-3 group than those in groups of SFA, MUFA, n-6 PUFA, 5:1 n-6/n-3, 10:1 n-6/n-3 and 1:2:1 S/M/P. We did not observed the breast carcinogenesis in rats of n-3 PUFA group.
2.3 The effects of different fatty acid composition intervention on the plasma fatty acid composition: The intervention of different dietary fatty acid could significantly influence the plasma fatty acid composition in rats, and the compositions were changed according to the corresponding mode of dietary fatty acid. Compared with n-3 PUFA group and 1:1 n-6/n-3 PUFA group which had no breast carcinogenesis or low breast tumor incidence, the plasma level of C18:0, C18:2 and ratio of n-6/n-3 increased significantly while the plasma level of EPA and DHA reduced significantly in the other groups with high mammary tumor incidence. The above results suggest that the changes of plasma fatty acid compositions might be the important factors to affect the incidence of mammary tumor.
In summary, through the above population study and animal experiment, our project investigated the risk factors of breast cancer in Chongqing, evaluated the associations of dietary fatty acid intake, plasma fatty acid composition and plasma sex hormone levels with breast cancer risk. We observed that higher education extent, mental depression, higher BMI values, longer duration of menstruation, history of breast benign disease, family history of breast cancer, history of reproductive disease, higher levels of estradiol and testosterone were the important risk factors of breast cancer in Chongqing women. Besides, good human relationship, older at menarche, and longer duration of breastfeeding were the protective factors of breast cancer. The risk factors influencing the breast benign disease were similar with those influencing the breast cancer. Dietary factors are also closely related with breast cancer risk both in pre- and post-menopause women. Dietary fiber, Ca, Zn, Vit C, carotene and MUFA intake might effectively prevent the breast cancer, while dietary n-6 PUFA intake and increased ration of n-6/n-3 might increase the risk of breast cancer. The above factors could influence breast benign disease risk in postmenopausal women as well. Combined with the results of dietary fatty acid intake, plasma fatty acid composition and animal experiment, we found that MUFA and n-6 PUFA levels are closely related with breast cancer risk. Besides, the unbalanced ratio of n-6/n-3 in dietary intake and plasma fatty acid composition might also be the important risk factor of breast cancer and breast benign disease. In consideration of the residents’current dietary structure and life style, the above results suggested that women should keep good mental state and reasonable life style (including possible selection of menstruation and reproductive style). At the same time, basing on the rational dietary structure, they should control the intake level of total fat and total SFA, reduce the intake of n-6 PUFA and assure the intake of n-3 PUFA, MUFA and dietary fiber, so as to eventually prevent breast cancer from behavior and dietary pathways.
引文
1. Colditz GA, Sellers TA, Trapido E. Epidemiology– identifying the causes and preventability of cancer? Nat Rev. 2006; 6: 75-83.
2. Garcia M, Jemal A, Ward EM, Center MM, Hao Y, Siegel RL, Thun MJ. Global Cancer Facts & Figures 2007. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2007.
3.王启俊,祝伟星,袁光亮,等.北京地区乳腺癌流行现状及趋势.中国肿瘤,1996;5(6):6.
4.金凡.上海市区1972年一1992年乳腺癌发病趋势.中国肿瘤,1996;5(6):8.
5.郑莹,李德录,向泳梅,等.上海市区乳腺癌流行现状及趋势分析.外科理论与实践,2001;6(4):219-221.
6.曹卡加,吴一龙,马国胜,等.广州市乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国肿瘤,2001;10(12):702-704.
7.王启俊,祝伟星,邢秀梅.北京城区女性乳腺癌发病死亡和生存情况20年监测分析.中华肿瘤杂志,2006;28(3):208-210.
8.上海市肿瘤研究所流行病学研究室.1993年上海市市区居民恶性肿瘤发病率统计.肿瘤,1996;16(3):445.
9.上海市肿瘤研究所流行病学研究室.1999年上海市市区恶性肿瘤发病率.肿瘤,2002;22(3):259.
10.上海市疾病预防控制中心.2003年上海市市区恶性肿瘤发病率.肿瘤,2006;26(7):694.
11. Paget J.Address in surgery. Lancet 1862; 80: 158-164.
12. Kushi LH, Byers T, Doyle C, et al. American Cancer Society Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA Cancer J Clin. 2006; 56(5): 254-281; quiz 313-254.
13. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1371–1388.
14. Rebbeck TR, Levin AM, Eisen A, et al. Breast cancer risk after bilateral prophylactic oophorectomy in BRCA1 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91:1475–1479.
15. Fabian CJ, Kimler BF, Zalles CM,et al. Short-Term Breast Cancer Prediction by Random Periareolar Fine-Needle Aspiration Cytology and the Gail Risk Model. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 1217–1227.
16. Freedman AN, Seminara D, Gail MH, et al. Cancer Risk Prediction Models: A Workshop on Development, Evaluation, and Application. J NatlCancer Inst 2005; 97: 715– 723.
17. Armstrong K, Eisen A, Weber B. Assessing the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:564-571.
18. Hulka BS, Moorman PG. Breast cancer: hormones and other risk factors. Maturitas 2001; 38(1):103-113; discussion 113-106.
19. American Cancer Society. Breast Cancer Facts & Figures 2007-2008. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, Inc.
20. Lupulescu A. Estrogen use and cancer incidence: a review. Cancer Invest 1995; 13: 287-295.
21. Henderson BE, Ross RK, Pike MC, Casagrande JT. Endogenous hormones as a major factor in human cancer. Cancer Res 1982; 42: 3232-3239.
22.姚凤一,曲盛义,高道利,等.乳腺癌发病因素研究.中华流行病学杂志,1981;2(4)∶253.
23.李会庆,李天霖,张孔来,等.北京市城区女性乳腺癌某些危险因素的调查研究.中华流行病学杂志,1986;7 (3)∶160.
24.汪洋,贾庆良,周燕荣,等.重庆市人群肺癌肝癌和乳腺癌危险因素研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,2000;8 (1):26.
25.王启俊,李玲,祝伟星,等.中国城市居民乳腺癌危险因素研究.中华流行病学杂志,2000,6 (3):216-220.
26.方亚,吴家刚,施侣元.262例女性乳腺癌的病例对照研究及其多因素分析.中华流行病学杂志,2005;26(11):925.
27. Gao YT, Shu XO, Dai Q, et al. Association of menstrual and reproductive factors with breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai breast cancer study. Int J Cancer 2000; 87: 295-300.
28.姚凤一,陈凡,王淑石,等.性激素与乳腺癌及乳腺纤维腺瘤关系的研究.中华内分泌代谢杂志,1987;3(4):236-237.
29.黄朴厚,詹新恩,谷成明.雌二醇、孕酮与良性乳腺疾病的关系.中华外科杂志,1988;26(11):644-645.
30. Yu H, Shu XO, Shi RH, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Li BDL, Zheng W. Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2003; 105: 92–7.
31.徐红,王为忠,张新国,等.血清雌二醇、孕激素与乳腺疾病的关系.医学研究生学报,2004;17(1):30-32.
32.胡名柏,谢伟,熊斌,等.血浆类固醇性激素水平与女性乳腺癌危险性的关系.武汉大学学报,2004;25(6):694-697.
33. Rogers AE. Diet and breast cancer: Studies in laboratory animals. J Nutr 1997; 127(5): 933s-935s.
34. D'Avanzo B, Negri E, Gramenzi A, et al. Fats in seasoning and breast cancer risk: an Italian case-control study. Eur J Cancer 1991, 27:420-423.
35. Potischman N, Weiss HA, Swanson CA, et al. Diet during adolescence and risk of breast cancer among young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998, 90:226-233.
36. Willett WC.Diet and Breast Cancer. J Intern Med 2001; 249:395-411.
37. Stillwell W, Jenski L. International workshop on cellular and molecular aspects ofω-3 fatty acids and cancer. J Lipid Res 2002, 43(9): 1579-1580.
38. Gago-Dominguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, et al. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br J Cancer 2003, 89(9): 1686-1692.
39. Escrich E, Solanas M, Soler M, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated n-6 lipids effects on the growth and fatty acid composition of rat mammary tumors. J Nutr Biochem 2001, 12(9): 536-549.
40. Larsson SC, Kumlin M, Ingelman-Sundberg M, et al. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids for the prevention of cancer: a review of potential mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 79(6): 935-945.
41. Jude S, Roger S, Martel E, et al. Dietary long-chain omega-3 fatty acid of marine origin: A comparison of their protective effects on coronary heart disease and breast cancers. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2006, 90(1-3): 299-325.
42.马良才.苏州市居民膳食调查分析.上海预防医学杂志,1995;7(5):219-221.
43.刘平,张勇,赵梅.重庆市188户农村居民膳食结构及营养状况分析.重庆医科大学学报,2000;25(2):144-147.
44.张坚,王春荣,高俊全,等.我国居民膳食脂类摄入量的研究.营养学报,2004;26(3):167-171.
45.绛增昌,陈晓荣,汪韶洁,等.青岛市居民膳食结构和营养状况调查.中国公共卫生,2006;22(1):91-92.
46. Binukumar B, Mathew A. Dietary fat and risk of breast cancer. Morld J Surg Oncol, 2005, 18(3): 45-51.
47. Missmer SA, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, et al. Meat and dairy food consumption and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2002; 31: 78–85.
48. Gerber M, Thiébaut A, Astorg P, et al. Dietary fat, fatty acid composition and risk of cancer. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol 2005; 107: 540–559.
49.戴军,苏宜香,阎凤,等.校准食物频数法调查广州II型糖尿病患者膳食及脂肪酸构成比.中国公共卫生,2000;16(1):43-44.
50.于红霞,赵仲堂,潘玉珍,等.城区居民膳食调查.疾病控制杂志,1999;3(1):29-32.
51. American Cancer Society. Breast Cancer Facts & Figures 2005-2006. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, Inc.
52. Yager JD, Davidson NE. Estrogen Carcinogenesis in Breast Cancer. NEJM 2006 354:270-282.
53. Russo IH, Russo J. Mammary gland neoplasia in long term rodent studies. Environ. Health Perspect 1996; 104:938-967.
54. Yang X, Edgerton SM, Kosanke SD, et al. Hormonal and Dietary Modulation of Mammary Carcinogenesis in Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus-c-erbB-2 Transgenic Mice. Cancer Res 2003 63:2425-2433.
55. Jean M. Gudas JM, Nguyen H, Li T, et al. Hormone-dependent Regulation of BRCA1 in Human Breast Cancer Cells. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 4561-4565.
56. Hilakivi-Clarke L. Estrogens, BRCA1, and Breast Cancer. Cancer Res 2000; 60(18): 4993 - 5001.
57. Hulka B. Dietary fat and breast cancer: case-control and cohort studies. Prey Med1989; 18:180-193.
58. Kohlmeier L, Biomarkersof fatty acid exposureand breast cancer risk. Am J Clin Nuir l997; 66(suppl): 1548S-1556S.
59. Goldin BR, Woods MN, Spiegelman DL, et al. The effect of dietary fat and fiber on serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women under controlled dietary conditions. Cancer 1994; 74(suppl): l125-1131.
60. Rose DP, Connolly JM, Chlebowski RT, Buzzard IM, Wynder EL. The effectsof a low-fatdietary interventionand tamoxifenadjuvant therapy on the serum estrogen and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations of postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat l993; 27: 253-262.
61.刘隆健,吴凯南,林晓宁,等.重庆市妇女乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国肿瘤,1998;7(11):12-14.
62.汪祥辉,陈卫宇,雷通海,等.浙江慈溪农村妇女乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国肿瘤,2006;15(5):294-294.
63. Radloff LS. The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1977; 1:385-401.
64. Berek JS主编;段涛,丰有吉主译.NOVAK妇科学.第13版.北京:人民卫生出版社,2005.
65. McIntosh JE, Matthews CD, Crocker JM, Broom TJ, Cox LW. Predicting the luteinizing hormone surge: relationship between the duration of the follicular and luteal phases and the length of the human menstrual cycle Fertil Steril. 1980;34:125–30.
66. Forest JC, MasséJ, Lane A. Evaluation of the analytical performance of the Boehringer Mannheim Elecsys? 2010 immunoanalyzer. Clin Biochem 1998;31:81–8.
67. Sánchez-Carbayo M, Mauri M, Alfayate R, Miralles C, Soria F. Analytical and Clinical Evaluation of TSH and Thyroid Hormones by Electrochemiluminescent Immunoassays. Clin Biochem 1999; 32: 395–403.
68. Secreto G, Toniolo P, Pisani P, et al. Androgens and breast cancer in premenopausal women. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 471– 476.
69. Muti P, Trevisan M, Micheli A, et al. Reliability of serum hormones in premenopausal and postmenopausal women over a one-year period. Cancer Epidemiol BiomarkersPrev 1996; 5: 917-922.
70. Verkasalo PK, Thomus HV, Appleby PN, et al. Circulating levels of sex hormones and their relation to risk factors for breast cancer: a cross-sectional study in 1092 pre and post menopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 2001; 12 (1): 47-59.
71.杨五计,鲁光恩,王晓山,等.几种性激素水平与乳腺结构不良、乳腺癌关系的研究.中国厂矿医学,2002;15(1):3-4.
72. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, Speizer FE. Plasma Sex Steroid Hormone Levels and Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1292–1299.
73.李玲,饶克勤,王启俊.肿瘤危险因素的筛选与多重共线性的诊断和处理.中国卫生统计,1999;16(3):136.
74. Hiroshi N. Life in the twenty-first century. WHO report, 1998
75.李广灿,叶召.全球常见恶性肿瘤的当前流行趋势.肿瘤防治研究,1999;26(4):308-312.
76. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures 2006. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 2006.
77.金宗浩,主编.乳腺增生和乳腺癌.上海:上海科学技术文献出版社,2003.
78. Wooster R, Bignell G, Lancaster J, et al. Identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2. Nature 1995; 378(6559):789-792.
79. West M, Blanchette C, Dressman H, et al. Predicting the clinical status of human breast cancer by using gene expression profiles. PNAS 2001; 98(20): 11462-11467.
80. Helmbold P, Haerting J, K?lbl H, et al. Gene-Expression Signatures in Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1715-1717.
81. Kenemans P, VerstraetenRA, Verheijen RHM. Oncogenic pathways in hereditary and sporadic breast cancer. Maturitas 2004, 49: 34–43.
82. Gonda TJ, Leo P, Ramsay RG. Estrogen and MYB in breast cancer: potential for new therapies. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2008; 8(6): 713-717.
83. Hughes-DaviesL, Huntsman D, Ruas M, et al.EMSY Links the BRCA2 Pathway to Sporadic Breast and Ovarian Cancer. Cell 2003, 115: 523–535.
84. Colditz GA. Epidemiology and Prevention of Breast Cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14(4): 768-772.
85. Cummings SR, Eckert S, Krueger KA, et al. The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1999; 281: 2189– 2197.
86. Tatsuhiko K, Kotaro O, Kazuya M , et al. Prospective Cohort Study of the Risk of Prostate Cancer among Rotating-Shift Workers: Findings from the Japan Collaborative Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 164(6): 549-555.
87. Albano JD, Ward E, Jemal A, et al. Cancer Mortality in the United States by Education Level and Race. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99(18): 1384-1394.
88.谭红专,刘爱忠,王洁如,等.146对女性乳腺癌病例对照研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,1998,6 (3):126-127,139.
89.王启俊,李玲,祝伟星,等.北京市乳腺癌危险因素病例对照研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,2000,8 (4):165-167.
90. Goldberg MS, Labreche F. Occupational risk factors for female breast cancer: a review. Occup Environ Med 1996; 53(3): 145-156.
91. Welp EA, Weiderpass E, Boffetta P, et al. Environmental risk factors of breast cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health 1998; 24(1): 3-7.
92. Armstrong K, Eisen A, Weber B, et al. Assessing the Risk of Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:564-571.
93.王雪梅.乳腺癌的环境危险因素.国外医学卫生学分册,1998,25 (5):278-279,296.
94. Alexander F. Psychosomatic Medicine. New York: W.W.North Co, 1950.
95. Butow PN, Hiller JE, Price MA, et al. Epidemiological evidence for a relationship between life events, coping style, and personality factors in the development of breast cancer. J Psychosom Res 2000; 49(3): 169-181.
96. Dunts SFA, Zeegers MPA, Vd Borne B. The association between stressful life events and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 2003; 107: 1023-1029.
97.姚三巧,范雪云,李君,等.唐山市女性乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,1998;6(1):2-4.
98. Calle EE, McMahill HL, Thun MJ, et al. Cigarettes smoking and risk of fatal breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 139: 1001-1007.
99. Band PR, Le ND, Fang R, et al. Carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting effects of cigarette smoke and risk of breast cancer .Lancet 2002; 360: 1044–1049.
100. Steven J Bowlin, M Cristina Leske, Andre Varma, et al. Breast cancer risk and alcohol consumption: result from large case control. Int J Epidemiol, 1997, 26: 915-923.
101.吴启平.启东市农村地区妇女乳腺癌危险因素分析.现代康复,1998;2(4): 293-294.
102.李泓澜,高立峰,杨工,等.月经生育因素与女性乳腺癌关系的病例对照研究.肿瘤,2000;20(2):88-92.
103.王秀娟,窦拉加,程海萍,等.西宁市女性乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国公共卫生,2000;16(2):153-154.
104. Henderson BE, Pike MC, Bernstern L, et al. Breast cancer. IN: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF,eds. Cancer Epidemioogy and Prevention, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
105.朱民.女性乳腺癌的主要危险因素.中华流行病学杂志,1996;17(5):301– 304.
106. Brinton LA, Schaier C, Hoover RN, et al. Menstrual factors and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Invest 1988; (6) : 145-154.
107. Bonnier P, Romain S, Dilhuydy JM, et al. Influence of pregnancy on the outcome of breast cancer: a case-control study. Int J Cancer 1997; 72(5):720- 727.
