东昆仑断裂带东段（玛沁—玛曲）晚第四纪长期滑动习性研究
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摘要
东昆仑断裂带、阿尔金断裂带、祁连山-海原活动断裂带等组成了青藏高原北部大型走滑断裂系。这些断裂之间的空间联系、巨大的走滑量及其地壳缩短特征,都显示了它们在印度板块和欧亚板块汇聚过程中青藏高原的形成扮演了主要角色。这些断裂准确的滑动速率对于研究青藏高原变形和演化过程,确定水平滑动、变形的规模,建立高原的变形和演化模式提供了重要依据。
东昆仑断裂带东段(玛沁-玛曲)地处甘川青三省交界的青藏高原东北部,为昆仑-柴达木块体和巴颜喀拉块体的边界断裂的东部。作为东昆仑断裂带上人口最多的地震空区,其几何结构及其现今构造运动特征的研究,对于玛沁、玛曲县城的避让带的准确确定、地震危险性分析和更加科学有效的防震减灾有着重要的现实意义,对于青藏高原的隆升机制争议模型的检验及该区断裂带构造变形机制的研究有重大的理论意义。本文旨在分析、整理和总结前人成果的基础上,通过航卫片的解译及野外实地验证相结合的方法来分析该段的几何结构,通过构造地貌和古地震相结合的方法来获得断裂的完整大震序列,最新地表破裂位移,从而得到断裂的长期滑动速率,并与构造地貌方法获得的滑动速率进行对比验证。系统获得东昆仑断裂带东段几何学和运动学特征,以达到研究东昆仑断裂带中西段的快速左旋走滑向东如何消减的目的。
本文在分析整理前人资料的基础上,通过航卫片判读,进行了野外地质调查,室内样品测试,滑动速率的计算,开挖古地震探槽,综合分析断裂晚第四纪以来的活动历史,及该区域气候与阶地形成时间的对比,主要得到以下几点认识：
1.几何结构：
东昆仑活动断裂带东段(玛沁-玛曲段)西起阿尼玛卿山北麓,经过东倾沟、大武滩、扎木儿山前、纳姆擦克耳山北侧、西贡周、莫哈塘、西科河羊场、唐地、在克生托洛穿过黄河,展布在哲合拉布肖山前,过玛曲后,进入若尔盖盆地、从罗叉北出沼泽地与塔藏断裂相交,全长约330km,总体走向北西295°,倾向以南西为主,倾角70°-80°,局部近直立。该区处于地震较多的南北带中段及中国东西部构造和南北向构造交汇部位,东昆仑断裂与很多断裂交汇：在阿尼玛卿山西侧与中铁断裂相交,在莫合塘南侧与西贡周西侧分别阿万仓断裂东、西分支相交,形成西贡周断层交汇区。迭部—武都断裂距离东昆仑断裂北侧15km,与东昆仑断裂左阶斜列。
2.几何结构和地表破裂分段：
几何结构分段：走滑断层的几何特征往往由一系列呈雁列排列次级断层、褶皱和盆地等多种构造类型按一定规律组合而成的狭长条带。其几何分段标志主要为阶区、弯曲、间断、分叉、交汇或分叉和断裂宽度变化,活动性的变化等,依据这些标志,可将东昆仑断裂带东段(玛沁-玛曲段)分为8段,从西往东为东倾沟段、大武滩段、肯定那段、西科河段、唐地段、玛曲段、墨溪段和罗叉段,前7段,除唐地段与玛曲段为右阶排列,其余左阶排列,各阶区之间范围较小,联系紧密,表明各段之间贯通程度较好。最长的阶区长约lOkm,宽约1.3km,为西科河段与唐地段的梭状断裂交接组合。最小的阶区为玛曲段与墨溪段,在玛曲县城南侧形成长300m,宽200m的小拉分盆地。东倾沟段与西段的阿尼玛卿山段形成34°的挤压弯曲。墨溪段主要隐伏在若尔盖高原沼泽内,在罗叉北出沼泽地与塔藏断裂相交,形成10°的挤压弯曲。在莫哈汤南侧和西贡周西侧东昆仑断裂与阿万仓断裂相交汇,也为大武滩段、西科河段的分段标志。该段广泛分布的构造地貌和古地震造成的破裂标志表明该段曾经历过多次活动。
地表破裂分段：阿尼玛卿山为长40km,宽lOkm的双挤压弯曲,阶区内山体隆升,可作为障碍体和应力集中区。东昆仑断裂在莫哈塘南侧和西贡周西侧分别与阿万仓断裂的东西两支相交,形成西贡周断层交汇区,构成构造不连续点,可作为障碍体和应力集中区。这两个障碍体和应力集中区可将东昆仑断裂玛沁-玛曲段分成两条地表破裂段,玛沁断裂和玛曲断裂。
3.构造地貌方法获得的滑动速率：
水平滑动速率：通过对东昆仑断裂带玛沁-玛曲段30个观测点的地貌测量、年龄测试和计算,得到了各地表破裂段的晚更新晚期以来的长期水平滑动速率,玛沁段的左旋滑动速率为9.3±2mm/a,西贡周断层交汇区水平滑动速率为7.4±1mm/a,玛曲段水平滑动速率为4.9±1.3mm/a,断裂水平滑动速率呈梯度下降,且下降的突变点集中在阿万仓断裂与东昆仑断裂交汇区的两端,锐减的滑动速率构造转换到阿万仓断裂的地壳缩短,与东昆仑断裂带的几何结构一一对应。
垂直滑动速率：通过对东昆仑断裂带玛沁-玛曲段30个观测点的地貌测量、年龄测试和计算,得到了各段的晚更新晚期以来的长期垂直滑动速率,玛沁段为0.7±0.2mm/a,西贡周断层交汇区1.6±0.4mm/a,玛曲段,0.25±0.05mm/a,这些速率在西贡周断层交汇区最大,与水平滑动速率之比大约为1：5,在唐地段最小。反映了东昆仑断裂主要以左旋走滑为主,兼有倾滑分量,在玛沁段西侧的东倾沟表示为逆走滑性质,在玛沁县城以东主要为正倾滑性质。
4.大震序列：