108. Whelan EA, Sandler DP, Root JL, et al. Menstrual cyclepattern and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 139:1081-1085.
109. Agrawal B, Reddish MA, Krantz MJ, et al. Does pregnancy immunize against breast cancer? Cancer Res 1995; 55(11): 2257-2261.
110. Beral V, Bull D, Doll R, et al. Breast cancer and abortion: collaborative reanalysis of data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 83000 women with breast cancer from 16 countries. Lancet 2004; 363:1007-1016.
111. Goldgar DE, Stratton MR, Eeles RA. Familial breast cancer. In : Eeles RA , Ponder BAJ , Easton DF , et al (eds) .Genetic predisposition to cancer. London : Chapman and Hall, 1996.
112. Salih AK, Fentiman IS. Breast cancer prevention. Int J Clin Pract 2002; 56 (4): 267-271.
113. Begg CB. On the use of familial aggregation in population-based case probands for calcaulating pentrance. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 1221-1226.
114. Bernstein L, Ross RK. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993; 15: 48–65.
115. Clemons M, Goss P. Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 276–85.
116. Nandi S, Guzman RC, Yang J. Hormones and mammary carcinogenesis in mice, rats, and humans: a unifying hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 3650–3657.
117. Somboonporn W, Davis SR. Testosterone effects on the breast: Implications for testosterone therapy for women. Endocr Rev 2004; 25: 374–88.
118. Yager JD, Davidson NE. Mechanisms of disease: Estrogen carcinogenesis in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 270–282.
119. Poole AJ, Li Y, Kim Y, et al. Prevention of BRCA1-mediated mammary tumorigenesis in mice by a progesterone antagonist. Science 2006;314:1467–1470.
120. Drabsch, Y, Hugo H, Zhang R, et al. Mechanism of and requirement for estrogen-regulated MYB expression in estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer cells. PNAS 2007; 104:13762–7.
121. Wysowski DK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, et al. Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 125: 791–799.
122. Berrrino F, Muti P, Micheli A, et al. Serum sex hormone levels after menopause and subsequent breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 291–6.
123. Cauley JA, Lucas FL, Kuller LH, et al. Elevated serum estradiol and testosterone concentrations are associated with a high risk for breast cancer. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 270–277.
124. Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, et al. A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000; 9: 575–579.
125. Key T, Appleby P, Barnes I, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94:606–616.
126. Yu H, Shu XO, Shi RH, et al. Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2003; 105:92–97.
127. Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Shore RE, Koenig KL, et al. Postmenopausal levels of oestrogen, androgen, and SHBG and breast cancer: long-term results of a prospectivestudy. Br J Cancer 2004; 90: 153–159.
128. Sturgeon SR, Potischman N, Malone KE, et al. Serum levels of sex hormones and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women: a case-control study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2004; 15: 45–53.
129. Missmer SA, Eliassen AH, Barbieri RL, et al. Endogenous estrogen, androgen and progesterone concentrations and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 1856–1865.
130. Kaaks R, Berrino F, Key T, et al. Serum sex steroids in premenopausal women and breast cancer risk within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97: 755–765.
131. Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ, et al. Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer 2005; 12: 1071–1082.
132. Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, et al. Endogenous steroid hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006; 98: 1406–1415.
133. Hankinson SE, Eliassen AH. Endogenous estrogen, testosterone and progesterone levels in relation to breast cancer risk. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 106: 24–30.
134. Jin F, Devesa S, Chow WH, et al. Cancer incidence trends in urban Shanghai.1972-1994: an update. Int J Cancer 1999; 83: 435–440.
135. Shanghai center of disease control and prevention. The incidence rate of malignant tumor in the urban Shanghai in 2003. Tumor 2006; 26: 694.
136. Bernstein L, Yuan JM, Ross RK, et al. Serum hormone levels in premenopausal Chinese women in Shanghai and white women in Los Angeles: results from two breast cancer case-control studies. Cancer Causes Control 1990; 1: 51–58.
137. Key TJA, Chen J, Wang DY, et al. Sex hormones in women in rural China and in Britain. Br J Cancer 1990; 62: 631–636.
138. Manjer J, Johansson R, Berglund G, et al. Postmenopausal breast cancer risk in relation to sex steroid hormones, prolactin and SHBG (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003; 14: 599–607.
139. Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, et al. A prospective study of endogenoushormones and breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev 1994; 18: 79–85.
140. Rosenberg CR, Pasternack BS, Shore RE, et al. Premenopausal estradiol levels and the risk of breast cancer: a new method of controlling for day of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 140: 518–525.
141. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, et al. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997; 75:1075–1079.
142. Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L, et al. Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation, and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993; 15: 17–35.
143. Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, et al. Effect of Hormone Replacement Therapy on Breast Cancer Risk: Estrogen Versus Estrogen Plus Progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 328–332.
144. Colditz GA. Estrogen, estrogen plus progestin therapy and risk of breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 909s–917s.
145. Micheli A, Muti P, Secreto G, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and subsequent breast cancer in premenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2004; 112: 312–318.
146. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, et al. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997; 76: 401–405.
147. Ebeling P, Koivisto VA. Physiological importance of dehydroepiandrosterone. Lancet 1994; 343: 1479–1481.
148. Gordon GB, Bush TL, Helzlsouer KJ, et al. Relationship of serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1990; 50: 3859–3862.
149. Helzlsouer KJ, Gordon GB, Alberg AJ, et al. Relationship of prediagnostic serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 1–4.
150. Page JH, Colditz GA, Rifai N, et al. Plasma Adrenal Androgens and Risk of Breast Cancer in Premenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004; 13: 1032–1036.
151. Knochenhauer ES, Boots LR, Potter HD, et al. Differential binding of estradiol andtestosterone to SHBG. Relation to circulating estradiol levels. J Reprod Med 1998; 43: 665–670.
152. Fortunati N, Catalano MG. Sex Hormone-binding Globulin (SHBG) and Estradiol Cross-talk in Breast Cancer Cells. Horm Metab Res 2006; 38: 236–40.
153.林缨,王清妹.913例乳腺疾病普查结果及防治.国外医学卫生学分册,1998;25 (5):278-279,296.
154.邵国安,胡学军,韩渊,等.在职妇女乳腺普查2519例分析.新疆医科大学学报,2007;30(10):1182-1183.
155. Guray M, Sahin AA. Benign breast diseases: classification, diagnosis, and management. The Oncologist 2006; 11: 435- 449.
156. Kristiansen IS, Fineberg S, Kristiansen IS, et al. Benign breast disease and breast cancer.. NEJM 2005; 353: 1856-1858.
157. Gottlieb S. Women with benign breast disease face higher cancer risk. BMJ 2005; 331: 179-179.
158. Ashbeck, EL, Rosenberg, RD, Stauber, PM,et al. Benign Breast Biopsy Diagnosis and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16: 467-472.
159. Mayberry RM, Branch PT. Breast cancer risk factors among Hispanic women. Ethn Dis 1994; 4 (1): 41.
160. Colep. Incidence rates and risk factors of beast benign neaplasms. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 108: 112.
161. Hartmann LC, Sellers TA, Frost MH, et al. Benign Breast Disease and the Risk of Breast Cancer. NEJM 2005; 353: 229-237.
162. Friedenreich C, Bryant H, Alexander F, et al. Risk factors for benign proliferative breast disease. Int J Epidemiol 2000; 29: 637-644.
163. Shoker BS, Jarvis C, Clarke RB, et al. Abnormal regulation of the oestrogen receptor in benign breast lesions. J Clin Pathol 2000; 53: 778-783.
164.金宗浩,党云文.我国部分地区女性乳腺疾病发病现状的调查与分析.中国肿瘤临床与康复,2000;7(4):17-19.
165. Armstrong B, Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer 1975; 15:617-631.
166. Buell P. Changing incidence of breast cancer in Japanese-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1973; 51: 1479-1483.
167. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 1819-1827.
168. Willett W原著;郝玲,李竹主译.营养流行病学.人民卫生出版社.北京,2006.
169. Armstrong B, Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer 1975; 15: 617-631.
170.葛可佑,翟凤英,阎怀成.中国人群膳食营养状况第一卷(1992年全国营养调查).北京:人民卫生出版社,1996.
171.李立明,饶克勤,孔灵芝,等.中国居民2002年营养与健康状况调查.中华流行病学杂志,2005;26(7):478-484.
172.杨月欣主编.中国食物成份表2004.北京大学医学出版社.北京,2005.
173.周紫垣,王文昌,孙华明,等.重庆地区人群半定量食物频数问卷的研制.第三军医大学学报,2003;25(19):1701-1705.
174.周紫垣,王文昌,孙立平,等.重庆地区人群半定量食物频数问卷的效度和信度研究.第三军医大学学报,2003;25(19):1706-1709.
175. Willett W. Nutrition Epidemiology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
176. Tokudome S, Ikeda M, Tokudome Y, et al. Development of data-based semi-quantitative food frequency questionaire for dietary in middle-aged Japanese. Jpn J Clin Oncol, 1998; 28(1): 679-687.
177.杨月欣,王光亚编著.中国食物成份表2002.北京大学医学出版社.北京,2002.
178.中国预防医学科学院营养与食品卫生研究所.食物成份表(全国代表值)第1版.北京大学医学出版社.北京,2002.
179. Lepage G, Roy CC. Direct transesterification of all classes of lipids in a one-step reaction. J Lipid Res 1986; 27: 114–120.
180. Masood A, Stark KD, Salem N. A simplified and efficient method for the analysis of fatty acid methyl esters suitable for large clinical studies. J. Lipid Res, 2005; 46: 2299-305.
181. Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer. JNCL 1981; 66: 1191-1308.
182.陈君石.中国居民2002年营养与健康状况调查.中华流行病学杂志,2005;26(7):478-484.
183. Cohen J. Breast cancer screening in a general practice. Aust Fam Physician 1991; 20 (1): 42-43.
184. Stoll BA. Therapy by progestational agents in advanced breast cancer. Med J Aust 1966; 1 (9): 331-334.
185. Lipkin M., Newmark H. Vitamin D, Calcium and Prevention of Breast Cancer: A Review. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18: 392-397.
186. Howe GR, Hirohata T, Hislop TG et al. Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990; 82: 561-569.
187. Cade J, Burley V, Greenwood D. Dietary fibre and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women's Cohort Study. Inter J Epidemiol 2007; 36 (2): 431.
188. Rohan TE, Howe GR, Friedenreich CM, et al. Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 1993; 4: 29-37.
189. Graham S, Zielezny M, Marshall J et al. Diet in the epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in the New York State cohort. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 1327-1337.
190. Verhoeven DTH, Assen N, Goldbohm RA et al. Vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene and dietary fiber in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 149-155.
191. Zhang S, Hunter D, Forman M, et al. Dietary Carotenoids and Vitamins A, C, and E and Risk of Breast Cancer. Oxford University Press 1999; 91: 547-556.
192. Fraker LD, Halter SA, Forbes JT. Growth inhibition by retinol of a human breast carcinoma cell line in vitro and in athymic mice. Cancer Res 1984; 44: 5757-573.
193. Moon RC, McCormick DL, Mehta RG. Inhibition of carcinogenesis by retinoids. Cancer Res 1983; 43: 2469.
194. Katsouyanni K, Trichopoulou A, Stuver S, et al. The association of fat and other macronutrients with breast cancer: a case-control study from Greece. Br J Cancer 1994; 70 (3): 537-541.
195. Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Vena JE, et al. Premenopausal breast cancer risk and intake of vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 340-348.
196. Abdul-Hajj YJ, Kelliher M. Failure of ascorbic acid to inhibit growth of transplantable and dimethylbenzanthracene induced rat mammary tumors. Cancer Lett 1982; 17: 67-73.
197. Graham S, Marshall J, Mettlin C, Rzepka T, Nemoto T, Byers T. Diet in the epidemiology of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 116: 68-75.
198. King MM, McCay PB. Modulation of tumor incidence and possible mechanism of mammary carcinogenesis by dietary antioxidants. Cancer Res 1983; 43: 2485s.
199. Hunter D, Manson J, Colditz G., et al. A Prospective Study of the Intake of Vitamins C, E, and A and the Risk of Breast Cancer. New Engl J Med 1993; 329 (4): 234-240.
200. Huang R, Hu Y, Lin H, et al. Folate Deficiency Induces a Cell Cycle-Specific Apoptosis in HepG2 Cells. J Nutr 1999 129; (1):25-31.
201.欧敬民,张一楚,费哲为,等.维生素叶酸缺乏对体外HBL-100 P53蛋白表达与mRNA含量的影响.中国临床营养杂志,2006;14 (2):87-89.
202. Zhang S, Hunter D, Hankinson S, et al. A Prospective Study of Folate Intake and the Risk of Breast Cancer. Am Med Assoc 1999; 281: 1632-1637.
203. Jin R, Tan P, Tan B. Metallothionein expression and zinc levels in invasive ductal breast carcinoma. Oncol Rep 1999; 6 (4): 871-875.
204. Gupta S, Shukla V, Vaidya M., et al. Serum trace elements and Cu/Zn ratio in breast cancer patients. J Surg Oncol 1991; 46 (3): 178-181.
205. Cavallo F, Gerber M, Marubini E, et al. Zinc and copper in breast cancer. A joint study in northern Italy and southern France. Cancer 1991; 67 (3): 738-745.
206. Yucel I, Arpaci F, Ozet A, et al. Serum copper and zinc levels and copper/zinc ratio in patients with breast cancer. Biol Trace Elem Res 1994; 40 (1): 31-38.
207. Levi F, Pasche C, Lucchini F, et al. Dietary intake of selected micronutrients and breast-cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2001; 91 (2): 260-263.
208. Zhang T, Cao E, Li J, et al. Induction of apoptosis and inhibition of human gastric cancer MGC-803 cell growth by arsenic trioxide. Eur J Cancer 1999; 35(8): 1258-1263.
209. Martin L, Harold L, Newmark D. Vitamin D, calcium and prevention of breast cancer: a review. Am Colle J Nutr 1999; 5(18):392-397.
210. Bissonauth V, Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P. Nutrition and breast cancer among sporadiccases and gene mutation carriers: An overview. Cancer Detect Prev 2008; 32(1): 52-64.
211. Malone W, Kelloff G. Chemoprevention Strategies Utilizing Combinations of Inhibitors of Carcinogenesis? Oxford University Press 1989; 81: 824.
212. Ip C. The chemopreventive role of selenium in carcinogenesis. J Am Coll Toxicol 1986; 5: 7-20.
213. Knekt P, Aromaa A, Maatela J et al. Serum vitamin A and the subsequent risk of cancer: cancer incidence follow-up of the Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 132: 857-870.
214. Hunter DJ. Biochemical indicators of dietary intake. In: Willett WC, eds. Nutritional Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990; 143-216.
215. Singh P, Kapil U, Shukla N, et al. Association between breast cancer and vitamin C, vitamin E and selenium levels: results of a case-control study in India. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2005; 6 (2): 177-180.
216. Kuo H, Chen S, Wu C, et al. Serum and tissue trace elements in patients with breast cancer in Taiwan. Biol Trace Elem Res 2002; 89 (1):1-11.
217. Hunter DJ, Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of selenium status and breast cancer risk. JAMA 1990; 264: 1128-1131.
218. Wu AH, Ziegler RG, Pike MC, et al. Menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Br J Cancer 1996; 73: 680–686.
219. Prentice RL, Pepe M, Self SG. Dietary fat and breast cancer: a quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic literature and a discussion of methodologic issues. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 3147-3156.
220. Tannenbaum A, Silverstone H. Nutrition and the Genesis of Tumors. Raven R. Cancer London: Butterworth (UK) 1957.
221. Miller AB, Kelly A, Choi NW, et al. A study of diet and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 107:499-509.
222. Goodstine SL, Zheng T, Holford TR, et al. Dietary (n-3)/ (n-6) fatty acid ratio: possible relationship to premenopausal but not to post-menopausal breast cancer risk in U.S. women. J Nutr 2003; 133:1409-1414.
223. Do MH, Lee SS, Jung PJ, et al. Intake of dietary fat and vitaminin relation to breastcancer risk in Korean women: a casecontrol study. J Korean Med Sci 2003; 18: 534-540.
224. Ewertz M, Gill C. Dietary factors and breast cancer risk in Denmark. Int J Cancer 1990; 46: 779-784.
225. Franceschi S, Favero A, Decarli A, et al. Intake of macronutrients and the risk of breast cancer,. Lancet 1996; 347: 1351-1356.
226. Graham S, Hellmann R, Marshall J, et al. Nutritional epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in western New York. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134: 552-566.
227. Hermann S, Linseisen J, Chang-Claude J. Nutrition and breast cancer risk by age 50: a population based case-control study in Germany. Nutr Cancer 2002; 44: 23-34.
228. Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, et al. Dietary effects on breast-cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet 1991, 337:1197-1200.
229. London SJ, Sacks FM, Stampfer MJ, et al. Fatty acidcomposition of the subcutaneous adipose tissue and risk of proliferative benign breast disease and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 785-793.
230. Richardson S, Gerber M, Cenee S. The role of fat, animal protein and some vitamin consumption in breast cancer: A case-control study in Southern France. Int J Cancer 1991; 48: 1-9.
231. Ronco A, De Stefani E, Mendilaharsu M et al.Meat, fat and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study from Uruguay. Int J Cancer 1996; 65: 328-331.
232. Sala E, Warren R, Duffy S, et al. High risk mammographic parenchymal patterns and diet: a case-control study. Br J Cancer 2000, 83:121-126.
233. Santiago E, Gonzalez MJ, Matos MI, et al. Association between dietary fat and breast cancer in Puerto Rican postmenopausal women attending a breast cancer clinic. P R Health Sci J 1998; 17: 235-241.
234. Van't Veer P, Kok FJ, Brants HA, et al. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer. Int J Epidemiol 1990; 19: 12-18.
235. Yuan JM, Wang QS, Ross RK, et al. Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. Br J Cancer 1995; 71: 1353-1358.
236. Wakai K, Dillon DS, Ohno Y, et al. Fat intake and breast cancer risk in an area where fat intake is low: a case-control study in Indonesia. Int J Epidemiol 2000; 29: 20-28.
237. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Diet fat and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 22-28.
238. Barrett-Connor E, Friedlander NJ. Dietary fat, calories, and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: a prospective population-based study. J Am Coll Nutr 1993; 12:390- 399.
239. Bingham SA, Luben R, Welch A, W et al. Are imprecise methods obscuring a relation between fat and breast cancer. Lancet 2003; 362: 212-214.
240. Byrne C, Rockett H, Holmes MD. Dietary fat, fat subtypes, and breast cancer risk: lack of an association among postmenopausal women with no history of benign breast disease. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002, 11:261-265.
241. Gago-Dominiguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, et al. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br J Cancer 2003; 89: 1686-1692.
242. Kushi LH, Sellers TA, Potter JD, et al. Dietary fat and post-menopausal breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84:1092-1099.
243. Seiri S, Krogh V, Muti P, et al. Fat and protein intake and subsequent breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women. Nutr Cancer 2002; 42:10-17.
244. Velie E, Kulldorff M, Schairer C, et al. Dietary fat, fat subtypes, and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 833-839.
245. Voorrips LE, Brants HA, Kardinaal AFM, et al. Intake of conjugated linoleic acid, fat and other fatty acids in relation to post-menopausal breast cancer: the Netherlands cohort study on diet and cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76: 873-882.
246. Wirfalt E, Mattisson I, Gullberg B, et al. Post-menopausal breast cancer is associated with high intakes ofω-6 fatty acids (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003; 13: 883-893.
247. Howe GR, Friedenreich CM, Jain M, et al. A cohort study of fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991; 83: 336-340.
248. Cho E, Spieglman D, Hunter DJ, et al. Premenopausal fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95:1079-1085.
249. Gaard M, Tretli S, Loken EB. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer: A prospectivestudy of 25,892 Norwegian women. Int J Cancer 1995; 63: 13-17.
250. Knekt P, Albanes D, Seppanen R, et al. Dietary fat and risk of breast cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 903-908.
251. Rohan TE, Jain M, Miller AB. A case-cohort study of diet and risk of benign proliferative epithelial disorders of the breast (Canada). Cancer Causes Control 1998; 9: 19-27.
252. Toniolo P, Riboli E, Shore RE, et al. Consumption of meat, animal products, protein, and fat and risk of breast cancer: a prospective cohort study in New York. Epidemiology 1994; 5: 391-397.
253. van den Brandt PA, van't Veer P, Goldbohm RA, et al. A prospective cohort study on dietary fat and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1993; 53: 75-82.
254. Holmes MD, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, et al. Association of dietary intake of fat and fatty acids with risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1999; 281: 914-920.
255. Horn-Ross PL, Hoggatt KJ, West DW, et al.Recent diet and breast cancer risk: the California Teachers Study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13: 407-415.
256. Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. An 8-year follow-up. JAMA 1992; 268: 2037-2044.
257. Favero A, Parpinel M, Montella M. Energy sources and risk of cancer of the breast and colon-rectum in Italy. Adv Exp Med Biol 1999; 472: 51-55.
258. Cade J, Thomas E, Vail A. Case-control study of breast cancer in south east England: nutritional factors. J Epidemiol Community Health 1998; 52: 105-110.
259. Decarli A, Favero A, La Vecchia C, et al.Macronutrients, energy intake, and breast cancer risk: implications from different models. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 425-428.
260. La Vecchia C, Favero A, Franceschi S. Monounsaturated and other types of fat, and the risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1998; 7: 461-464.
261. Franceschi S, Favero A. The role of energy and fat in cancers of the breast and colon-rectum in a southern European population. Ann Oncol 1999; 10(Suppl 6): 61-63.
262. Klein V, Chajes V, Germain E, et al. Low alpha-linolenic acid content of adipose breast tissue is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 2000; 36: 335-340.
263. Saadatian-Elahi M, Toniolo P, Ferrari P, et al. Serum fatty acids and risk of breast cancer in a nested case-control study of the New York University Women's Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11: 1353-1360.
264. Wolk A, Bergstrom R, Hunter D, et al. A prospective study of association of monounsaturated fat and other types of fat with risk of breast cancer. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 41-45.
265. Boyd NF, Stone J, Vogt KN, Connelly BS, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk revisited: a meta-analysis of the published literature. Br J Cancer 2003; 89: 1672–1685.
266. Trichopoulou A, Katsouyanni K, Stuver S, et al. Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breat cancer risk in Greece. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 110-116.
267. Owen RW, Giacosa A, Hull WE, et al. Olive-oil consumption and health: the possible role of antioxidants. Lancet Oncol 2000; 1: 107-112.
268. Wahrburg U, Assmann G. Properties of olive oil. Lancet 2001; 357: 1626.
269. Nkondjock A, Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P. A case-control study of breast cancer and dietary intake of individual fatty acids and antioxidants in Montreal, Canada. Breast 2003; 12: 131-138.
270. Maillard V, Bougnoux P, Ferrari P, et al. n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in breast adipose tissue and relative risk of breast cancer in a case-control study in Tours, France. Int J Cancer 2002; 98: 78-83.
271. Simonsen NR, Fernandez-Crehuet Navajas J, Martin-Moreno JM, et al. Tissue stores of individual monounsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer: the EURAMIC study. European Community Multicenter Study on Antioxidants, Myocardial Infarction, and Breast Cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 134-141.
272. Bagga D, Anders KH, Wang HJ, et al. Long-chain n-3 to n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios in breast adipose tissue from women with and without breast cancer. Nutr Cancer 2002; 42: 180-185.
273. Larsson SC, Kumlin M, Ingelman-Sundberg M, et al. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty aicd for the prebvention of cancer: a reviewe of potential mechanism. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 935-945.
274. Simonsen N, van’t Veer P, Strain JJ, et al. Adipose tissue omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid content and breast cancer in the EURAMIC study. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147: 342– 352.
275. Bartram HP, Gostner A, Reddy BS, Rao CV, et al. Missing anti-proliferative effect of fish oil on rectal epithelium in healthy volunteers consuming a high-fat diet: potential role of the n-3:n-6 fatty acid ratio. Eur J Cancer Prev 1995; 4: 231-237.
276. Kohlmeier L. Biomarkers of fatty acid exposure and breast cancer risk. Am J Clin Nutr 1997 66(6 suppl): 1548S-1556S.
277. Willett W. Nutritional epidemiology. New York: Oxford Press, 1990.
278. Lichtman SW, Pisarska K, Berman ER, et al. Discrepancy between self-reported and actual calorie intake and exercise in obese subjects. N Engl J Med l992; 327: 1893-1898.
279. Kohlmeier L. What you should know about your marker. In, Kok F, van't Veer P. eds. Biomarkers of dietary exposure. Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting on Nutritional Epidemiology. London, Smith-Gordon, 1991; 15-25.
280. Kohlmeier L. Future of dietary exposure assessment. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995; 61(suppl): 702S-709S.
281. Dougherty RM, Galli C, Ferro-Luzzi A., et al. Lipid and phospholipid fatty acid composition of plasma, red blood cells, and platelets and how they are affected by dietary lipids, a study of normal subjects from Italy, Finland and the USA. Am. J. Clin. Nutr 1987; 45: 443-455.
282. Girelli D. Effects induced by olive oil-rich diets on erythrocyte membrane lipids and sodium-potassium transport in postmenopausal hypertensive women. J. Endocrinol. Invest 1992; 15: 369-376.
283. Hellerstein MK, Christiansen M, Kaempfer S, et al. Measurement of de novo hepatic lipogenesis in humans using stable isotopes. J. Clin. Invest. 1991; 87: 1841-1852.
284. Field CI, Angel A, Clandinin MT. Relationship of diet to the fatty acid composition of human adipose tissue structural and stored lipids. Am I ClinNutr l985; 42: 1206-1220.
285. Lenore K. Biomarkers of fatty acid exposure and breast cancer risk. Am. J. Clin. Nuir. l997; 66(suppl): 1548S-1556S.
286. Welsch CW. Relationship between dietary fat and experimental mammarytumorigenesis: a review and critique. Cancer Res 1992; 52(Suppl.7): 2040S- 2408S.
287. Albanes D. Total calories, body weight, and tumor incidence in mice. Cancer Res 1987; 47: 1987-1992.
288. Yuri T, Danbara N, Tsujita-Kyutoku M, et al. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid suppresses N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rats more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. Nutr Cancer 2003; 45(2): 211-217.
289. Carrera MP, Ramirez-Exposito MJ, Valenzuela MT, et al. Serum oxytocinase activity is related to tumor growth parameters in N-methyl nitrosourea induced rat breast cancer. Life sciences 2004; 75(11): 1369-1377.
290. Lu S, Zhang X, Badawi AF, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib inhibits promotion of mammary tumorigenesis in rats fed a high fat diet rich in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Cancer Lett 2002; 184(1): 7-12.
291. Lhuillery C, Cognault S, Germain E, et al. Suppression of the promoter effect of polyunsaturated fatty acid by the absence of dietary vitamin E in experimental mammary carcinoma. Cancer Lett 1997; 14(1-2): 233-234.
292. Cameron IL, Munoz J, Barnes CJ, et al. High dietary level of synthetic vitamin E on lipid peroxidation, membrane fatty acid composition and cytotoxicity in breast cancer xenograft and in mouse host tissue. Cancer Cell Int 2003; 3(1): 3-10.
293. Jho DH, Cole SM, Lee EM, et al. Role of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in inflammation and malignancy. Integr Cancer Ther 2004; 3(2): 98-111.
294. Puertollano MA, de Pablo MA, Alvarez de, et al. Immunomodulatory effects of dietary lipids alter host natural resistance of mice to Listeria monocytogenes infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2001; 32(1): 47-52.
295. Lee JY, Sohn KH, Rhee SH, et al. Saturated fatty acids, but not unsaturated fatty acids, induce the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 mediated through Toll-like receptor 4. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(20): 16683-16689.
296. Calder PC, Grimble RF. Polyunstaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002; 56(suppl): S14-19.
297. Escrich E, Solanas M, Soler M, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated n-6 lipids effects on the growth and fatty acid composition of rat mammary tumors. J Nutr Biochem 2001; 12(9): 536-549.
298. Jump DB. The Biochemistry of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(11): 8755-8758.
299. Radcliffe JD, Czajka-Narins DM, Imrhan V. Faty acid composition of serum, adipose tissue, and liver in rats fed diets containing corn oil or cottonseed oil. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2004; 59(2): 73-77.
300. Bjerregaard LJ, Aardestrup IV, Christensen JH, et al. The effect of adhesion to recommendations for fish intake on adipose tissue composition and plasma lipids. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2004; 13(Suppl): S95.
301. Terry PD, Rohan TE, Wolk A. Intakes of fish and marine fatty acids and the risks of cancers of the breast and prostate and of other hormone-related cancers: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77(3): 532-543.
1.韦娜,糜漫天.膳食多不饱和脂肪酸与乳腺癌的发生.国外医学卫生学分册,2005,32(2): 80-83.
2. Nkondjock A, Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P. A case–control study of breast cancer and dietary intake of individual fatty acids and antioxidants in Montreal, Canada. Breast, 2003, 12(2): 128-135.
3.蔡文伟,花天放.脂肪酸与肿瘤.肠外与肠内营养,1997,4(1):33-36.
4. Willett W. Response to Wynder et al's paper on dietary fat and breast cancer. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1994, 47: 223-226.
5. Wynder EL, Cohen LA., Rose DP. Dietary fat and breast cancer, where do we stand on the evidence? J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1994, 47:217-222.
6. Wynder EL, Cohen LA, Rose DP. Response to Dr Walter Willett's dissent. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1994, 47: 227-230.
7. Whittemore AS, Henderson BE. Dietary fat and breast cancer, where are we? J. Natl. Cancer Inst. l993, 85: 762-763.
8. Freedman IS, Prentice RL, Clifford C, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer, where we are. J. Natl. Cancer Inst 1994, 85: 764-765.
9. Carroll KK, Gammal EB, Plunkett ER. Dietary fat and mammary cancer. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1968, 98: 590-594.
10. Prentice RL, Sheppard L. Consistency of the epidemiologic data and disease prevention that may follow from a practical reduction in fat consumption. Cancer Causes Control. 1990, 1: 81-97.
11. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. l993, 85: 1819-1827.
12. Persky V, Van Horn L. Epidemiology of soy and cancer, perspectives and directions. Rev. J. Nutr. 1995, 125(3suppl): 709S-712S.
13. Willett WC. Cancer prevention: diet and chemopreventive agents: Section 1. Dietary fat. In: DeVita VT, Hellmann S, Rosenberg S., editors. Cancer: Principles and Practice ofOncology. 7. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004.
14. Freedman LS, Kipnis V. Methods of Epidemiology: Evaluating the Fat–Breast Cancer Hypothesis– Comparing Dietary Instruments and Other Developments. Cancer J. 2008, 14(2): 69–74.
15. Bingham SA, Luben R, Welch A, et al. Are imprecise methods obscuring a relation between fat and breast cancer? Lancet. 2003; 362: 212–214.
16. Freedman LS, Potischman N, Kipnis V, et al. A comparison of two dietary instruments for evaluating the fat-breast cancer relationship. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2006; 35: 1011–1021.
17. Lichtman SW, Pisarska K, Berman ER, et al. Discrepancy between self-reported and actual calorie intake and exercise in obese subjects. N. Engl. J. Med. l992; 327: 1893-1898.
18. Bandini LG, Schoeller DA, Cyr HN, et al. Validity of reported energy intake in obese and nonobese adolescents. Am. J Clin. Nutr. 1990; 52: 421-425.
19. Witte JS, Pike M. Comment on“Can energy adjustment separate the effects of energy from those of specific macronutrients?”Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995; 142: 225-226.
20. Krieger N, Wolff MS, Hiatt RB, et al. Breast cancer and serum organochlorines, a prospective study among white, black, and Asian women. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1994; 86: 589-599.
21. Noguche M, Rose DP, Eaashi M, et al. The role of fatty acids and eicosanoid synthesis inhibitors in breast carcinoma. Oncology 1995; 52: 265-271.
22. Willeu WC. Specific fatty acids and risks of breast and prostate cancer, dietary intake. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 1557S-1563S.
23. Hulka B. Dietary fat and breast cancer, case-control and cohort studies. Prev. Med. 1989; 18: 180-193.
24. Kelsey JL, Gammon MD, John EM. Reproductive factors and breast cancer. Epidemiol. Rev. 1993; 15: 36-47.
25. Astrup AV, Uemenn B, Western P, et al. Objective assessment of the habitual dietary fat content in patients with obesity. Ugeskr. Laeger. 1995; 157: 291-294.
26. Hunter DI, Willett WE. Diet, body size and breast cancer. Epidemiol. Rev. 1993; l5:110-132.
27. Lustig RH, Hershcopf RJ, Bradlow HL. The effects of body weight and diet on estrogen metabolism and estrogen-dependent disease. Prog. Reprod. Biol. Med. 1990; 14: 107-124.
28. Bulun SE, Simpson ER. Competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis indicates that levels of aromatase cytochrome p450 transcripts in adipose tissue of buttocks, thighs, and abdomen of women increase with advancing age. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1994; 78: 428-432.
29. Anonymous. Estrogen excretion patterns and plasma levels in vegetarian and omnivorous women. Nutr. Rev. 1983; 41: 180-183.
30. Howie BJ, Shultz TD. Dietary and hormonal interrelationships among vegetarian Seventh-Day Adventists and non-vegetarian men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1985; 42: 127-34.
31. Schaefer EJ, Lamon F, Gava S, et al. Changes in plasma lipoprotein concentrations and composition in response to a low-fat, high-fiber diet are associated with changes in serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women. Metab. Clin. Exp. 1995; 44: 749-756.
32. Goldin BR, Woods MN, Spiegelman DL, et al. The effect of dietary fat and fiber on serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women under controlled dietary conditions. Cancer 1994, 74 (suppl), 1125-1131.
33. Aubertin-Leheudre M, Gorbach S, Woods M, et al. Fat/fiber intakes and sex hormones in healthy premenopausal women in USA. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2008, 112(1): 32-39.
34. Rose DP, Connolly JM, Chlebowski RT, et al. The effects of a low-fat dietary intervention and tamoxifen adjuvant therapy on the serum estrogen and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations of postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res. Treat 1993; 27: 253-262.
35. Boyd NF, Lockwood GA, Greenberg CV, et al. Effects of a low-fat high-carbohydrate diet on plasma sex hormones in premenopausal women: results from a randomized controlled trial. Canadian Diet and Breast Cancer Prevention Study Group. Br. J.Cancer. 1997; 76(1): 127-135.
36. Hunter EJ, Applewhite TH. Reassessment of trans fatty acid availability in the US diet. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 199l; 54: 363-369.
37. Willett W. Nutritional epidemiology. New York, Oxford Press, 1990.
38. Kohlmeier L. What you should know about your marker. In, Kok F, van't Veer P. eds. Biomarkers of dietary exposure. Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting on Nutritional Epidemiology. London, Smith-Gordon, 1991, 15-25.
39. Kohlmeier L. Future of dietary exposure assessment. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995, 61(suppl), 702S-709S.
40. Dougherty RM, Galli C, Ferro-Luzzi A., et al. Lipid and phospholipid fatty acid composition of plasma, red blood cells, and platelets and how they are affected by dietary lipids, a study of normal subjects from Italy, Finland and the USA. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1987; 45: 443-455.