玛沁段：揭露的活动期次共有7次：综合上述,可获得断裂全新世早期以来主要发生了7次古地震事件,第一次为358-430Cal a BP(公元1520-1592年)以后不久；第二次为公元1061年(977-1090Cal a BP)(公元860-973年)以后不久；第三次为距今(1689-1736)Cal a BP～(2.0±0.3)ka;第四次为(3058-3211)Cal a BP～(3342～3454)Cal a BP;第五次为距今(6.6±0.7)-(7.2±0.8)ka；第六次事件为(7971-8050)Cal a BP～(8451～8632) Cal a BP之间；第七次事件为(9.9±1.0)ka-(10.1±1.0)ka。全新世早期以来的古地震复发周期为500-1000年,距今2000年以来的古地震复发周期为600±100。其中公元1061年前后的古地震事件可以根据民间史诗《格萨尔王传》得到证实。最新一次地震事件的离逝时间约为400a,距离最近古地震复发时间的最小值500a只有100a,地震危险性应该引起重视。
玛曲段：揭露的活动期次有8次：第一次为1055-1524a Cal BP以来；第二次事件(1210±50)-(1730±50)a BP之间；第三次事件(1730±50)-(2530±40)a BP之间；第四次事件为距今(3736±57)a-(4586±124)a之间；第五次事件(4850±40)-(7460±60)a BP之间；第六次为距今(7460±60)-(8690±40)a BP；第七次9000-10000a CalBP之间；第八次为距今(15800±2500)-(24100±2900)a BP。大震平均复发间隔为1000-2000a,最近三次古地震的复发间隔为1000a。最新一次古地震事件的离逝时间大约1000a,已经接近最新的复发间隔,地震危险性非常严峻。
同时2008年5.12汶川Ms8.0级地震对玛沁-玛曲断裂造成了应力的加载,提高了玛沁一玛曲段的地震危险性,因此该区的地震危险性应当给予重视,需要加强该区的防震减灾法的宣传,提高大家的防震减灾意识。
5古地震获得的滑动速率
玛沁段：玛沁断裂的最新地表破裂造成的水平位移为4±0.5m,近2000年来的古地震复发周期600±100a,利用公式S=D/Rx获得断裂的水平滑动速率为7±lmm/a,与构造地貌获得的断裂长期滑动速率9.4±1 mm/a相差不多。
玛曲段：玛曲西侧的最新地表破裂造成的平均水平位移为3m,通过最近三次的大震复发间隔1000a,计算出来的滑动速率为3mm/a,和构造地貌方法获得的长期滑动4.9±1.3mm/a相差不多。
6构造转换
无论是构造地貌还是古地震方法计算的滑动速率,东昆仑断裂带东段滑动速率都呈梯度下降,下降主要集中在断裂走向的弯曲和横向构造的交汇区,与断裂的几何结构变化一一对应。断裂通过西贡周断层交汇区后,滑动速率锐减了大约4mm/a,锐减的部分与阿尔金断裂类似,主要转换到阿万仓断裂带上的逆冲和左旋走滑。通过对构造变形的矢量分解,得到阿万仓断裂西支的左旋滑动速率为2.4mm/a；东支的左旋滑动速率为1.4mm/a,垂直断裂水平缩短速率为2.3mm/a,东西两支构成一种滑移分解模式,对二者的矢量合成,得到南西侧块体相对北东侧块体在112.1°的方向上有4.6mm/a的滑动速率。
7阶地形成期
通过对该区观测点地貌面年龄的统计,获得该区阶地形成时间主要集中在1-2ka,3-5ka, 7-10ka,12.5-15ka,28-35ka,40-45ka,65-70ka7个时间段内,分别与该区的气候特征相对应,1-2ka主要对应新冰期后的间冰期,3-5ka对应全新世大暖期晚期温湿阶段,7-10ka对应全新世大暖期早期潮湿阶段,12.5-15ka对应末次冰消期,28-35ka,40-45ka对应末次冰期冰盛期的异常温暖期和末次冰期间冰阶的异常高温期,65-70ka对应末次冰期早冰阶。由此可见该区的阶地形成主要受气候温暖潮湿影响。
The East Kunlun fault is situated in the southernside of the Kunlun Mountains, which divides the north and south of China tectonics. The East Kunlun fault,Altyn Tagh fault, and Haiyuan faults constitute margin of the northern Tibetan Plateau.They paly a major role in accommodating Indo-Asian convergence as the great lateral extents and spatial relationship to high-angle shortening with large thrust. The accurate slip rates along these faults provide significant evidence in the field of research on the Tibetan Plateau deformation and evolution, determining horizontal slip and deformation degree and establishing plateau deformation and evolution models.
The eastern segment of the East Kunlun fault (Maqin-Maqu), that is the eastern border between Kunlun-Chaidamu block and Bayankala block, lies in the northeast of the Tibetan Plateau where Gansu, Sichuan and Qinghai Provinces adjoin.As the most inhabited area of the East Kunlun fault,the research of its geometric structure and present motion features is very meaningful in reality to determining the safety distance for the Maqin and Maqu Town, seismic risk analysis and earthquake prevention.It is also meaningful in theory to test the various controversial models of the uplift mechanism of Tibet and research of tectonic transformation of the regional faults. Based on analysis, collection and summary of previous achievements, this thesis aims to analyze geometric structure of this segment through interpretation of satellite images and field test, to obtain its large earthquake sequence by connection of the tectonic geomorphology and paleoseismology.Finally,this work gets the geometric and movement features of the eastern segment of East Kunlun fault so as to research the lateral slip rate which diminishes sharply from the west segment to the east segment.
Based on the analysis and coordination of the existing data,interpretation of ETM、Quickbird and Worldview satellite images, field geological survey as well as tests of age samples and calculation of slip rates on the East Kunlun fault (Maqin-Maqu), this dissertation comes to the following conclusions:
1. Geometric structure
In the west it starts from the north pediment of the Animaqing mountain, passes through north of Dongqinggou, Dawutan, pediment of Zhamuer, Dawumuchang, Kendingna, Dagongka, north side of Namucakeer, Xigongzhou, Mohatang, Xikeheyangchang, Tangdi, Oula, crossing over the Yellow River in Keshegntuoluo, spreading on the face of northern Yellow River, then extending to Ruoergai everglade by Maqu and intersecting with the Tazang fault after coming out from northern wetland of Luocha. The total length is around 330 km, it generally strikes in 295°; mainly dips to south west at angles 70°-80°, locally close to upright. It is located in the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau, which is the middle part of the north-south seismic belt with frequent earthquakes. It belongs to the cross section of east-west and south-north structures, which is quite complicated with so many ruptures crossing each other. On the west side of the Animaqing Mountain,the East Kunlun fault intersects with the Zhongtie fault.On the West side of Xigongzhou and south side of Mohatang, the East Kunlun fault intersects with the west and east strands of the Awancang fault,which form the fault intersection zone at Xigongzhou. The Diebu-Wudu fault is 15km to the North side of the East Kunlun fault, which form a broad dilational log with the East Kunlun fault in left-step manner.
2. Segmentation
A strike-slip fault has many structure features, such as en echelon secondary farctures, faults, folds and basins, which are combined into a narrow and long band in a certain law. Its geometrical segmentation indicators mainly include step-over,bend,discontinuity, bifurcation, intersection or the width variation and active transformation. Through interpretation of ETM and QuickBird satellite images and utilization of the segmental signs of the strike slip fault, such as the geometrical shape, the combination of the geomorphic features and the fault zone materials, the Kunlun fault (Maqin-Maqu) can be geometrically divided into eight segments, which are named Dongqinggou, Dawutan, Kendingna, Xikehe, Tangdi, Maqu,Moxi and Luocha by sequence from west to east. These eight segments form a left-stepping echelon, except the Tangdi and Maqu segments, which are a right-stepping echelon. The space between segments is small which are well-connected. The evidence of the extensive landform and paleoseismic rupture indicates that the Maqin-Maqu segment has experienced numerous movements. The longest step-over with length around 10km and width 1.3km is the spindle-shaped conjoining connection of the Xikehe segment and Tangdi segment. The smallest step-over is between the Maqu segment and Moxi segment, which form a small pull-apart basin with length 300m and width 200m at south side of Maqu Town. There is a 34°extrusion bend between the Dongqinggou and Animaqing segment,which form the Animaqing uplift. The Moxi segment is mainly buried in the swampland of the Ruoergai basin and intersects with the Tazang fault at north of Luocha,which forms an 10°extrusion bend. The East Kunlun fault intersects with Awancang fault at the south side of Mohatang, which is the segmentation indicators for the Xikehe segment. The extensively distributed landform and rapture signs caused by earthquakes in ancient times show that there have happened many movements.
Suface rupture segmentation:The Animaqing mountain is a double restraining bend, long 40km, wide 10km, with the mountain uplift as a barrier and stress concentration.The Xigongzhou intersection zone is a structural discontinued point that becomes another barrier. They can divide the Eastern Kunlun fault into two surface rupture segments, Maqin segment and Maqu segment.