41. Girelli D. Effects induced by olive oil-rich diets on erythrocyte membrane lipids and sodium-potassium transport in postmenopausal hypertensive women. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 1992; 15: 369-376.
42. Havge TA, Lie O, Gronn M. The effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids onosmotic fragility and membrane fluidity of human erythrocytes. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. Suppl l993; S215: 75-84.
43. Kamada T, Hamashita T, Baba Y, et al. Dietary sardine oil increases erythrocyte membrane fluidity in diabetic patients. Diabetes, 1986; 35: 604-611.
44. Hellerstein MK, Christiansen M, Kaempfer S, et al. Measurement of de novo hepatic lipogenesis in humans using stable isotopes. J. Clin. Invest. 1991; 87: 1841-1852.
45. Field CJ, Clandinin MT. Modulation of adipose tissue fat composition by diet, a review. Nutr. Rev. l984; 4: 743-755.
46. Sinclair H, Gale M. Eicosapentaenoic acid in fat. Lancet l987; 1: l388 (letter).
47. Shepherd J, Stewart JM, Clark J.G. Sequential changes in plasma lipoproteins and body fat composition during polyunsaturated fat feedings in man. Br. J. Nutr. 1980; 44: 265-271.
48. Dayton S, Hashimoto S, Dixon W, et al. Composition of lipids in human serum and adipose tissue during prolonged feedings of a diet high in unsaturated fat. J. Lipid Res. 1966; 7: 103-111.
49. Christakis GJ, Rinzler SH, Archer M, et al. Effects of a serum cholesterol-lowering diet on composition of depot fat in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1965; 16: 243-251.
50. Beynen AC, Hermus RJ, Hautvast JG. A mathematical relationship between the fatty acid composition of the diet and that of the adipose tissue in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1980; 33: 81-85.
51. Schultz H. Beta oxidation of fatty acids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1991; 1081: 109-120.
52. Hertting G, Seregi A. Formation and function of eicosanoids in the central nervous system. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989; 559: 84-99.
53. Cinti DL, Cooke L, Nagi MN, Suneja SK. The fatty acid chain elongation system of mammalian endoplasmic reticulum. Prog. Lipid. Res. 1992; 3l: 1-51.
54. Field CI, Angel A, Clandinin MT. Relationship of diet to the fatty acid composition of human adipose tissue structural and stored lipids. Am I ClinNutr l985; 42:1206-1220.
55. Lenore K. Biomarkers of fatty acid exposure and breast cancer risk. Am. J. Clin. Nuir. l997; 66(suppl):1548S-1556S.
56. Tjnneland A, Overvad K, Thorling E, Ewertz, M. Adipose tissue fatty acids as biomarkers of dietary exposure in Danish men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993; 57: 629-633.
57. van Staveren WA, Deurenberg P. Katan MB, et al. Validity of the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous fat tissue microbiopsies as an estimate of the long-term average fatty acid composition of the diet of separate individuals. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1986; 123: 455-463.
58. Kohlmeier L, Kohlmeier M. Adipose tissue as a medium for epide miologic exposure assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 1995; 103(suppl3): 99-106.
59. Shorland FB, Czochanska Z, Prior lAM. Studies on fatty acid composition of adipose tissue and blood lipids of Polynesians. Am J Clin Nutr 1969; 22: 594-605.
60. Feunekes GI, Van Staveren WA, de Vnes JHM, et al. Relative and biomarker-basedvalidity of a food-frequency questionnaire estimating intake of fats and cholesterol. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993; 58: 489-496.
61. Waildius G, Callines E, Olssen AG. Dietary and adipose tissue content of linoleic acid in 40-year old men. Prog. Food Nutr. Sci 1980; 4: 33-37.
62. Schellenberg B, Arab L, Kohlmeier M, Schlierf G. The effect on adipose tissue fatty acid composition of low dose alcohol consumption in a normal young population. In, Crepaldi G, LeFebvre P1, Gallon DI, eds. Diabetes, obesity and hyperlipidemias. Vol 2. London, Academy Press, 1983: 243-245.
63. Brook CGD. Composition of human adipose tissue from deep and subcutaneous sites. Br. J. Nutr 1971; 25: 377-380.
64. Pittet PG, Halliday D, Bateman PE. Site differences in the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese women. Br J Nutr 1979; 42: 56-61.
65. Eid A, Berry EM. The relationship between dietary fat, adipose tissue composition, and neoplasms of the breast. Nutr Cancer 1988; 11: 173-177.
66. Chajes V, Niyongabo T, Lanson M, et al.. Fatty-acid composition of breast and iliac adipose tissue in breast cancer patients. Int J Cancer 1992; 50: 405-408.
67. Kohlmeier L, Simonsen N, van't Veer P, et al. Adipose tissue trans fatty acids and breast cancer in the EURAMIC Study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Pre 1997; 6: 705-710.
68. Simonsen N, Strain II, van't Veer P. et al. Adipose tissue w-3 fatty acids and breast cancer in a population of European women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1996, 11, S54 (abstr).
69. Zhu ZR, Agren I, Mannist OS, et al. Fatty acid composition of breast adipose tissue in breast cancer patients and in patients with benign breast disease. Nutr. Cancer 1995; 24: 151-160.
70. Petrek IA, Hudgins LC, Levine B, et al. Breast cancer risk and fatty acids in the breast and abdominal adipose tissues. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1994; 86: 53-56.
71. Bougnoux P. Chajes V. Lanson M, et al. Prognostic significance of tumor phosphatidylcholine stearic acid level in breast carcinoma. Breast Cancer Re.s Treat 1992; 20: 185-194.
72. London SI, Sacks FM, Stampfer MI, et al. Fatty acid composition of subcutaneous adipose tissue and risk of proliferative benign breast disease and breast cancer. J Natl. Cancer Inst. 1993; 85: 785-793.
73. Zaridze DG, Chevchenko VE, Levtshuk AA, et al. Fatty acid composition of phospholipids in erythrocyte membranes and risk of breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer 1990; 45: 807-810.
74. Caleffi M, Ashraf I, Rowe PH, et al. A comparison of the fatty acid profiles of subcutaneous fat from women with breast cancer, benign breast disease and normal controls. Anticancer Res. 1987; 7: 1305-1308.
75. Simonsen N, Fernandez-Crehuet J, Martin-Moreno J, et al. Tissue stores of individual monounsaturated fats and breast cancer. FASEB J. 1997; 11(3): 3344.
76. de Schrijver R, Privett OS. Interrelationship between dietary trans fatty acids and the 6- and 9-desaturases in the rat. Lipids 1982; 17: 27-34.
77. Koletzko B. Trans fatty acids may impair biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturates and growth in man. Acts. Paediatr. 1992; 81: 302-306.
78. Ip C. Review of the effects of trans fatty acids, oleic acid, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and conjugated linoleic acid on mammary carcinogenesis in animals. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 1523S-1529S.
79. Hunter DA, Rimm EB, Sacks FM, et al. Comparison of measures of fatty acid intake by subcutaneous fat aspirate food frequency questionnaire, and diet records in a free-living population of US men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1992; 135: 418-427.
80. Kardinaal AFM, Veer P van't, Kok FJ, et al. EURAMIC Study, antioxidants, myocardial infarction and breast cancer. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. l993; 47(suppl 2): 64-71.
81. Rose DP. Effects of dietary fatty acids on breast and prostate cancers, evidence from in vitro experiments and animal studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 1513S-1522S.
82. Stillwell W, Jenski L.International workshop on cellular and molecular aspects of omega-3 fatty acids and cancer.J Lipid Res, 2002; 43 (9):1579 -1580.
83. Gago-Dominguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, et al. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br JCancer, 2003; 89: 1686-1692.
84. Katsouyanni K, Trichopolou A, Stuver S, et al. The association of fat and other macronutrients with breast cancer, a case-control study from Greece. Br. J. Cancer 1994; 70: 537-541.
85. Richardson S, Gerber M, Cenee S. The role of fat, animal protein a vitamin consumption in breast cancer. A case-control study in southern France. Int. J. Cancer l991; 48: 1-9.
86. La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, et al. Olive oil, other dietary fats, and the risk of breast cancer (Italy). Cancer Causes Control, 1995; 6: 545-550.
87. Martin-Moreno JM, Willett WC, Gorgojo L, et al. Dietary fat, olive oil intake and breast cancer risk. Int. J. Cancer 1994; 58: 774-780.
88. Trichopolou A, Katsouyanni K, Stuver S, et al. Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breast cancer risk in Greece. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1995; 87: 110-116.
89. Goodstine SL, Zheng T, Holford TR, et al. Dietary (n-3)/ (n-6) fatty acid ratio: Possible relationship to premenopausal but not postmenopausal breast cancer risk in US women. J. Nutr., 2003; 133(5): 1409-1414.
1. Bernstein L, Ross RK. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:48–65.
2. Clemons M, Goss P. Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2001;344:276–85.
3. Nandi S, Guzman RC, Yang J. Hormones and mammary carcinogenesis in mice, rats, and humans: a unifying hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:3650–7.
4. Somboonporn W, Davis SR. Testosterone effects on the breast: Implications for testosterone therapy for women. Endocr Rev 2004;25:374–88.
5. Yager JD, Davidson NE. Mechanisms of disease: Estrogen carcinogenesis in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2006;354:270–282.
6. Poole AJ, Li Y, Kim Y, Lin SCJ, Lee WH, Lee EYHP. Prevention of BRCA1-mediated mammary tumorigenesis in mice by a progesterone antagonist. Science 2006;314:1467–70.
7. Drabsch, Y, Hugo H, Zhang R, Dowhan DH, MiaoYR, Gewirtz AM, Barry SC, Ramsay RG, Gonda TJ. Mechanism of and requirement for estrogen-regulated MYB expression in estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer cells. PNAS 2007;104:13762–7.
8. Wysowski DK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, Lau HL. Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1987;125: 791–9.
9. Berrrino F, Muti P, Micheli A, Bolelli G, Krogh V, Sciajno R, Pisani P, Panico S, Secreto G. Serum sex hormone levels after menopause and subsequent breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:291–6.
10. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D,Barbieri RL, Speizer FE. Plasma Sex Steroid Hormone Levels and Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:1292–9.
11. Cauley JA, Lucas FL, Kuller LH, Stone K, Browner W, Cummings SR. Elevated serum estradiol and testosterone concentrations are associated with a high risk for breast cancer. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:270–7.
12. Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, Neriishi K, Land CE. A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000;9:575–9.
13. Key T, Appleby P, Barnes I, Reeves G. Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:606–16.
14. Yu H, Shu XO, Shi RH, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Li BDL, Zheng W. Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2003;105:92–7.
15. Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Shore RE, Koenig KL, Akhmedkhanov A, Afanasyeva Y, Kato I, Kim MY, Rinaldi S, Kaaks R, Toniolo P. Postmenopausal levels of oestrogen, androgen, and SHBG and breast cancer: long-term results of a prospective study. Br J Cancer 2004;90:153–9.
16. Sturgeon SR, Potischman N, Malone KE, Dorgan JF, Daling J, Schairer C, Brinton LA. Serum levels of sex hormones and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women: a case-control study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2004;15:45–53.
17. Missmer SA, Eliassen AH, Barbieri RL, Hankinson SE. Endogenous estrogen, androgen and progesterone concentrations and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004;96; 1856–65.
18. Kaaks R, Berrino F, Key T, Rinaldi S, Dossus L, Biessy C, Secreto G, Amiano P, Bingham S, Boeing H, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Chang-Claude J, et al. Serum sex steroids in premenopausal women and breast cancer risk within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:755–65.
19. Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ, Berrino F, Peeters PHM, Biessy C, Dossus L, Lukanova A, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Allen NE, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, et al. Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigationinto cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer 2005;12:1071–82.
20. Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, Tworoger SS, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, Dowsett M, Hankinson SE. Endogenous steroid hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:1406–15.
21. Hankinson SE, Eliassen AH. Endogenous estrogen, testosterone and progesterone levels in relation to breast cancer risk. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007;106:24–30.
22. Jin F, Devesa S, Chow WH, Zheng W, Ji BT, Fraumeni Jr JF, Gao YT. Cancer incidence trends in urban Shanghai.1972-1994: an update. Int J Cancer 1999;83:435–40.
23. Shanghai center of disease control and prevention. The incidence rate of malignant tumor in the urban Shanghai in 2003. Tumor 2006;26:694.
24. Bernstein L, Yuan JM, Ross RK, Pike MC, Hanisch R, Lobo R, Stanczyk F, Gao YT, Henderson BE. Serum hormone levels in premenopausal Chinese women in Shanghai and white women in Los Angeles: results from two breast cancer case-control studies. Cancer Causes Control 1990;1:51–8.
25. Key TJA, Chen J, Wang DY, Pike MC, Boreham J. Sex hormones in women in rural China and in Britain. Br J Cancer 1990;62:631–6.
26. Wang QJ, Li L, Zhu WX, Xing XM, Zhou YR. Study on risk factors of breast cancer among urban women in China. Chin J Epidemiol 2000;21:216-20.
27. Cao KJ, Wu YL, Ma GS, Deng F, Liu YL, Zhou JM, Wan DS. A case- control study on risk factors of female breast cancer in Guangzhou. Bull Chin Cancer 2001;10:702-4.
28. Zhong XN, Zhou YR. Study on the factors correlated to the breast cancer in females in Chongqing city. J Math Med 2002;15:326-8.
29. Radloff LS. The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1977;1:385-401.
30. McIntosh JE, Matthews CD, Crocker JM, Broom TJ, Cox LW. Predicting the luteinizing hormone surge: relationship between the duration of the follicular and luteal phases and the length of the human menstrual cycle Fertil Steril. 1980;34:125–30.
31. Forest JC, MasséJ, Lane A. Evaluation of the analytical performance of the Boehringer Mannheim Elecsys? 2010 immunoanalyzer. Clin Biochem 1998;31:81–8.
32. Sánchez-Carbayo M, Mauri M, Alfayate R, Miralles C, Soria F. Analytical and Clinical Evaluation of TSH and Thyroid Hormones by Electrochemiluminescent Immunoassays.Clin Biochem 1999;32:395–403.
33. Manjer J, Johansson R, Berglund G, Janzon L, Kaaks R, ?gren ?, Lenner P. Postmenopausal breast cancer risk in relation to sex steroid hormones, prolactin and SHBG (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003;14:599–607.
34. Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, Longcope C, Gordon GB, Comstock GW. A prospective study of endogenous hormones and breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev 1994;18:79–85.
35. Rosenberg CR, Pasternack BS, Shore RE, Koenig KL, Toniolo PG. Premenopausal estradiol levels and the risk of breast cancer: a new method of controlling for day of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140:518–25.
36. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997;75:1075–9.
37. Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L, Press MF. Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation, and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:17–35.
38. Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, Pike MC. Effect of Hormone Replacement Therapy on Breast Cancer Risk: Estrogen Versus Estrogen Plus Progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:328–32.
39. Colditz GA. Estrogen, estrogen plus progestin therapy and risk of breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2005;11:909s–17s.
40. Micheli A, Muti P, Secreto G, Krogh V, Meneghini E, Venturelli E, Sieri S, Pala V, Berrino F. Endogenous sex hormones and subsequent breast cancer in premenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2004;112:312–8.
41. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997;76:401–5.
42. Ebeling P, Koivisto VA. Physiological importance of dehydroepiandrosterone. Lancet 1994;343:1479–81.
43. Gordon GB, Bush TL, Helzlsouer KJ, Miller SR, Comstock GW. Relationship of serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1990;50:3859–62.
44. Helzlsouer KJ, Gordon GB, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, Comstock GW. Relationship of prediagnostic serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1992;52:1–4.
45. Page JH, Colditz GA, Rifai N, Barbieri RL, Willett WC, Hankinson SE. Plasma Adrenal Androgens and Risk of Breast Cancer in Premenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13:1032–6.
46. Knochenhauer ES, Boots LR, Potter HD, Azziz R. Differential binding of estradiol and testosterone to SHBG. Relation to circulating estradiol levels. J Reprod Med 1998;43: 665–70.
47. Fortunati N, Catalano MG. Sex Hormone-binding Globulin (SHBG) and Estradiol Cross-talk in Breast Cancer Cells. Horm Metab Res 2006;38:236–40.
48. Beattie MS, Costantino JP, Cummings SR, Wickerham DL, Vogel VG, Dowsett M, Folkerd EJ, Willett WC, Wolmark N, Hankinson SE. Endogenous Sex Hormones, Breast Cancer Risk, and Tamoxifen Response: An Ancillary Study in the NSABP Breast Cancer Prevention Trial (P-1). J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:110–5.
49. Judd HL, Lucas WE, Yen SSC. Effect of oopherectomy on circulating testosterone and androstenedione levels in patients with endometrial cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;118:793–798.
50. Hurd WW, Amesse LS, Randolph JF Jr. Menopause. In: Berek JS (ed). Novak's gynecology. Philadelphia, USA. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002:1109–39.
2. Garcia M, Jemal A, Ward EM, Center MM, Hao Y, Siegel RL, Thun MJ. Global Cancer Facts & Figures 2007. Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society, 2007.
3.王启俊,祝伟星,袁光亮,等.北京地区乳腺癌流行现状及趋势.中国肿瘤,1996;5(6):6.
4.金凡.上海市区1972年一1992年乳腺癌发病趋势.中国肿瘤,1996;5(6):8.
5.郑莹,李德录,向泳梅,等.上海市区乳腺癌流行现状及趋势分析.外科理论与实践,2001;6(4):219-221.
6.曹卡加,吴一龙,马国胜,等.广州市乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国肿瘤,2001;10(12):702-704.
7.王启俊,祝伟星,邢秀梅.北京城区女性乳腺癌发病死亡和生存情况20年监测分析.中华肿瘤杂志,2006;28(3):208-210.
8.上海市肿瘤研究所流行病学研究室.1993年上海市市区居民恶性肿瘤发病率统计.肿瘤,1996;16(3):445.