3. Slip rate from tectonic geomorphology
Horizontal slip rate:Based on of geomorphic measurements, dating and calculation of long term horizontal slip rates of 30 investigated sites, the long term horizontal slip rates of the three rupture segments since late Pleistocene are obtained. The horizontal slip rate of the fault is 9.3± 2.5mm/a in the Maqin segment,7.4±1mm/a in Xigongzhou intersection zone, and 4.9±1.3mm/a in the Maqu segment since late Pleistocene,respectively.It can be seen that the horizontal slip rate decreases gradiently,by about 4mm/a from Maqin to Maqu segment.The discontinuity is just the Xigongzhou intersection zone, which is the intersection of the East Kunlun fault and Awancang fault and may be the structural transform to the Awancang fault with crustal shortening.The slip rate gradients are corresponding to the geometrical structures.
Vertical slip rate:Based on of surveying of geomorphic survey, dating and calculation of long term vertical slip rates of 30 investigated sites, the long term vertical slip rates of the three rupture segment since late Pleistocene are obtained. They are 0.7±0.2mm/a in the Maqin segment,1.6±0.4mm/a in the Xigongzhou intersection zone,and 0.25±0.05mm/a in the Maqu segment,respectively. It is biggest in Xigongzhou segment with ratio is 1:5 to the horizontal slip rate.It reflects the fault is mainly of strike slip with oblique components,which is reverse strike slip at the Dongqinggou,the west side of the Maqin fault, and is normal strike slip at the east of Maqin town.
4. Large earthquake sequence
Maqin segment:Seven events are revealed by the trenches on the Maqin segment. The ages of these thirteen events are as follows:(1) 358～430Cal a BP; (2) 977-1090 Cal a BP;(3) (1689-1736) Cal a BP～(2.0±0.3) ka; (4) (3058-3211) Cal a BP～(3342～3454) Cal a BP (5) (6.6±0.7)～(7.2±0.8) ka; (6) (7971～8050) Cal a BP-(8451～8632) Cal a BP; (7) (9.9±1.0)ka～(10.1±1.0)ka. The recurrence interval is about 500-1000a since Holocene. The average interval is 600±100a from event 1 to event 3,whereas the intervals vary largely between 500～1000a from event 4 to event7 since Holocene. The event 1061A.D can be confirmed by the epic of Gesar. The elapsed time of the latest event is 120a,and the another event will come only 180a later to the minimum of the interval, so the hazard analysis should be paid attention to.
Maqu segment:Eight events are determined through the analysis of the trenches on the Maqu segment. The ages of these eight events are as follows:(1) 1055～1524a Cal BP;(2)(1210±50)～(1730±50)a BP;(3) (1730±50)～(2530±40)a BP;(4) (3736±57)a～(4586±124); (5) (4850±40)～(7460±60)a BP; (6)(7460±60)～(8690±40)a BP; (7) 9000～10000a Cal BP;(8) (15800±2500)～(24100±2900)a BP. The recurrence interval is about 500-2000a since late Pleistocene.The average interval is 1000a from event 1 to event 3. The elapsed time of the latest event is～1000a,beyond the maximum of latest interval, so the seismic hazard analysis should be made strenuously.
The Wenchuan M8.0 earthquake of 12 May 2008 has imposed the stress load to the eastern Kunlun fault and increased the seismic hazard.So we should pay attention to the seismic hazard of the Maqin-Maqu fault and strengthen the dissemination of earthquake prevention and disaster reduction to enhance the consciousness of quakeproof.
5 Slip rate from paleoseismology
Maqin segment:The latest horizontal slip of the Maqin fault is 4±0.5m.The interval of the paleoearthquakes is 600±100a since 2000a.Using the formula S=D/Rx, and calculated the horizontal slip rate 7±1mm/a, similar to the slip rate 9.4±2.5mm/a from the tectonic geomorphology.
Maqu segment:The latest horizontal slip of the Maqu segment is 3m.The interval of the paleoearthquakes is1000a since the latest three events and the calculated slip rate is 3mm/a, similar to the slip rate 4.9±1.3mm/a from the tectonic geomorphology.
6 Tectonics transformation
Both the tectonic geomorphology and the paleoseismology suggest that the slip rate gradient decreases. The slip rate reduces sharply by almost 4mm/a when the East Kunlun fault passes the Xigongzhou intersection zone.The reduction is centered at the bend and transverse structural intersection, corresponding to the geometric change and the decreased slip rate transform to the transverse structure,the Awancang fault.By the transformation vector partitioning, the horizontal slip rate of the west strand of the Awancang fault is 2.4mm/a, the horizontal slip rate of the east strand is 1.4mm/a,and the shortening rate is 2.3mm/a.The west strand and the east compose of the slip partitioning mode, by the vectorial resultant, the horizontal slip rate between the bilateral block is 4.6 mm/a relative motion at the direction of 112.1°.
7. Formation times of terrace
The terraces primarily formed in 7 periods, i.e. 1-2ka,3-5ka,7-10ka,12.5-15ka,28-35ka,40-45ka,65-70ka, respectively corresponding to this area's climate characters. The time 1-2ka mainly corresponds to the interglacial epoch after neoglaciation,3-5ka corresponds to the warm humid phase of the Holocene thermal maximum,7-l0ka corresponds to the humid phase of early big warm period in Holocene,12.5-15ka corresponds to the last deglaciation,28-35ka, 40-45corresponds to the abnormal warm period of the last glacial maximum and abnormal megathermal period of the Interstadial of the last glacial age,65-70ka corresponds to the early Interstadial of the last glacial age. So we can see the terrace formation is mainly influenced by the humid and warm climate.
东昆仑断裂带东段(玛沁-玛曲)地处甘川青三省交界的青藏高原东北部,为昆仑-柴达木块体和巴颜喀拉块体的边界断裂的东部。作为东昆仑断裂带上人口最多的地震空区,其几何结构及其现今构造运动特征的研究,对于玛沁、玛曲县城的避让带的准确确定、地震危险性分析和更加科学有效的防震减灾有着重要的现实意义,对于青藏高原的隆升机制争议模型的检验及该区断裂带构造变形机制的研究有重大的理论意义。本文旨在分析、整理和总结前人成果的基础上,通过航卫片的解译及野外实地验证相结合的方法来分析该段的几何结构,通过构造地貌和古地震相结合的方法来获得断裂的完整大震序列,最新地表破裂位移,从而得到断裂的长期滑动速率,并与构造地貌方法获得的滑动速率进行对比验证。系统获得东昆仑断裂带东段几何学和运动学特征,以达到研究东昆仑断裂带中西段的快速左旋走滑向东如何消减的目的。
本文在分析整理前人资料的基础上,通过航卫片判读,进行了野外地质调查,室内样品测试,滑动速率的计算,开挖古地震探槽,综合分析断裂晚第四纪以来的活动历史,及该区域气候与阶地形成时间的对比,主要得到以下几点认识：
1.几何结构：
东昆仑活动断裂带东段(玛沁-玛曲段)西起阿尼玛卿山北麓,经过东倾沟、大武滩、扎木儿山前、纳姆擦克耳山北侧、西贡周、莫哈塘、西科河羊场、唐地、在克生托洛穿过黄河,展布在哲合拉布肖山前,过玛曲后,进入若尔盖盆地、从罗叉北出沼泽地与塔藏断裂相交,全长约330km,总体走向北西295°,倾向以南西为主,倾角70°-80°,局部近直立。该区处于地震较多的南北带中段及中国东西部构造和南北向构造交汇部位,东昆仑断裂与很多断裂交汇：在阿尼玛卿山西侧与中铁断裂相交,在莫合塘南侧与西贡周西侧分别阿万仓断裂东、西分支相交,形成西贡周断层交汇区。迭部—武都断裂距离东昆仑断裂北侧15km,与东昆仑断裂左阶斜列。
2.几何结构和地表破裂分段：
几何结构分段：走滑断层的几何特征往往由一系列呈雁列排列次级断层、褶皱和盆地等多种构造类型按一定规律组合而成的狭长条带。其几何分段标志主要为阶区、弯曲、间断、分叉、交汇或分叉和断裂宽度变化,活动性的变化等,依据这些标志,可将东昆仑断裂带东段(玛沁-玛曲段)分为8段,从西往东为东倾沟段、大武滩段、肯定那段、西科河段、唐地段、玛曲段、墨溪段和罗叉段,前7段,除唐地段与玛曲段为右阶排列,其余左阶排列,各阶区之间范围较小,联系紧密,表明各段之间贯通程度较好。最长的阶区长约lOkm,宽约1.3km,为西科河段与唐地段的梭状断裂交接组合。最小的阶区为玛曲段与墨溪段,在玛曲县城南侧形成长300m,宽200m的小拉分盆地。东倾沟段与西段的阿尼玛卿山段形成34°的挤压弯曲。墨溪段主要隐伏在若尔盖高原沼泽内,在罗叉北出沼泽地与塔藏断裂相交,形成10°的挤压弯曲。在莫哈汤南侧和西贡周西侧东昆仑断裂与阿万仓断裂相交汇,也为大武滩段、西科河段的分段标志。该段广泛分布的构造地貌和古地震造成的破裂标志表明该段曾经历过多次活动。
地表破裂分段：阿尼玛卿山为长40km,宽lOkm的双挤压弯曲,阶区内山体隆升,可作为障碍体和应力集中区。东昆仑断裂在莫哈塘南侧和西贡周西侧分别与阿万仓断裂的东西两支相交,形成西贡周断层交汇区,构成构造不连续点,可作为障碍体和应力集中区。这两个障碍体和应力集中区可将东昆仑断裂玛沁-玛曲段分成两条地表破裂段,玛沁断裂和玛曲断裂。
3.构造地貌方法获得的滑动速率：
水平滑动速率：通过对东昆仑断裂带玛沁-玛曲段30个观测点的地貌测量、年龄测试和计算,得到了各地表破裂段的晚更新晚期以来的长期水平滑动速率,玛沁段的左旋滑动速率为9.3±2mm/a,西贡周断层交汇区水平滑动速率为7.4±1mm/a,玛曲段水平滑动速率为4.9±1.3mm/a,断裂水平滑动速率呈梯度下降,且下降的突变点集中在阿万仓断裂与东昆仑断裂交汇区的两端,锐减的滑动速率构造转换到阿万仓断裂的地壳缩短,与东昆仑断裂带的几何结构一一对应。