9.上海市肿瘤研究所流行病学研究室.1999年上海市市区恶性肿瘤发病率.肿瘤,2002;22(3):259.
10.上海市疾病预防控制中心.2003年上海市市区恶性肿瘤发病率.肿瘤,2006;26(7):694.
11. Paget J.Address in surgery. Lancet 1862; 80: 158-164.
12. Kushi LH, Byers T, Doyle C, et al. American Cancer Society Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA Cancer J Clin. 2006; 56(5): 254-281; quiz 313-254.
13. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, et al. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1371–1388.
14. Rebbeck TR, Levin AM, Eisen A, et al. Breast cancer risk after bilateral prophylactic oophorectomy in BRCA1 mutation carriers. J Natl Cancer Inst 1999; 91:1475–1479.
15. Fabian CJ, Kimler BF, Zalles CM,et al. Short-Term Breast Cancer Prediction by Random Periareolar Fine-Needle Aspiration Cytology and the Gail Risk Model. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 1217–1227.
16. Freedman AN, Seminara D, Gail MH, et al. Cancer Risk Prediction Models: A Workshop on Development, Evaluation, and Application. J NatlCancer Inst 2005; 97: 715– 723.
17. Armstrong K, Eisen A, Weber B. Assessing the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:564-571.
18. Hulka BS, Moorman PG. Breast cancer: hormones and other risk factors. Maturitas 2001; 38(1):103-113; discussion 113-106.
19. American Cancer Society. Breast Cancer Facts & Figures 2007-2008. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, Inc.
20. Lupulescu A. Estrogen use and cancer incidence: a review. Cancer Invest 1995; 13: 287-295.
21. Henderson BE, Ross RK, Pike MC, Casagrande JT. Endogenous hormones as a major factor in human cancer. Cancer Res 1982; 42: 3232-3239.
22.姚凤一,曲盛义,高道利,等.乳腺癌发病因素研究.中华流行病学杂志,1981;2(4)∶253.
23.李会庆,李天霖,张孔来,等.北京市城区女性乳腺癌某些危险因素的调查研究.中华流行病学杂志,1986;7 (3)∶160.
24.汪洋,贾庆良,周燕荣,等.重庆市人群肺癌肝癌和乳腺癌危险因素研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,2000;8 (1):26.
25.王启俊,李玲,祝伟星,等.中国城市居民乳腺癌危险因素研究.中华流行病学杂志,2000,6 (3):216-220.
26.方亚,吴家刚,施侣元.262例女性乳腺癌的病例对照研究及其多因素分析.中华流行病学杂志,2005;26(11):925.
27. Gao YT, Shu XO, Dai Q, et al. Association of menstrual and reproductive factors with breast cancer risk: results from the Shanghai breast cancer study. Int J Cancer 2000; 87: 295-300.
28.姚凤一,陈凡,王淑石,等.性激素与乳腺癌及乳腺纤维腺瘤关系的研究.中华内分泌代谢杂志,1987;3(4):236-237.
29.黄朴厚,詹新恩,谷成明.雌二醇、孕酮与良性乳腺疾病的关系.中华外科杂志,1988;26(11):644-645.
30. Yu H, Shu XO, Shi RH, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Li BDL, Zheng W. Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2003; 105: 92–7.
31.徐红,王为忠,张新国,等.血清雌二醇、孕激素与乳腺疾病的关系.医学研究生学报,2004;17(1):30-32.
32.胡名柏,谢伟,熊斌,等.血浆类固醇性激素水平与女性乳腺癌危险性的关系.武汉大学学报,2004;25(6):694-697.
33. Rogers AE. Diet and breast cancer: Studies in laboratory animals. J Nutr 1997; 127(5): 933s-935s.
34. D'Avanzo B, Negri E, Gramenzi A, et al. Fats in seasoning and breast cancer risk: an Italian case-control study. Eur J Cancer 1991, 27:420-423.
35. Potischman N, Weiss HA, Swanson CA, et al. Diet during adolescence and risk of breast cancer among young women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998, 90:226-233.
36. Willett WC.Diet and Breast Cancer. J Intern Med 2001; 249:395-411.
37. Stillwell W, Jenski L. International workshop on cellular and molecular aspects ofω-3 fatty acids and cancer. J Lipid Res 2002, 43(9): 1579-1580.
38. Gago-Dominguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, et al. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br J Cancer 2003, 89(9): 1686-1692.
39. Escrich E, Solanas M, Soler M, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated n-6 lipids effects on the growth and fatty acid composition of rat mammary tumors. J Nutr Biochem 2001, 12(9): 536-549.
40. Larsson SC, Kumlin M, Ingelman-Sundberg M, et al. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty acids for the prevention of cancer: a review of potential mechanisms. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 79(6): 935-945.
41. Jude S, Roger S, Martel E, et al. Dietary long-chain omega-3 fatty acid of marine origin: A comparison of their protective effects on coronary heart disease and breast cancers. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2006, 90(1-3): 299-325.
42.马良才.苏州市居民膳食调查分析.上海预防医学杂志,1995;7(5):219-221.
43.刘平,张勇,赵梅.重庆市188户农村居民膳食结构及营养状况分析.重庆医科大学学报,2000;25(2):144-147.
44.张坚,王春荣,高俊全,等.我国居民膳食脂类摄入量的研究.营养学报,2004;26(3):167-171.
45.绛增昌,陈晓荣,汪韶洁,等.青岛市居民膳食结构和营养状况调查.中国公共卫生,2006;22(1):91-92.
46. Binukumar B, Mathew A. Dietary fat and risk of breast cancer. Morld J Surg Oncol, 2005, 18(3): 45-51.
47. Missmer SA, Smith-Warner SA, Spiegelman D, et al. Meat and dairy food consumption and breast cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Int J Epidemiol. 2002; 31: 78–85.
48. Gerber M, Thiébaut A, Astorg P, et al. Dietary fat, fatty acid composition and risk of cancer. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol 2005; 107: 540–559.
49.戴军,苏宜香,阎凤,等.校准食物频数法调查广州II型糖尿病患者膳食及脂肪酸构成比.中国公共卫生,2000;16(1):43-44.
50.于红霞,赵仲堂,潘玉珍,等.城区居民膳食调查.疾病控制杂志,1999;3(1):29-32.
51. American Cancer Society. Breast Cancer Facts & Figures 2005-2006. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, Inc.
52. Yager JD, Davidson NE. Estrogen Carcinogenesis in Breast Cancer. NEJM 2006 354:270-282.
53. Russo IH, Russo J. Mammary gland neoplasia in long term rodent studies. Environ. Health Perspect 1996; 104:938-967.
54. Yang X, Edgerton SM, Kosanke SD, et al. Hormonal and Dietary Modulation of Mammary Carcinogenesis in Mouse Mammary Tumor Virus-c-erbB-2 Transgenic Mice. Cancer Res 2003 63:2425-2433.
55. Jean M. Gudas JM, Nguyen H, Li T, et al. Hormone-dependent Regulation of BRCA1 in Human Breast Cancer Cells. Cancer Res 1995; 55: 4561-4565.
56. Hilakivi-Clarke L. Estrogens, BRCA1, and Breast Cancer. Cancer Res 2000; 60(18): 4993 - 5001.
57. Hulka B. Dietary fat and breast cancer: case-control and cohort studies. Prey Med1989; 18:180-193.
58. Kohlmeier L, Biomarkersof fatty acid exposureand breast cancer risk. Am J Clin Nuir l997; 66(suppl): 1548S-1556S.
59. Goldin BR, Woods MN, Spiegelman DL, et al. The effect of dietary fat and fiber on serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women under controlled dietary conditions. Cancer 1994; 74(suppl): l125-1131.
60. Rose DP, Connolly JM, Chlebowski RT, Buzzard IM, Wynder EL. The effectsof a low-fatdietary interventionand tamoxifenadjuvant therapy on the serum estrogen and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations of postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res Treat l993; 27: 253-262.
61.刘隆健,吴凯南,林晓宁,等.重庆市妇女乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国肿瘤,1998;7(11):12-14.
62.汪祥辉,陈卫宇,雷通海,等.浙江慈溪农村妇女乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国肿瘤,2006;15(5):294-294.
63. Radloff LS. The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1977; 1:385-401.
64. Berek JS主编;段涛,丰有吉主译.NOVAK妇科学.第13版.北京:人民卫生出版社,2005.
65. McIntosh JE, Matthews CD, Crocker JM, Broom TJ, Cox LW. Predicting the luteinizing hormone surge: relationship between the duration of the follicular and luteal phases and the length of the human menstrual cycle Fertil Steril. 1980;34:125–30.
66. Forest JC, MasséJ, Lane A. Evaluation of the analytical performance of the Boehringer Mannheim Elecsys? 2010 immunoanalyzer. Clin Biochem 1998;31:81–8.
67. Sánchez-Carbayo M, Mauri M, Alfayate R, Miralles C, Soria F. Analytical and Clinical Evaluation of TSH and Thyroid Hormones by Electrochemiluminescent Immunoassays. Clin Biochem 1999; 32: 395–403.
68. Secreto G, Toniolo P, Pisani P, et al. Androgens and breast cancer in premenopausal women. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 471– 476.
69. Muti P, Trevisan M, Micheli A, et al. Reliability of serum hormones in premenopausal and postmenopausal women over a one-year period. Cancer Epidemiol BiomarkersPrev 1996; 5: 917-922.
70. Verkasalo PK, Thomus HV, Appleby PN, et al. Circulating levels of sex hormones and their relation to risk factors for breast cancer: a cross-sectional study in 1092 pre and post menopausal women. Cancer Causes Control 2001; 12 (1): 47-59.
71.杨五计,鲁光恩,王晓山,等.几种性激素水平与乳腺结构不良、乳腺癌关系的研究.中国厂矿医学,2002;15(1):3-4.
72. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, Speizer FE. Plasma Sex Steroid Hormone Levels and Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1292–1299.
73.李玲,饶克勤,王启俊.肿瘤危险因素的筛选与多重共线性的诊断和处理.中国卫生统计,1999;16(3):136.
74. Hiroshi N. Life in the twenty-first century. WHO report, 1998
75.李广灿,叶召.全球常见恶性肿瘤的当前流行趋势.肿瘤防治研究,1999;26(4):308-312.
76. American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures 2006. Atlanta: American Cancer Society, 2006.
77.金宗浩,主编.乳腺增生和乳腺癌.上海:上海科学技术文献出版社,2003.
78. Wooster R, Bignell G, Lancaster J, et al. Identification of the breast cancer susceptibility gene BRCA2. Nature 1995; 378(6559):789-792.
79. West M, Blanchette C, Dressman H, et al. Predicting the clinical status of human breast cancer by using gene expression profiles. PNAS 2001; 98(20): 11462-11467.
80. Helmbold P, Haerting J, K?lbl H, et al. Gene-Expression Signatures in Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1715-1717.
81. Kenemans P, VerstraetenRA, Verheijen RHM. Oncogenic pathways in hereditary and sporadic breast cancer. Maturitas 2004, 49: 34–43.
82. Gonda TJ, Leo P, Ramsay RG. Estrogen and MYB in breast cancer: potential for new therapies. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2008; 8(6): 713-717.
83. Hughes-DaviesL, Huntsman D, Ruas M, et al.EMSY Links the BRCA2 Pathway to Sporadic Breast and Ovarian Cancer. Cell 2003, 115: 523–535.
84. Colditz GA. Epidemiology and Prevention of Breast Cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005; 14(4): 768-772.
85. Cummings SR, Eckert S, Krueger KA, et al. The effect of raloxifene on risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1999; 281: 2189– 2197.
86. Tatsuhiko K, Kotaro O, Kazuya M , et al. Prospective Cohort Study of the Risk of Prostate Cancer among Rotating-Shift Workers: Findings from the Japan Collaborative Cohort Study. Am J Epidemiol 2006; 164(6): 549-555.
87. Albano JD, Ward E, Jemal A, et al. Cancer Mortality in the United States by Education Level and Race. J Natl Cancer Inst 2007; 99(18): 1384-1394.
88.谭红专,刘爱忠,王洁如,等.146对女性乳腺癌病例对照研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,1998,6 (3):126-127,139.
89.王启俊,李玲,祝伟星,等.北京市乳腺癌危险因素病例对照研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,2000,8 (4):165-167.
90. Goldberg MS, Labreche F. Occupational risk factors for female breast cancer: a review. Occup Environ Med 1996; 53(3): 145-156.
91. Welp EA, Weiderpass E, Boffetta P, et al. Environmental risk factors of breast cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health 1998; 24(1): 3-7.
92. Armstrong K, Eisen A, Weber B, et al. Assessing the Risk of Breast Cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 342:564-571.
93.王雪梅.乳腺癌的环境危险因素.国外医学卫生学分册,1998,25 (5):278-279,296.
94. Alexander F. Psychosomatic Medicine. New York: W.W.North Co, 1950.
95. Butow PN, Hiller JE, Price MA, et al. Epidemiological evidence for a relationship between life events, coping style, and personality factors in the development of breast cancer. J Psychosom Res 2000; 49(3): 169-181.
96. Dunts SFA, Zeegers MPA, Vd Borne B. The association between stressful life events and breast cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Int J Cancer 2003; 107: 1023-1029.
97.姚三巧,范雪云,李君,等.唐山市女性乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国慢性病预防与控制,1998;6(1):2-4.
98. Calle EE, McMahill HL, Thun MJ, et al. Cigarettes smoking and risk of fatal breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 139: 1001-1007.
99. Band PR, Le ND, Fang R, et al. Carcinogenic and endocrine disrupting effects of cigarette smoke and risk of breast cancer .Lancet 2002; 360: 1044–1049.
100. Steven J Bowlin, M Cristina Leske, Andre Varma, et al. Breast cancer risk and alcohol consumption: result from large case control. Int J Epidemiol, 1997, 26: 915-923.
101.吴启平.启东市农村地区妇女乳腺癌危险因素分析.现代康复,1998;2(4): 293-294.
102.李泓澜,高立峰,杨工,等.月经生育因素与女性乳腺癌关系的病例对照研究.肿瘤,2000;20(2):88-92.
103.王秀娟,窦拉加,程海萍,等.西宁市女性乳腺癌危险因素的病例对照研究.中国公共卫生,2000;16(2):153-154.
104. Henderson BE, Pike MC, Bernstern L, et al. Breast cancer. IN: Schottenfeld D, Fraumeni JF,eds. Cancer Epidemioogy and Prevention, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
105.朱民.女性乳腺癌的主要危险因素.中华流行病学杂志,1996;17(5):301– 304.
106. Brinton LA, Schaier C, Hoover RN, et al. Menstrual factors and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Invest 1988; (6) : 145-154.
107. Bonnier P, Romain S, Dilhuydy JM, et al. Influence of pregnancy on the outcome of breast cancer: a case-control study. Int J Cancer 1997; 72(5):720- 727.
108. Whelan EA, Sandler DP, Root JL, et al. Menstrual cyclepattern and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 139:1081-1085.
109. Agrawal B, Reddish MA, Krantz MJ, et al. Does pregnancy immunize against breast cancer? Cancer Res 1995; 55(11): 2257-2261.
110. Beral V, Bull D, Doll R, et al. Breast cancer and abortion: collaborative reanalysis of data from 53 epidemiological studies, including 83000 women with breast cancer from 16 countries. Lancet 2004; 363:1007-1016.
111. Goldgar DE, Stratton MR, Eeles RA. Familial breast cancer. In : Eeles RA , Ponder BAJ , Easton DF , et al (eds) .Genetic predisposition to cancer. London : Chapman and Hall, 1996.
112. Salih AK, Fentiman IS. Breast cancer prevention. Int J Clin Pract 2002; 56 (4): 267-271.
113. Begg CB. On the use of familial aggregation in population-based case probands for calcaulating pentrance. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 1221-1226.
114. Bernstein L, Ross RK. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993; 15: 48–65.
115. Clemons M, Goss P. Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 276–85.
116. Nandi S, Guzman RC, Yang J. Hormones and mammary carcinogenesis in mice, rats, and humans: a unifying hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 3650–3657.
117. Somboonporn W, Davis SR. Testosterone effects on the breast: Implications for testosterone therapy for women. Endocr Rev 2004; 25: 374–88.
118. Yager JD, Davidson NE. Mechanisms of disease: Estrogen carcinogenesis in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 270–282.
119. Poole AJ, Li Y, Kim Y, et al. Prevention of BRCA1-mediated mammary tumorigenesis in mice by a progesterone antagonist. Science 2006;314:1467–1470.
120. Drabsch, Y, Hugo H, Zhang R, et al. Mechanism of and requirement for estrogen-regulated MYB expression in estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer cells. PNAS 2007; 104:13762–7.
121. Wysowski DK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, et al. Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 125: 791–799.
122. Berrrino F, Muti P, Micheli A, et al. Serum sex hormone levels after menopause and subsequent breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 291–6.
123. Cauley JA, Lucas FL, Kuller LH, et al. Elevated serum estradiol and testosterone concentrations are associated with a high risk for breast cancer. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 270–277.
124. Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, et al. A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000; 9: 575–579.
125. Key T, Appleby P, Barnes I, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94:606–616.
126. Yu H, Shu XO, Shi RH, et al. Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2003; 105:92–97.
127. Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Shore RE, Koenig KL, et al. Postmenopausal levels of oestrogen, androgen, and SHBG and breast cancer: long-term results of a prospectivestudy. Br J Cancer 2004; 90: 153–159.
128. Sturgeon SR, Potischman N, Malone KE, et al. Serum levels of sex hormones and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women: a case-control study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2004; 15: 45–53.
129. Missmer SA, Eliassen AH, Barbieri RL, et al. Endogenous estrogen, androgen and progesterone concentrations and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 1856–1865.
130. Kaaks R, Berrino F, Key T, et al. Serum sex steroids in premenopausal women and breast cancer risk within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 2005; 97: 755–765.
131. Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ, et al. Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer 2005; 12: 1071–1082.
132. Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, et al. Endogenous steroid hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006; 98: 1406–1415.
133. Hankinson SE, Eliassen AH. Endogenous estrogen, testosterone and progesterone levels in relation to breast cancer risk. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007; 106: 24–30.
134. Jin F, Devesa S, Chow WH, et al. Cancer incidence trends in urban Shanghai.1972-1994: an update. Int J Cancer 1999; 83: 435–440.
135. Shanghai center of disease control and prevention. The incidence rate of malignant tumor in the urban Shanghai in 2003. Tumor 2006; 26: 694.
136. Bernstein L, Yuan JM, Ross RK, et al. Serum hormone levels in premenopausal Chinese women in Shanghai and white women in Los Angeles: results from two breast cancer case-control studies. Cancer Causes Control 1990; 1: 51–58.
137. Key TJA, Chen J, Wang DY, et al. Sex hormones in women in rural China and in Britain. Br J Cancer 1990; 62: 631–636.
138. Manjer J, Johansson R, Berglund G, et al. Postmenopausal breast cancer risk in relation to sex steroid hormones, prolactin and SHBG (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003; 14: 599–607.
139. Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, et al. A prospective study of endogenoushormones and breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev 1994; 18: 79–85.
140. Rosenberg CR, Pasternack BS, Shore RE, et al. Premenopausal estradiol levels and the risk of breast cancer: a new method of controlling for day of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol 1994; 140: 518–525.
141. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, et al. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997; 75:1075–1079.
142. Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L, et al. Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation, and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993; 15: 17–35.
143. Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, et al. Effect of Hormone Replacement Therapy on Breast Cancer Risk: Estrogen Versus Estrogen Plus Progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 328–332.
144. Colditz GA. Estrogen, estrogen plus progestin therapy and risk of breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 909s–917s.
145. Micheli A, Muti P, Secreto G, et al. Endogenous sex hormones and subsequent breast cancer in premenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2004; 112: 312–318.
146. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, et al. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997; 76: 401–405.
147. Ebeling P, Koivisto VA. Physiological importance of dehydroepiandrosterone. Lancet 1994; 343: 1479–1481.
148. Gordon GB, Bush TL, Helzlsouer KJ, et al. Relationship of serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1990; 50: 3859–3862.
149. Helzlsouer KJ, Gordon GB, Alberg AJ, et al. Relationship of prediagnostic serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1992; 52: 1–4.
150. Page JH, Colditz GA, Rifai N, et al. Plasma Adrenal Androgens and Risk of Breast Cancer in Premenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004; 13: 1032–1036.
151. Knochenhauer ES, Boots LR, Potter HD, et al. Differential binding of estradiol andtestosterone to SHBG. Relation to circulating estradiol levels. J Reprod Med 1998; 43: 665–670.
152. Fortunati N, Catalano MG. Sex Hormone-binding Globulin (SHBG) and Estradiol Cross-talk in Breast Cancer Cells. Horm Metab Res 2006; 38: 236–40.
153.林缨,王清妹.913例乳腺疾病普查结果及防治.国外医学卫生学分册,1998;25 (5):278-279,296.
154.邵国安,胡学军,韩渊,等.在职妇女乳腺普查2519例分析.新疆医科大学学报,2007;30(10):1182-1183.
155. Guray M, Sahin AA. Benign breast diseases: classification, diagnosis, and management. The Oncologist 2006; 11: 435- 449.
156. Kristiansen IS, Fineberg S, Kristiansen IS, et al. Benign breast disease and breast cancer.. NEJM 2005; 353: 1856-1858.
157. Gottlieb S. Women with benign breast disease face higher cancer risk. BMJ 2005; 331: 179-179.
158. Ashbeck, EL, Rosenberg, RD, Stauber, PM,et al. Benign Breast Biopsy Diagnosis and Subsequent Risk of Breast Cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007; 16: 467-472.
159. Mayberry RM, Branch PT. Breast cancer risk factors among Hispanic women. Ethn Dis 1994; 4 (1): 41.
160. Colep. Incidence rates and risk factors of beast benign neaplasms. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 108: 112.
161. Hartmann LC, Sellers TA, Frost MH, et al. Benign Breast Disease and the Risk of Breast Cancer. NEJM 2005; 353: 229-237.
162. Friedenreich C, Bryant H, Alexander F, et al. Risk factors for benign proliferative breast disease. Int J Epidemiol 2000; 29: 637-644.
163. Shoker BS, Jarvis C, Clarke RB, et al. Abnormal regulation of the oestrogen receptor in benign breast lesions. J Clin Pathol 2000; 53: 778-783.
164.金宗浩,党云文.我国部分地区女性乳腺疾病发病现状的调查与分析.中国肿瘤临床与康复,2000;7(4):17-19.
165. Armstrong B, Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer 1975; 15:617-631.
166. Buell P. Changing incidence of breast cancer in Japanese-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1973; 51: 1479-1483.
167. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 1819-1827.
168. Willett W原著;郝玲,李竹主译.营养流行病学.人民卫生出版社.北京,2006.
169. Armstrong B, Doll R. Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. Int J Cancer 1975; 15: 617-631.
170.葛可佑,翟凤英,阎怀成.中国人群膳食营养状况第一卷(1992年全国营养调查).北京:人民卫生出版社,1996.
171.李立明,饶克勤,孔灵芝,等.中国居民2002年营养与健康状况调查.中华流行病学杂志,2005;26(7):478-484.
172.杨月欣主编.中国食物成份表2004.北京大学医学出版社.北京,2005.
173.周紫垣,王文昌,孙华明,等.重庆地区人群半定量食物频数问卷的研制.第三军医大学学报,2003;25(19):1701-1705.
174.周紫垣,王文昌,孙立平,等.重庆地区人群半定量食物频数问卷的效度和信度研究.第三军医大学学报,2003;25(19):1706-1709.
175. Willett W. Nutrition Epidemiology, 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
176. Tokudome S, Ikeda M, Tokudome Y, et al. Development of data-based semi-quantitative food frequency questionaire for dietary in middle-aged Japanese. Jpn J Clin Oncol, 1998; 28(1): 679-687.
177.杨月欣,王光亚编著.中国食物成份表2002.北京大学医学出版社.北京,2002.
178.中国预防医学科学院营养与食品卫生研究所.食物成份表(全国代表值)第1版.北京大学医学出版社.北京,2002.
179. Lepage G, Roy CC. Direct transesterification of all classes of lipids in a one-step reaction. J Lipid Res 1986; 27: 114–120.
180. Masood A, Stark KD, Salem N. A simplified and efficient method for the analysis of fatty acid methyl esters suitable for large clinical studies. J. Lipid Res, 2005; 46: 2299-305.
181. Doll R, Peto R. The causes of cancer. JNCL 1981; 66: 1191-1308.
182.陈君石.中国居民2002年营养与健康状况调查.中华流行病学杂志,2005;26(7):478-484.
183. Cohen J. Breast cancer screening in a general practice. Aust Fam Physician 1991; 20 (1): 42-43.
184. Stoll BA. Therapy by progestational agents in advanced breast cancer. Med J Aust 1966; 1 (9): 331-334.
185. Lipkin M., Newmark H. Vitamin D, Calcium and Prevention of Breast Cancer: A Review. J Am Coll Nutr 1999; 18: 392-397.
186. Howe GR, Hirohata T, Hislop TG et al. Dietary factors and risk of breast cancer: combined analysis of 12 case-control studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 1990; 82: 561-569.
187. Cade J, Burley V, Greenwood D. Dietary fibre and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women's Cohort Study. Inter J Epidemiol 2007; 36 (2): 431.
188. Rohan TE, Howe GR, Friedenreich CM, et al. Dietary fiber, vitamins A, C, and E, and risk of breast cancer: a cohort study. Cancer Causes Control 1993; 4: 29-37.
189. Graham S, Zielezny M, Marshall J et al. Diet in the epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in the New York State cohort. Am J Epidemiol 1992; 136: 1327-1337.
190. Verhoeven DTH, Assen N, Goldbohm RA et al. Vitamins C and E, retinol, beta-carotene and dietary fiber in relation to breast cancer risk: a prospective cohort study. Br J Cancer 1997; 75: 149-155.
191. Zhang S, Hunter D, Forman M, et al. Dietary Carotenoids and Vitamins A, C, and E and Risk of Breast Cancer. Oxford University Press 1999; 91: 547-556.
192. Fraker LD, Halter SA, Forbes JT. Growth inhibition by retinol of a human breast carcinoma cell line in vitro and in athymic mice. Cancer Res 1984; 44: 5757-573.
193. Moon RC, McCormick DL, Mehta RG. Inhibition of carcinogenesis by retinoids. Cancer Res 1983; 43: 2469.
194. Katsouyanni K, Trichopoulou A, Stuver S, et al. The association of fat and other macronutrients with breast cancer: a case-control study from Greece. Br J Cancer 1994; 70 (3): 537-541.
195. Freudenheim JL, Marshall JR, Vena JE, et al. Premenopausal breast cancer risk and intake of vegetables, fruits, and related nutrients. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 88: 340-348.
196. Abdul-Hajj YJ, Kelliher M. Failure of ascorbic acid to inhibit growth of transplantable and dimethylbenzanthracene induced rat mammary tumors. Cancer Lett 1982; 17: 67-73.
197. Graham S, Marshall J, Mettlin C, Rzepka T, Nemoto T, Byers T. Diet in the epidemiology of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 116: 68-75.
198. King MM, McCay PB. Modulation of tumor incidence and possible mechanism of mammary carcinogenesis by dietary antioxidants. Cancer Res 1983; 43: 2485s.
199. Hunter D, Manson J, Colditz G., et al. A Prospective Study of the Intake of Vitamins C, E, and A and the Risk of Breast Cancer. New Engl J Med 1993; 329 (4): 234-240.
200. Huang R, Hu Y, Lin H, et al. Folate Deficiency Induces a Cell Cycle-Specific Apoptosis in HepG2 Cells. J Nutr 1999 129; (1):25-31.
201.欧敬民,张一楚,费哲为,等.维生素叶酸缺乏对体外HBL-100 P53蛋白表达与mRNA含量的影响.中国临床营养杂志,2006;14 (2):87-89.
202. Zhang S, Hunter D, Hankinson S, et al. A Prospective Study of Folate Intake and the Risk of Breast Cancer. Am Med Assoc 1999; 281: 1632-1637.
203. Jin R, Tan P, Tan B. Metallothionein expression and zinc levels in invasive ductal breast carcinoma. Oncol Rep 1999; 6 (4): 871-875.
204. Gupta S, Shukla V, Vaidya M., et al. Serum trace elements and Cu/Zn ratio in breast cancer patients. J Surg Oncol 1991; 46 (3): 178-181.
205. Cavallo F, Gerber M, Marubini E, et al. Zinc and copper in breast cancer. A joint study in northern Italy and southern France. Cancer 1991; 67 (3): 738-745.
206. Yucel I, Arpaci F, Ozet A, et al. Serum copper and zinc levels and copper/zinc ratio in patients with breast cancer. Biol Trace Elem Res 1994; 40 (1): 31-38.
207. Levi F, Pasche C, Lucchini F, et al. Dietary intake of selected micronutrients and breast-cancer risk. Int J Cancer 2001; 91 (2): 260-263.
208. Zhang T, Cao E, Li J, et al. Induction of apoptosis and inhibition of human gastric cancer MGC-803 cell growth by arsenic trioxide. Eur J Cancer 1999; 35(8): 1258-1263.
209. Martin L, Harold L, Newmark D. Vitamin D, calcium and prevention of breast cancer: a review. Am Colle J Nutr 1999; 5(18):392-397.
210. Bissonauth V, Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P. Nutrition and breast cancer among sporadiccases and gene mutation carriers: An overview. Cancer Detect Prev 2008; 32(1): 52-64.
211. Malone W, Kelloff G. Chemoprevention Strategies Utilizing Combinations of Inhibitors of Carcinogenesis? Oxford University Press 1989; 81: 824.
212. Ip C. The chemopreventive role of selenium in carcinogenesis. J Am Coll Toxicol 1986; 5: 7-20.
213. Knekt P, Aromaa A, Maatela J et al. Serum vitamin A and the subsequent risk of cancer: cancer incidence follow-up of the Finnish Mobile Clinic Health Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol 1990; 132: 857-870.
214. Hunter DJ. Biochemical indicators of dietary intake. In: Willett WC, eds. Nutritional Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990; 143-216.
215. Singh P, Kapil U, Shukla N, et al. Association between breast cancer and vitamin C, vitamin E and selenium levels: results of a case-control study in India. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2005; 6 (2): 177-180.
216. Kuo H, Chen S, Wu C, et al. Serum and tissue trace elements in patients with breast cancer in Taiwan. Biol Trace Elem Res 2002; 89 (1):1-11.
217. Hunter DJ, Morris JS, Stampfer MJ, et al. A prospective study of selenium status and breast cancer risk. JAMA 1990; 264: 1128-1131.
218. Wu AH, Ziegler RG, Pike MC, et al. Menstrual and reproductive factors and risk of breast cancer in Asian-Americans. Br J Cancer 1996; 73: 680–686.
219. Prentice RL, Pepe M, Self SG. Dietary fat and breast cancer: a quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic literature and a discussion of methodologic issues. Cancer Res 1989; 49: 3147-3156.
220. Tannenbaum A, Silverstone H. Nutrition and the Genesis of Tumors. Raven R. Cancer London: Butterworth (UK) 1957.
221. Miller AB, Kelly A, Choi NW, et al. A study of diet and breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 107:499-509.
222. Goodstine SL, Zheng T, Holford TR, et al. Dietary (n-3)/ (n-6) fatty acid ratio: possible relationship to premenopausal but not to post-menopausal breast cancer risk in U.S. women. J Nutr 2003; 133:1409-1414.
223. Do MH, Lee SS, Jung PJ, et al. Intake of dietary fat and vitaminin relation to breastcancer risk in Korean women: a casecontrol study. J Korean Med Sci 2003; 18: 534-540.
224. Ewertz M, Gill C. Dietary factors and breast cancer risk in Denmark. Int J Cancer 1990; 46: 779-784.
225. Franceschi S, Favero A, Decarli A, et al. Intake of macronutrients and the risk of breast cancer,. Lancet 1996; 347: 1351-1356.
226. Graham S, Hellmann R, Marshall J, et al. Nutritional epidemiology of postmenopausal breast cancer in western New York. Am J Epidemiol 1991; 134: 552-566.
227. Hermann S, Linseisen J, Chang-Claude J. Nutrition and breast cancer risk by age 50: a population based case-control study in Germany. Nutr Cancer 2002; 44: 23-34.
228. Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, et al. Dietary effects on breast-cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet 1991, 337:1197-1200.
229. London SJ, Sacks FM, Stampfer MJ, et al. Fatty acidcomposition of the subcutaneous adipose tissue and risk of proliferative benign breast disease and breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1993; 85: 785-793.
230. Richardson S, Gerber M, Cenee S. The role of fat, animal protein and some vitamin consumption in breast cancer: A case-control study in Southern France. Int J Cancer 1991; 48: 1-9.
231. Ronco A, De Stefani E, Mendilaharsu M et al.Meat, fat and risk of breast cancer: a case-control study from Uruguay. Int J Cancer 1996; 65: 328-331.
232. Sala E, Warren R, Duffy S, et al. High risk mammographic parenchymal patterns and diet: a case-control study. Br J Cancer 2000, 83:121-126.
233. Santiago E, Gonzalez MJ, Matos MI, et al. Association between dietary fat and breast cancer in Puerto Rican postmenopausal women attending a breast cancer clinic. P R Health Sci J 1998; 17: 235-241.
234. Van't Veer P, Kok FJ, Brants HA, et al. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer. Int J Epidemiol 1990; 19: 12-18.
235. Yuan JM, Wang QS, Ross RK, et al. Diet and breast cancer in Shanghai and Tianjin, China. Br J Cancer 1995; 71: 1353-1358.
236. Wakai K, Dillon DS, Ohno Y, et al. Fat intake and breast cancer risk in an area where fat intake is low: a case-control study in Indonesia. Int J Epidemiol 2000; 29: 20-28.
237. Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, et al. Diet fat and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 22-28.
238. Barrett-Connor E, Friedlander NJ. Dietary fat, calories, and the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women: a prospective population-based study. J Am Coll Nutr 1993; 12:390- 399.
239. Bingham SA, Luben R, Welch A, W et al. Are imprecise methods obscuring a relation between fat and breast cancer. Lancet 2003; 362: 212-214.
240. Byrne C, Rockett H, Holmes MD. Dietary fat, fat subtypes, and breast cancer risk: lack of an association among postmenopausal women with no history of benign breast disease. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002, 11:261-265.
241. Gago-Dominiguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, et al. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br J Cancer 2003; 89: 1686-1692.
242. Kushi LH, Sellers TA, Potter JD, et al. Dietary fat and post-menopausal breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1992; 84:1092-1099.
243. Seiri S, Krogh V, Muti P, et al. Fat and protein intake and subsequent breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women. Nutr Cancer 2002; 42:10-17.
244. Velie E, Kulldorff M, Schairer C, et al. Dietary fat, fat subtypes, and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: a prospective cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 833-839.
245. Voorrips LE, Brants HA, Kardinaal AFM, et al. Intake of conjugated linoleic acid, fat and other fatty acids in relation to post-menopausal breast cancer: the Netherlands cohort study on diet and cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 2002; 76: 873-882.
246. Wirfalt E, Mattisson I, Gullberg B, et al. Post-menopausal breast cancer is associated with high intakes ofω-6 fatty acids (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003; 13: 883-893.
247. Howe GR, Friedenreich CM, Jain M, et al. A cohort study of fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1991; 83: 336-340.
248. Cho E, Spieglman D, Hunter DJ, et al. Premenopausal fat intake and risk of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2003; 95:1079-1085.
249. Gaard M, Tretli S, Loken EB. Dietary fat and the risk of breast cancer: A prospectivestudy of 25,892 Norwegian women. Int J Cancer 1995; 63: 13-17.
250. Knekt P, Albanes D, Seppanen R, et al. Dietary fat and risk of breast cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1990; 52: 903-908.
251. Rohan TE, Jain M, Miller AB. A case-cohort study of diet and risk of benign proliferative epithelial disorders of the breast (Canada). Cancer Causes Control 1998; 9: 19-27.
252. Toniolo P, Riboli E, Shore RE, et al. Consumption of meat, animal products, protein, and fat and risk of breast cancer: a prospective cohort study in New York. Epidemiology 1994; 5: 391-397.
253. van den Brandt PA, van't Veer P, Goldbohm RA, et al. A prospective cohort study on dietary fat and the risk of postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1993; 53: 75-82.
254. Holmes MD, Hunter DJ, Colditz GA, et al. Association of dietary intake of fat and fatty acids with risk of breast cancer. JAMA 1999; 281: 914-920.
255. Horn-Ross PL, Hoggatt KJ, West DW, et al.Recent diet and breast cancer risk: the California Teachers Study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2002; 13: 407-415.
256. Willett WC, Hunter DJ, Stampfer MJ, et al. Dietary fat and fiber in relation to risk of breast cancer. An 8-year follow-up. JAMA 1992; 268: 2037-2044.
257. Favero A, Parpinel M, Montella M. Energy sources and risk of cancer of the breast and colon-rectum in Italy. Adv Exp Med Biol 1999; 472: 51-55.
258. Cade J, Thomas E, Vail A. Case-control study of breast cancer in south east England: nutritional factors. J Epidemiol Community Health 1998; 52: 105-110.
259. Decarli A, Favero A, La Vecchia C, et al.Macronutrients, energy intake, and breast cancer risk: implications from different models. Epidemiology 1997; 8: 425-428.
260. La Vecchia C, Favero A, Franceschi S. Monounsaturated and other types of fat, and the risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Prev 1998; 7: 461-464.
261. Franceschi S, Favero A. The role of energy and fat in cancers of the breast and colon-rectum in a southern European population. Ann Oncol 1999; 10(Suppl 6): 61-63.
262. Klein V, Chajes V, Germain E, et al. Low alpha-linolenic acid content of adipose breast tissue is associated with an increased risk of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer 2000; 36: 335-340.
263. Saadatian-Elahi M, Toniolo P, Ferrari P, et al. Serum fatty acids and risk of breast cancer in a nested case-control study of the New York University Women's Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002; 11: 1353-1360.
264. Wolk A, Bergstrom R, Hunter D, et al. A prospective study of association of monounsaturated fat and other types of fat with risk of breast cancer. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 41-45.
265. Boyd NF, Stone J, Vogt KN, Connelly BS, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer risk revisited: a meta-analysis of the published literature. Br J Cancer 2003; 89: 1672–1685.
266. Trichopoulou A, Katsouyanni K, Stuver S, et al. Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breat cancer risk in Greece. J Natl Cancer Inst 1995; 87: 110-116.
267. Owen RW, Giacosa A, Hull WE, et al. Olive-oil consumption and health: the possible role of antioxidants. Lancet Oncol 2000; 1: 107-112.
268. Wahrburg U, Assmann G. Properties of olive oil. Lancet 2001; 357: 1626.
269. Nkondjock A, Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P. A case-control study of breast cancer and dietary intake of individual fatty acids and antioxidants in Montreal, Canada. Breast 2003; 12: 131-138.
270. Maillard V, Bougnoux P, Ferrari P, et al. n-3 and n-6 fatty acids in breast adipose tissue and relative risk of breast cancer in a case-control study in Tours, France. Int J Cancer 2002; 98: 78-83.
271. Simonsen NR, Fernandez-Crehuet Navajas J, Martin-Moreno JM, et al. Tissue stores of individual monounsaturated fatty acids and breast cancer: the EURAMIC study. European Community Multicenter Study on Antioxidants, Myocardial Infarction, and Breast Cancer. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 134-141.
272. Bagga D, Anders KH, Wang HJ, et al. Long-chain n-3 to n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios in breast adipose tissue from women with and without breast cancer. Nutr Cancer 2002; 42: 180-185.
273. Larsson SC, Kumlin M, Ingelman-Sundberg M, et al. Dietary long-chain n-3 fatty aicd for the prebvention of cancer: a reviewe of potential mechanism. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79: 935-945.
274. Simonsen N, van’t Veer P, Strain JJ, et al. Adipose tissue omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acid content and breast cancer in the EURAMIC study. Am J Epidemiol 1998; 147: 342– 352.
275. Bartram HP, Gostner A, Reddy BS, Rao CV, et al. Missing anti-proliferative effect of fish oil on rectal epithelium in healthy volunteers consuming a high-fat diet: potential role of the n-3:n-6 fatty acid ratio. Eur J Cancer Prev 1995; 4: 231-237.
276. Kohlmeier L. Biomarkers of fatty acid exposure and breast cancer risk. Am J Clin Nutr 1997 66(6 suppl): 1548S-1556S.
277. Willett W. Nutritional epidemiology. New York: Oxford Press, 1990.
278. Lichtman SW, Pisarska K, Berman ER, et al. Discrepancy between self-reported and actual calorie intake and exercise in obese subjects. N Engl J Med l992; 327: 1893-1898.
279. Kohlmeier L. What you should know about your marker. In, Kok F, van't Veer P. eds. Biomarkers of dietary exposure. Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting on Nutritional Epidemiology. London, Smith-Gordon, 1991; 15-25.
280. Kohlmeier L. Future of dietary exposure assessment. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995; 61(suppl): 702S-709S.
281. Dougherty RM, Galli C, Ferro-Luzzi A., et al. Lipid and phospholipid fatty acid composition of plasma, red blood cells, and platelets and how they are affected by dietary lipids, a study of normal subjects from Italy, Finland and the USA. Am. J. Clin. Nutr 1987; 45: 443-455.
282. Girelli D. Effects induced by olive oil-rich diets on erythrocyte membrane lipids and sodium-potassium transport in postmenopausal hypertensive women. J. Endocrinol. Invest 1992; 15: 369-376.
283. Hellerstein MK, Christiansen M, Kaempfer S, et al. Measurement of de novo hepatic lipogenesis in humans using stable isotopes. J. Clin. Invest. 1991; 87: 1841-1852.
284. Field CI, Angel A, Clandinin MT. Relationship of diet to the fatty acid composition of human adipose tissue structural and stored lipids. Am I ClinNutr l985; 42: 1206-1220.
285. Lenore K. Biomarkers of fatty acid exposure and breast cancer risk. Am. J. Clin. Nuir. l997; 66(suppl): 1548S-1556S.
286. Welsch CW. Relationship between dietary fat and experimental mammarytumorigenesis: a review and critique. Cancer Res 1992; 52(Suppl.7): 2040S- 2408S.
287. Albanes D. Total calories, body weight, and tumor incidence in mice. Cancer Res 1987; 47: 1987-1992.
288. Yuri T, Danbara N, Tsujita-Kyutoku M, et al. Dietary docosahexaenoic acid suppresses N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced mammary carcinogenesis in rats more effectively than eicosapentaenoic acid. Nutr Cancer 2003; 45(2): 211-217.
289. Carrera MP, Ramirez-Exposito MJ, Valenzuela MT, et al. Serum oxytocinase activity is related to tumor growth parameters in N-methyl nitrosourea induced rat breast cancer. Life sciences 2004; 75(11): 1369-1377.
290. Lu S, Zhang X, Badawi AF, et al. Cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor celecoxib inhibits promotion of mammary tumorigenesis in rats fed a high fat diet rich in n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Cancer Lett 2002; 184(1): 7-12.
291. Lhuillery C, Cognault S, Germain E, et al. Suppression of the promoter effect of polyunsaturated fatty acid by the absence of dietary vitamin E in experimental mammary carcinoma. Cancer Lett 1997; 14(1-2): 233-234.
292. Cameron IL, Munoz J, Barnes CJ, et al. High dietary level of synthetic vitamin E on lipid peroxidation, membrane fatty acid composition and cytotoxicity in breast cancer xenograft and in mouse host tissue. Cancer Cell Int 2003; 3(1): 3-10.
293. Jho DH, Cole SM, Lee EM, et al. Role of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in inflammation and malignancy. Integr Cancer Ther 2004; 3(2): 98-111.
294. Puertollano MA, de Pablo MA, Alvarez de, et al. Immunomodulatory effects of dietary lipids alter host natural resistance of mice to Listeria monocytogenes infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2001; 32(1): 47-52.
295. Lee JY, Sohn KH, Rhee SH, et al. Saturated fatty acids, but not unsaturated fatty acids, induce the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 mediated through Toll-like receptor 4. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(20): 16683-16689.
296. Calder PC, Grimble RF. Polyunstaturated fatty acids, inflammation and immunity. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002; 56(suppl): S14-19.
297. Escrich E, Solanas M, Soler M, et al. Dietary polyunsaturated n-6 lipids effects on the growth and fatty acid composition of rat mammary tumors. J Nutr Biochem 2001; 12(9): 536-549.
298. Jump DB. The Biochemistry of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(11): 8755-8758.
299. Radcliffe JD, Czajka-Narins DM, Imrhan V. Faty acid composition of serum, adipose tissue, and liver in rats fed diets containing corn oil or cottonseed oil. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2004; 59(2): 73-77.
300. Bjerregaard LJ, Aardestrup IV, Christensen JH, et al. The effect of adhesion to recommendations for fish intake on adipose tissue composition and plasma lipids. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2004; 13(Suppl): S95.
301. Terry PD, Rohan TE, Wolk A. Intakes of fish and marine fatty acids and the risks of cancers of the breast and prostate and of other hormone-related cancers: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. Am J Clin Nutr 2003; 77(3): 532-543.
1.韦娜,糜漫天.膳食多不饱和脂肪酸与乳腺癌的发生.国外医学卫生学分册,2005,32(2): 80-83.
2. Nkondjock A, Shatenstein B, Ghadirian P. A case–control study of breast cancer and dietary intake of individual fatty acids and antioxidants in Montreal, Canada. Breast, 2003, 12(2): 128-135.
3.蔡文伟,花天放.脂肪酸与肿瘤.肠外与肠内营养,1997,4(1):33-36.
4. Willett W. Response to Wynder et al's paper on dietary fat and breast cancer. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1994, 47: 223-226.
5. Wynder EL, Cohen LA., Rose DP. Dietary fat and breast cancer, where do we stand on the evidence? J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1994, 47:217-222.
6. Wynder EL, Cohen LA, Rose DP. Response to Dr Walter Willett's dissent. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1994, 47: 227-230.
7. Whittemore AS, Henderson BE. Dietary fat and breast cancer, where are we? J. Natl. Cancer Inst. l993, 85: 762-763.
8. Freedman IS, Prentice RL, Clifford C, et al. Dietary fat and breast cancer, where we are. J. Natl. Cancer Inst 1994, 85: 764-765.
9. Carroll KK, Gammal EB, Plunkett ER. Dietary fat and mammary cancer. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1968, 98: 590-594.
10. Prentice RL, Sheppard L. Consistency of the epidemiologic data and disease prevention that may follow from a practical reduction in fat consumption. Cancer Causes Control. 1990, 1: 81-97.
11. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, et al. Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. l993, 85: 1819-1827.
12. Persky V, Van Horn L. Epidemiology of soy and cancer, perspectives and directions. Rev. J. Nutr. 1995, 125(3suppl): 709S-712S.
13. Willett WC. Cancer prevention: diet and chemopreventive agents: Section 1. Dietary fat. In: DeVita VT, Hellmann S, Rosenberg S., editors. Cancer: Principles and Practice ofOncology. 7. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2004.
14. Freedman LS, Kipnis V. Methods of Epidemiology: Evaluating the Fat–Breast Cancer Hypothesis– Comparing Dietary Instruments and Other Developments. Cancer J. 2008, 14(2): 69–74.
15. Bingham SA, Luben R, Welch A, et al. Are imprecise methods obscuring a relation between fat and breast cancer? Lancet. 2003; 362: 212–214.
16. Freedman LS, Potischman N, Kipnis V, et al. A comparison of two dietary instruments for evaluating the fat-breast cancer relationship. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2006; 35: 1011–1021.
17. Lichtman SW, Pisarska K, Berman ER, et al. Discrepancy between self-reported and actual calorie intake and exercise in obese subjects. N. Engl. J. Med. l992; 327: 1893-1898.
18. Bandini LG, Schoeller DA, Cyr HN, et al. Validity of reported energy intake in obese and nonobese adolescents. Am. J Clin. Nutr. 1990; 52: 421-425.
19. Witte JS, Pike M. Comment on“Can energy adjustment separate the effects of energy from those of specific macronutrients?”Am. J. Epidemiol. 1995; 142: 225-226.
20. Krieger N, Wolff MS, Hiatt RB, et al. Breast cancer and serum organochlorines, a prospective study among white, black, and Asian women. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1994; 86: 589-599.
21. Noguche M, Rose DP, Eaashi M, et al. The role of fatty acids and eicosanoid synthesis inhibitors in breast carcinoma. Oncology 1995; 52: 265-271.
22. Willeu WC. Specific fatty acids and risks of breast and prostate cancer, dietary intake. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 1557S-1563S.
23. Hulka B. Dietary fat and breast cancer, case-control and cohort studies. Prev. Med. 1989; 18: 180-193.
24. Kelsey JL, Gammon MD, John EM. Reproductive factors and breast cancer. Epidemiol. Rev. 1993; 15: 36-47.
25. Astrup AV, Uemenn B, Western P, et al. Objective assessment of the habitual dietary fat content in patients with obesity. Ugeskr. Laeger. 1995; 157: 291-294.
26. Hunter DI, Willett WE. Diet, body size and breast cancer. Epidemiol. Rev. 1993; l5:110-132.
27. Lustig RH, Hershcopf RJ, Bradlow HL. The effects of body weight and diet on estrogen metabolism and estrogen-dependent disease. Prog. Reprod. Biol. Med. 1990; 14: 107-124.
28. Bulun SE, Simpson ER. Competitive reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis indicates that levels of aromatase cytochrome p450 transcripts in adipose tissue of buttocks, thighs, and abdomen of women increase with advancing age. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1994; 78: 428-432.
29. Anonymous. Estrogen excretion patterns and plasma levels in vegetarian and omnivorous women. Nutr. Rev. 1983; 41: 180-183.
30. Howie BJ, Shultz TD. Dietary and hormonal interrelationships among vegetarian Seventh-Day Adventists and non-vegetarian men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1985; 42: 127-34.
31. Schaefer EJ, Lamon F, Gava S, et al. Changes in plasma lipoprotein concentrations and composition in response to a low-fat, high-fiber diet are associated with changes in serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women. Metab. Clin. Exp. 1995; 44: 749-756.
32. Goldin BR, Woods MN, Spiegelman DL, et al. The effect of dietary fat and fiber on serum estrogen concentrations in premenopausal women under controlled dietary conditions. Cancer 1994, 74 (suppl), 1125-1131.
33. Aubertin-Leheudre M, Gorbach S, Woods M, et al. Fat/fiber intakes and sex hormones in healthy premenopausal women in USA. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2008, 112(1): 32-39.
34. Rose DP, Connolly JM, Chlebowski RT, et al. The effects of a low-fat dietary intervention and tamoxifen adjuvant therapy on the serum estrogen and sex hormone-binding globulin concentrations of postmenopausal breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res. Treat 1993; 27: 253-262.
35. Boyd NF, Lockwood GA, Greenberg CV, et al. Effects of a low-fat high-carbohydrate diet on plasma sex hormones in premenopausal women: results from a randomized controlled trial. Canadian Diet and Breast Cancer Prevention Study Group. Br. J.Cancer. 1997; 76(1): 127-135.
36. Hunter EJ, Applewhite TH. Reassessment of trans fatty acid availability in the US diet. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 199l; 54: 363-369.
37. Willett W. Nutritional epidemiology. New York, Oxford Press, 1990.
38. Kohlmeier L. What you should know about your marker. In, Kok F, van't Veer P. eds. Biomarkers of dietary exposure. Proceedings of the 3rd Meeting on Nutritional Epidemiology. London, Smith-Gordon, 1991, 15-25.
39. Kohlmeier L. Future of dietary exposure assessment. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1995, 61(suppl), 702S-709S.
40. Dougherty RM, Galli C, Ferro-Luzzi A., et al. Lipid and phospholipid fatty acid composition of plasma, red blood cells, and platelets and how they are affected by dietary lipids, a study of normal subjects from Italy, Finland and the USA. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1987; 45: 443-455.
41. Girelli D. Effects induced by olive oil-rich diets on erythrocyte membrane lipids and sodium-potassium transport in postmenopausal hypertensive women. J. Endocrinol. Invest. 1992; 15: 369-376.
42. Havge TA, Lie O, Gronn M. The effect of dietary n-3 fatty acids onosmotic fragility and membrane fluidity of human erythrocytes. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. Suppl l993; S215: 75-84.
43. Kamada T, Hamashita T, Baba Y, et al. Dietary sardine oil increases erythrocyte membrane fluidity in diabetic patients. Diabetes, 1986; 35: 604-611.
44. Hellerstein MK, Christiansen M, Kaempfer S, et al. Measurement of de novo hepatic lipogenesis in humans using stable isotopes. J. Clin. Invest. 1991; 87: 1841-1852.
45. Field CJ, Clandinin MT. Modulation of adipose tissue fat composition by diet, a review. Nutr. Rev. l984; 4: 743-755.
46. Sinclair H, Gale M. Eicosapentaenoic acid in fat. Lancet l987; 1: l388 (letter).
47. Shepherd J, Stewart JM, Clark J.G. Sequential changes in plasma lipoproteins and body fat composition during polyunsaturated fat feedings in man. Br. J. Nutr. 1980; 44: 265-271.