垂直滑动速率：通过对东昆仑断裂带玛沁-玛曲段30个观测点的地貌测量、年龄测试和计算,得到了各段的晚更新晚期以来的长期垂直滑动速率,玛沁段为0.7±0.2mm/a,西贡周断层交汇区1.6±0.4mm/a,玛曲段,0.25±0.05mm/a,这些速率在西贡周断层交汇区最大,与水平滑动速率之比大约为1：5,在唐地段最小。反映了东昆仑断裂主要以左旋走滑为主,兼有倾滑分量,在玛沁段西侧的东倾沟表示为逆走滑性质,在玛沁县城以东主要为正倾滑性质。
4.大震序列：
玛沁段：揭露的活动期次共有7次：综合上述,可获得断裂全新世早期以来主要发生了7次古地震事件,第一次为358-430Cal a BP(公元1520-1592年)以后不久；第二次为公元1061年(977-1090Cal a BP)(公元860-973年)以后不久；第三次为距今(1689-1736)Cal a BP～(2.0±0.3)ka;第四次为(3058-3211)Cal a BP～(3342～3454)Cal a BP;第五次为距今(6.6±0.7)-(7.2±0.8)ka；第六次事件为(7971-8050)Cal a BP～(8451～8632) Cal a BP之间；第七次事件为(9.9±1.0)ka-(10.1±1.0)ka。全新世早期以来的古地震复发周期为500-1000年,距今2000年以来的古地震复发周期为600±100。其中公元1061年前后的古地震事件可以根据民间史诗《格萨尔王传》得到证实。最新一次地震事件的离逝时间约为400a,距离最近古地震复发时间的最小值500a只有100a,地震危险性应该引起重视。
玛曲段：揭露的活动期次有8次：第一次为1055-1524a Cal BP以来；第二次事件(1210±50)-(1730±50)a BP之间；第三次事件(1730±50)-(2530±40)a BP之间；第四次事件为距今(3736±57)a-(4586±124)a之间；第五次事件(4850±40)-(7460±60)a BP之间；第六次为距今(7460±60)-(8690±40)a BP；第七次9000-10000a CalBP之间；第八次为距今(15800±2500)-(24100±2900)a BP。大震平均复发间隔为1000-2000a,最近三次古地震的复发间隔为1000a。最新一次古地震事件的离逝时间大约1000a,已经接近最新的复发间隔,地震危险性非常严峻。
同时2008年5.12汶川Ms8.0级地震对玛沁-玛曲断裂造成了应力的加载,提高了玛沁一玛曲段的地震危险性,因此该区的地震危险性应当给予重视,需要加强该区的防震减灾法的宣传,提高大家的防震减灾意识。
5古地震获得的滑动速率
玛沁段：玛沁断裂的最新地表破裂造成的水平位移为4±0.5m,近2000年来的古地震复发周期600±100a,利用公式S=D/Rx获得断裂的水平滑动速率为7±lmm/a,与构造地貌获得的断裂长期滑动速率9.4±1 mm/a相差不多。
玛曲段：玛曲西侧的最新地表破裂造成的平均水平位移为3m,通过最近三次的大震复发间隔1000a,计算出来的滑动速率为3mm/a,和构造地貌方法获得的长期滑动4.9±1.3mm/a相差不多。
6构造转换
无论是构造地貌还是古地震方法计算的滑动速率,东昆仑断裂带东段滑动速率都呈梯度下降,下降主要集中在断裂走向的弯曲和横向构造的交汇区,与断裂的几何结构变化一一对应。断裂通过西贡周断层交汇区后,滑动速率锐减了大约4mm/a,锐减的部分与阿尔金断裂类似,主要转换到阿万仓断裂带上的逆冲和左旋走滑。通过对构造变形的矢量分解,得到阿万仓断裂西支的左旋滑动速率为2.4mm/a；东支的左旋滑动速率为1.4mm/a,垂直断裂水平缩短速率为2.3mm/a,东西两支构成一种滑移分解模式,对二者的矢量合成,得到南西侧块体相对北东侧块体在112.1°的方向上有4.6mm/a的滑动速率。
7阶地形成期
通过对该区观测点地貌面年龄的统计,获得该区阶地形成时间主要集中在1-2ka,3-5ka, 7-10ka,12.5-15ka,28-35ka,40-45ka,65-70ka7个时间段内,分别与该区的气候特征相对应,1-2ka主要对应新冰期后的间冰期,3-5ka对应全新世大暖期晚期温湿阶段,7-10ka对应全新世大暖期早期潮湿阶段,12.5-15ka对应末次冰消期,28-35ka,40-45ka对应末次冰期冰盛期的异常温暖期和末次冰期间冰阶的异常高温期,65-70ka对应末次冰期早冰阶。由此可见该区的阶地形成主要受气候温暖潮湿影响。
The East Kunlun fault is situated in the southernside of the Kunlun Mountains, which divides the north and south of China tectonics. The East Kunlun fault,Altyn Tagh fault, and Haiyuan faults constitute margin of the northern Tibetan Plateau.They paly a major role in accommodating Indo-Asian convergence as the great lateral extents and spatial relationship to high-angle shortening with large thrust. The accurate slip rates along these faults provide significant evidence in the field of research on the Tibetan Plateau deformation and evolution, determining horizontal slip and deformation degree and establishing plateau deformation and evolution models.