48. Dayton S, Hashimoto S, Dixon W, et al. Composition of lipids in human serum and adipose tissue during prolonged feedings of a diet high in unsaturated fat. J. Lipid Res. 1966; 7: 103-111.
49. Christakis GJ, Rinzler SH, Archer M, et al. Effects of a serum cholesterol-lowering diet on composition of depot fat in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1965; 16: 243-251.
50. Beynen AC, Hermus RJ, Hautvast JG. A mathematical relationship between the fatty acid composition of the diet and that of the adipose tissue in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1980; 33: 81-85.
51. Schultz H. Beta oxidation of fatty acids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1991; 1081: 109-120.
52. Hertting G, Seregi A. Formation and function of eicosanoids in the central nervous system. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1989; 559: 84-99.
53. Cinti DL, Cooke L, Nagi MN, Suneja SK. The fatty acid chain elongation system of mammalian endoplasmic reticulum. Prog. Lipid. Res. 1992; 3l: 1-51.
54. Field CI, Angel A, Clandinin MT. Relationship of diet to the fatty acid composition of human adipose tissue structural and stored lipids. Am I ClinNutr l985; 42:1206-1220.
55. Lenore K. Biomarkers of fatty acid exposure and breast cancer risk. Am. J. Clin. Nuir. l997; 66(suppl):1548S-1556S.
56. Tjnneland A, Overvad K, Thorling E, Ewertz, M. Adipose tissue fatty acids as biomarkers of dietary exposure in Danish men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993; 57: 629-633.
57. van Staveren WA, Deurenberg P. Katan MB, et al. Validity of the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous fat tissue microbiopsies as an estimate of the long-term average fatty acid composition of the diet of separate individuals. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1986; 123: 455-463.
58. Kohlmeier L, Kohlmeier M. Adipose tissue as a medium for epide miologic exposure assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 1995; 103(suppl3): 99-106.
59. Shorland FB, Czochanska Z, Prior lAM. Studies on fatty acid composition of adipose tissue and blood lipids of Polynesians. Am J Clin Nutr 1969; 22: 594-605.
60. Feunekes GI, Van Staveren WA, de Vnes JHM, et al. Relative and biomarker-basedvalidity of a food-frequency questionnaire estimating intake of fats and cholesterol. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1993; 58: 489-496.
61. Waildius G, Callines E, Olssen AG. Dietary and adipose tissue content of linoleic acid in 40-year old men. Prog. Food Nutr. Sci 1980; 4: 33-37.
62. Schellenberg B, Arab L, Kohlmeier M, Schlierf G. The effect on adipose tissue fatty acid composition of low dose alcohol consumption in a normal young population. In, Crepaldi G, LeFebvre P1, Gallon DI, eds. Diabetes, obesity and hyperlipidemias. Vol 2. London, Academy Press, 1983: 243-245.
63. Brook CGD. Composition of human adipose tissue from deep and subcutaneous sites. Br. J. Nutr 1971; 25: 377-380.
64. Pittet PG, Halliday D, Bateman PE. Site differences in the fatty acid composition of subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese women. Br J Nutr 1979; 42: 56-61.
65. Eid A, Berry EM. The relationship between dietary fat, adipose tissue composition, and neoplasms of the breast. Nutr Cancer 1988; 11: 173-177.
66. Chajes V, Niyongabo T, Lanson M, et al.. Fatty-acid composition of breast and iliac adipose tissue in breast cancer patients. Int J Cancer 1992; 50: 405-408.
67. Kohlmeier L, Simonsen N, van't Veer P, et al. Adipose tissue trans fatty acids and breast cancer in the EURAMIC Study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Pre 1997; 6: 705-710.
68. Simonsen N, Strain II, van't Veer P. et al. Adipose tissue w-3 fatty acids and breast cancer in a population of European women. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1996, 11, S54 (abstr).
69. Zhu ZR, Agren I, Mannist OS, et al. Fatty acid composition of breast adipose tissue in breast cancer patients and in patients with benign breast disease. Nutr. Cancer 1995; 24: 151-160.
70. Petrek IA, Hudgins LC, Levine B, et al. Breast cancer risk and fatty acids in the breast and abdominal adipose tissues. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1994; 86: 53-56.
71. Bougnoux P. Chajes V. Lanson M, et al. Prognostic significance of tumor phosphatidylcholine stearic acid level in breast carcinoma. Breast Cancer Re.s Treat 1992; 20: 185-194.
72. London SI, Sacks FM, Stampfer MI, et al. Fatty acid composition of subcutaneous adipose tissue and risk of proliferative benign breast disease and breast cancer. J Natl. Cancer Inst. 1993; 85: 785-793.
73. Zaridze DG, Chevchenko VE, Levtshuk AA, et al. Fatty acid composition of phospholipids in erythrocyte membranes and risk of breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer 1990; 45: 807-810.
74. Caleffi M, Ashraf I, Rowe PH, et al. A comparison of the fatty acid profiles of subcutaneous fat from women with breast cancer, benign breast disease and normal controls. Anticancer Res. 1987; 7: 1305-1308.
75. Simonsen N, Fernandez-Crehuet J, Martin-Moreno J, et al. Tissue stores of individual monounsaturated fats and breast cancer. FASEB J. 1997; 11(3): 3344.
76. de Schrijver R, Privett OS. Interrelationship between dietary trans fatty acids and the 6- and 9-desaturases in the rat. Lipids 1982; 17: 27-34.
77. Koletzko B. Trans fatty acids may impair biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturates and growth in man. Acts. Paediatr. 1992; 81: 302-306.
78. Ip C. Review of the effects of trans fatty acids, oleic acid, n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and conjugated linoleic acid on mammary carcinogenesis in animals. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 1523S-1529S.
79. Hunter DA, Rimm EB, Sacks FM, et al. Comparison of measures of fatty acid intake by subcutaneous fat aspirate food frequency questionnaire, and diet records in a free-living population of US men. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1992; 135: 418-427.
80. Kardinaal AFM, Veer P van't, Kok FJ, et al. EURAMIC Study, antioxidants, myocardial infarction and breast cancer. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. l993; 47(suppl 2): 64-71.
81. Rose DP. Effects of dietary fatty acids on breast and prostate cancers, evidence from in vitro experiments and animal studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1997; 66: 1513S-1522S.
82. Stillwell W, Jenski L.International workshop on cellular and molecular aspects of omega-3 fatty acids and cancer.J Lipid Res, 2002; 43 (9):1579 -1580.
83. Gago-Dominguez M, Yuan JM, Sun CL, et al. Opposing effects of dietary n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on mammary carcinogenesis: The Singapore Chinese Health Study. Br JCancer, 2003; 89: 1686-1692.
84. Katsouyanni K, Trichopolou A, Stuver S, et al. The association of fat and other macronutrients with breast cancer, a case-control study from Greece. Br. J. Cancer 1994; 70: 537-541.
85. Richardson S, Gerber M, Cenee S. The role of fat, animal protein a vitamin consumption in breast cancer. A case-control study in southern France. Int. J. Cancer l991; 48: 1-9.
86. La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, et al. Olive oil, other dietary fats, and the risk of breast cancer (Italy). Cancer Causes Control, 1995; 6: 545-550.
87. Martin-Moreno JM, Willett WC, Gorgojo L, et al. Dietary fat, olive oil intake and breast cancer risk. Int. J. Cancer 1994; 58: 774-780.
88. Trichopolou A, Katsouyanni K, Stuver S, et al. Consumption of olive oil and specific food groups in relation to breast cancer risk in Greece. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1995; 87: 110-116.
89. Goodstine SL, Zheng T, Holford TR, et al. Dietary (n-3)/ (n-6) fatty acid ratio: Possible relationship to premenopausal but not postmenopausal breast cancer risk in US women. J. Nutr., 2003; 133(5): 1409-1414.
1. Bernstein L, Ross RK. Endogenous Hormones and Breast Cancer Risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:48–65.
2. Clemons M, Goss P. Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2001;344:276–85.
3. Nandi S, Guzman RC, Yang J. Hormones and mammary carcinogenesis in mice, rats, and humans: a unifying hypothesis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92:3650–7.
4. Somboonporn W, Davis SR. Testosterone effects on the breast: Implications for testosterone therapy for women. Endocr Rev 2004;25:374–88.
5. Yager JD, Davidson NE. Mechanisms of disease: Estrogen carcinogenesis in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2006;354:270–282.
6. Poole AJ, Li Y, Kim Y, Lin SCJ, Lee WH, Lee EYHP. Prevention of BRCA1-mediated mammary tumorigenesis in mice by a progesterone antagonist. Science 2006;314:1467–70.
7. Drabsch, Y, Hugo H, Zhang R, Dowhan DH, MiaoYR, Gewirtz AM, Barry SC, Ramsay RG, Gonda TJ. Mechanism of and requirement for estrogen-regulated MYB expression in estrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer cells. PNAS 2007;104:13762–7.
8. Wysowski DK, Comstock GW, Helsing KJ, Lau HL. Sex hormone levels in serum in relation to the development of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1987;125: 791–9.
9. Berrrino F, Muti P, Micheli A, Bolelli G, Krogh V, Sciajno R, Pisani P, Panico S, Secreto G. Serum sex hormone levels after menopause and subsequent breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996;88:291–6.
10. Hankinson SE, Willett WC, Manson JE, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Spiegelman D,Barbieri RL, Speizer FE. Plasma Sex Steroid Hormone Levels and Risk of Breast Cancer in Postmenopausal Women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998;90:1292–9.
11. Cauley JA, Lucas FL, Kuller LH, Stone K, Browner W, Cummings SR. Elevated serum estradiol and testosterone concentrations are associated with a high risk for breast cancer. Ann Intern Med 1999;130:270–7.
12. Kabuto M, Akiba S, Stevens RG, Neriishi K, Land CE. A prospective study of estradiol and breast cancer in Japanese women, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2000;9:575–9.
13. Key T, Appleby P, Barnes I, Reeves G. Endogenous sex hormones and breast cancer in postmenopausal women: reanalysis of nine prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002;94:606–16.
14. Yu H, Shu XO, Shi RH, Dai Q, Jin F, Gao YT, Li BDL, Zheng W. Plasma sex steroid hormones and breast cancer risk in Chinese women. Int J Cancer 2003;105:92–7.
15. Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Shore RE, Koenig KL, Akhmedkhanov A, Afanasyeva Y, Kato I, Kim MY, Rinaldi S, Kaaks R, Toniolo P. Postmenopausal levels of oestrogen, androgen, and SHBG and breast cancer: long-term results of a prospective study. Br J Cancer 2004;90:153–9.
16. Sturgeon SR, Potischman N, Malone KE, Dorgan JF, Daling J, Schairer C, Brinton LA. Serum levels of sex hormones and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women: a case-control study (USA). Cancer Causes Control 2004;15:45–53.
17. Missmer SA, Eliassen AH, Barbieri RL, Hankinson SE. Endogenous estrogen, androgen and progesterone concentrations and breast cancer risk among postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004;96; 1856–65.
18. Kaaks R, Berrino F, Key T, Rinaldi S, Dossus L, Biessy C, Secreto G, Amiano P, Bingham S, Boeing H, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Chang-Claude J, et al. Serum sex steroids in premenopausal women and breast cancer risk within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J Natl Cancer Inst 2005;97:755–65.
19. Kaaks R, Rinaldi S, Key TJ, Berrino F, Peeters PHM, Biessy C, Dossus L, Lukanova A, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Allen NE, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, et al. Postmenopausal serum androgens, oestrogens and breast cancer risk: the European prospective investigationinto cancer and nutrition. Endocr Relat Cancer 2005;12:1071–82.
20. Eliassen AH, Missmer SA, Tworoger SS, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, Dowsett M, Hankinson SE. Endogenous steroid hormone concentrations and risk of breast cancer among premenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:1406–15.
21. Hankinson SE, Eliassen AH. Endogenous estrogen, testosterone and progesterone levels in relation to breast cancer risk. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2007;106:24–30.
22. Jin F, Devesa S, Chow WH, Zheng W, Ji BT, Fraumeni Jr JF, Gao YT. Cancer incidence trends in urban Shanghai.1972-1994: an update. Int J Cancer 1999;83:435–40.
23. Shanghai center of disease control and prevention. The incidence rate of malignant tumor in the urban Shanghai in 2003. Tumor 2006;26:694.
24. Bernstein L, Yuan JM, Ross RK, Pike MC, Hanisch R, Lobo R, Stanczyk F, Gao YT, Henderson BE. Serum hormone levels in premenopausal Chinese women in Shanghai and white women in Los Angeles: results from two breast cancer case-control studies. Cancer Causes Control 1990;1:51–8.
25. Key TJA, Chen J, Wang DY, Pike MC, Boreham J. Sex hormones in women in rural China and in Britain. Br J Cancer 1990;62:631–6.
26. Wang QJ, Li L, Zhu WX, Xing XM, Zhou YR. Study on risk factors of breast cancer among urban women in China. Chin J Epidemiol 2000;21:216-20.
27. Cao KJ, Wu YL, Ma GS, Deng F, Liu YL, Zhou JM, Wan DS. A case- control study on risk factors of female breast cancer in Guangzhou. Bull Chin Cancer 2001;10:702-4.
28. Zhong XN, Zhou YR. Study on the factors correlated to the breast cancer in females in Chongqing city. J Math Med 2002;15:326-8.
29. Radloff LS. The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1977;1:385-401.
30. McIntosh JE, Matthews CD, Crocker JM, Broom TJ, Cox LW. Predicting the luteinizing hormone surge: relationship between the duration of the follicular and luteal phases and the length of the human menstrual cycle Fertil Steril. 1980;34:125–30.
31. Forest JC, MasséJ, Lane A. Evaluation of the analytical performance of the Boehringer Mannheim Elecsys? 2010 immunoanalyzer. Clin Biochem 1998;31:81–8.
32. Sánchez-Carbayo M, Mauri M, Alfayate R, Miralles C, Soria F. Analytical and Clinical Evaluation of TSH and Thyroid Hormones by Electrochemiluminescent Immunoassays.Clin Biochem 1999;32:395–403.
33. Manjer J, Johansson R, Berglund G, Janzon L, Kaaks R, ?gren ?, Lenner P. Postmenopausal breast cancer risk in relation to sex steroid hormones, prolactin and SHBG (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control 2003;14:599–607.
34. Helzlsouer KJ, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, Longcope C, Gordon GB, Comstock GW. A prospective study of endogenous hormones and breast cancer. Cancer Detect Prev 1994;18:79–85.
35. Rosenberg CR, Pasternack BS, Shore RE, Koenig KL, Toniolo PG. Premenopausal estradiol levels and the risk of breast cancer: a new method of controlling for day of the menstrual cycle. Am J Epidemiol 1994;140:518–25.
36. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in premenopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997;75:1075–9.
37. Pike MC, Spicer DV, Dahmoush L, Press MF. Estrogens, progestogens, normal breast cell proliferation, and breast cancer risk. Epidemiol Rev 1993;15:17–35.
38. Ross RK, Paganini-Hill A, Wan PC, Pike MC. Effect of Hormone Replacement Therapy on Breast Cancer Risk: Estrogen Versus Estrogen Plus Progestin. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000;92:328–32.
39. Colditz GA. Estrogen, estrogen plus progestin therapy and risk of breast cancer. Clin Cancer Res 2005;11:909s–17s.
40. Micheli A, Muti P, Secreto G, Krogh V, Meneghini E, Venturelli E, Sieri S, Pala V, Berrino F. Endogenous sex hormones and subsequent breast cancer in premenopausal women. Int J Cancer 2004;112:312–8.
41. Thomas HV, Key TJ, Allen DS, Moore JW, Dowsett M, Fentiman IS, Wang DY. A prospective study of endogenous serum hormone concentrations and breast cancer risk in post-menopausal women on the island of Guernsey. Br J Cancer 1997;76:401–5.
42. Ebeling P, Koivisto VA. Physiological importance of dehydroepiandrosterone. Lancet 1994;343:1479–81.
43. Gordon GB, Bush TL, Helzlsouer KJ, Miller SR, Comstock GW. Relationship of serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing postmenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1990;50:3859–62.
44. Helzlsouer KJ, Gordon GB, Alberg AJ, Bush TL, Comstock GW. Relationship of prediagnostic serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate to the risk of developing premenopausal breast cancer. Cancer Res 1992;52:1–4.
45. Page JH, Colditz GA, Rifai N, Barbieri RL, Willett WC, Hankinson SE. Plasma Adrenal Androgens and Risk of Breast Cancer in Premenopausal Women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13:1032–6.
46. Knochenhauer ES, Boots LR, Potter HD, Azziz R. Differential binding of estradiol and testosterone to SHBG. Relation to circulating estradiol levels. J Reprod Med 1998;43: 665–70.
47. Fortunati N, Catalano MG. Sex Hormone-binding Globulin (SHBG) and Estradiol Cross-talk in Breast Cancer Cells. Horm Metab Res 2006;38:236–40.
48. Beattie MS, Costantino JP, Cummings SR, Wickerham DL, Vogel VG, Dowsett M, Folkerd EJ, Willett WC, Wolmark N, Hankinson SE. Endogenous Sex Hormones, Breast Cancer Risk, and Tamoxifen Response: An Ancillary Study in the NSABP Breast Cancer Prevention Trial (P-1). J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:110–5.
49. Judd HL, Lucas WE, Yen SSC. Effect of oopherectomy on circulating testosterone and androstenedione levels in patients with endometrial cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;118:793–798.
50. Hurd WW, Amesse LS, Randolph JF Jr. Menopause. In: Berek JS (ed). Novak's gynecology. Philadelphia, USA. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002:1109–39.