The eastern segment of the East Kunlun fault (Maqin-Maqu), that is the eastern border between Kunlun-Chaidamu block and Bayankala block, lies in the northeast of the Tibetan Plateau where Gansu, Sichuan and Qinghai Provinces adjoin.As the most inhabited area of the East Kunlun fault,the research of its geometric structure and present motion features is very meaningful in reality to determining the safety distance for the Maqin and Maqu Town, seismic risk analysis and earthquake prevention.It is also meaningful in theory to test the various controversial models of the uplift mechanism of Tibet and research of tectonic transformation of the regional faults. Based on analysis, collection and summary of previous achievements, this thesis aims to analyze geometric structure of this segment through interpretation of satellite images and field test, to obtain its large earthquake sequence by connection of the tectonic geomorphology and paleoseismology.Finally,this work gets the geometric and movement features of the eastern segment of East Kunlun fault so as to research the lateral slip rate which diminishes sharply from the west segment to the east segment.
Based on the analysis and coordination of the existing data,interpretation of ETM、Quickbird and Worldview satellite images, field geological survey as well as tests of age samples and calculation of slip rates on the East Kunlun fault (Maqin-Maqu), this dissertation comes to the following conclusions:
1. Geometric structure
In the west it starts from the north pediment of the Animaqing mountain, passes through north of Dongqinggou, Dawutan, pediment of Zhamuer, Dawumuchang, Kendingna, Dagongka, north side of Namucakeer, Xigongzhou, Mohatang, Xikeheyangchang, Tangdi, Oula, crossing over the Yellow River in Keshegntuoluo, spreading on the face of northern Yellow River, then extending to Ruoergai everglade by Maqu and intersecting with the Tazang fault after coming out from northern wetland of Luocha. The total length is around 330 km, it generally strikes in 295°; mainly dips to south west at angles 70°-80°, locally close to upright. It is located in the eastern edge of the Tibetan plateau, which is the middle part of the north-south seismic belt with frequent earthquakes. It belongs to the cross section of east-west and south-north structures, which is quite complicated with so many ruptures crossing each other. On the west side of the Animaqing Mountain,the East Kunlun fault intersects with the Zhongtie fault.On the West side of Xigongzhou and south side of Mohatang, the East Kunlun fault intersects with the west and east strands of the Awancang fault,which form the fault intersection zone at Xigongzhou. The Diebu-Wudu fault is 15km to the North side of the East Kunlun fault, which form a broad dilational log with the East Kunlun fault in left-step manner.
2. Segmentation
A strike-slip fault has many structure features, such as en echelon secondary farctures, faults, folds and basins, which are combined into a narrow and long band in a certain law. Its geometrical segmentation indicators mainly include step-over,bend,discontinuity, bifurcation, intersection or the width variation and active transformation. Through interpretation of ETM and QuickBird satellite images and utilization of the segmental signs of the strike slip fault, such as the geometrical shape, the combination of the geomorphic features and the fault zone materials, the Kunlun fault (Maqin-Maqu) can be geometrically divided into eight segments, which are named Dongqinggou, Dawutan, Kendingna, Xikehe, Tangdi, Maqu,Moxi and Luocha by sequence from west to east. These eight segments form a left-stepping echelon, except the Tangdi and Maqu segments, which are a right-stepping echelon. The space between segments is small which are well-connected. The evidence of the extensive landform and paleoseismic rupture indicates that the Maqin-Maqu segment has experienced numerous movements. The longest step-over with length around 10km and width 1.3km is the spindle-shaped conjoining connection of the Xikehe segment and Tangdi segment. The smallest step-over is between the Maqu segment and Moxi segment, which form a small pull-apart basin with length 300m and width 200m at south side of Maqu Town. There is a 34°extrusion bend between the Dongqinggou and Animaqing segment,which form the Animaqing uplift. The Moxi segment is mainly buried in the swampland of the Ruoergai basin and intersects with the Tazang fault at north of Luocha,which forms an 10°extrusion bend. The East Kunlun fault intersects with Awancang fault at the south side of Mohatang, which is the segmentation indicators for the Xikehe segment. The extensively distributed landform and rapture signs caused by earthquakes in ancient times show that there have happened many movements.
Suface rupture segmentation:The Animaqing mountain is a double restraining bend, long 40km, wide 10km, with the mountain uplift as a barrier and stress concentration.The Xigongzhou intersection zone is a structural discontinued point that becomes another barrier. They can divide the Eastern Kunlun fault into two surface rupture segments, Maqin segment and Maqu segment.
3. Slip rate from tectonic geomorphology
Horizontal slip rate:Based on of geomorphic measurements, dating and calculation of long term horizontal slip rates of 30 investigated sites, the long term horizontal slip rates of the three rupture segments since late Pleistocene are obtained. The horizontal slip rate of the fault is 9.3± 2.5mm/a in the Maqin segment,7.4±1mm/a in Xigongzhou intersection zone, and 4.9±1.3mm/a in the Maqu segment since late Pleistocene,respectively.It can be seen that the horizontal slip rate decreases gradiently,by about 4mm/a from Maqin to Maqu segment.The discontinuity is just the Xigongzhou intersection zone, which is the intersection of the East Kunlun fault and Awancang fault and may be the structural transform to the Awancang fault with crustal shortening.The slip rate gradients are corresponding to the geometrical structures.
Vertical slip rate:Based on of surveying of geomorphic survey, dating and calculation of long term vertical slip rates of 30 investigated sites, the long term vertical slip rates of the three rupture segment since late Pleistocene are obtained. They are 0.7±0.2mm/a in the Maqin segment,1.6±0.4mm/a in the Xigongzhou intersection zone,and 0.25±0.05mm/a in the Maqu segment,respectively. It is biggest in Xigongzhou segment with ratio is 1:5 to the horizontal slip rate.It reflects the fault is mainly of strike slip with oblique components,which is reverse strike slip at the Dongqinggou,the west side of the Maqin fault, and is normal strike slip at the east of Maqin town.
4. Large earthquake sequence
Maqin segment:Seven events are revealed by the trenches on the Maqin segment. The ages of these thirteen events are as follows:(1) 358～430Cal a BP; (2) 977-1090 Cal a BP;(3) (1689-1736) Cal a BP～(2.0±0.3) ka; (4) (3058-3211) Cal a BP～(3342～3454) Cal a BP (5) (6.6±0.7)～(7.2±0.8) ka; (6) (7971～8050) Cal a BP-(8451～8632) Cal a BP; (7) (9.9±1.0)ka～(10.1±1.0)ka. The recurrence interval is about 500-1000a since Holocene. The average interval is 600±100a from event 1 to event 3,whereas the intervals vary largely between 500～1000a from event 4 to event7 since Holocene. The event 1061A.D can be confirmed by the epic of Gesar. The elapsed time of the latest event is 120a,and the another event will come only 180a later to the minimum of the interval, so the hazard analysis should be paid attention to.
Maqu segment:Eight events are determined through the analysis of the trenches on the Maqu segment. The ages of these eight events are as follows:(1) 1055～1524a Cal BP;(2)(1210±50)～(1730±50)a BP;(3) (1730±50)～(2530±40)a BP;(4) (3736±57)a～(4586±124); (5) (4850±40)～(7460±60)a BP; (6)(7460±60)～(8690±40)a BP; (7) 9000～10000a Cal BP;(8) (15800±2500)～(24100±2900)a BP. The recurrence interval is about 500-2000a since late Pleistocene.The average interval is 1000a from event 1 to event 3. The elapsed time of the latest event is～1000a,beyond the maximum of latest interval, so the seismic hazard analysis should be made strenuously.
The Wenchuan M8.0 earthquake of 12 May 2008 has imposed the stress load to the eastern Kunlun fault and increased the seismic hazard.So we should pay attention to the seismic hazard of the Maqin-Maqu fault and strengthen the dissemination of earthquake prevention and disaster reduction to enhance the consciousness of quakeproof.
5 Slip rate from paleoseismology
Maqin segment:The latest horizontal slip of the Maqin fault is 4±0.5m.The interval of the paleoearthquakes is 600±100a since 2000a.Using the formula S=D/Rx, and calculated the horizontal slip rate 7±1mm/a, similar to the slip rate 9.4±2.5mm/a from the tectonic geomorphology.
Maqu segment:The latest horizontal slip of the Maqu segment is 3m.The interval of the paleoearthquakes is1000a since the latest three events and the calculated slip rate is 3mm/a, similar to the slip rate 4.9±1.3mm/a from the tectonic geomorphology.
6 Tectonics transformation
Both the tectonic geomorphology and the paleoseismology suggest that the slip rate gradient decreases. The slip rate reduces sharply by almost 4mm/a when the East Kunlun fault passes the Xigongzhou intersection zone.The reduction is centered at the bend and transverse structural intersection, corresponding to the geometric change and the decreased slip rate transform to the transverse structure,the Awancang fault.By the transformation vector partitioning, the horizontal slip rate of the west strand of the Awancang fault is 2.4mm/a, the horizontal slip rate of the east strand is 1.4mm/a,and the shortening rate is 2.3mm/a.The west strand and the east compose of the slip partitioning mode, by the vectorial resultant, the horizontal slip rate between the bilateral block is 4.6 mm/a relative motion at the direction of 112.1°.
7. Formation times of terrace
The terraces primarily formed in 7 periods, i.e. 1-2ka,3-5ka,7-10ka,12.5-15ka,28-35ka,40-45ka,65-70ka, respectively corresponding to this area's climate characters. The time 1-2ka mainly corresponds to the interglacial epoch after neoglaciation,3-5ka corresponds to the warm humid phase of the Holocene thermal maximum,7-l0ka corresponds to the humid phase of early big warm period in Holocene,12.5-15ka corresponds to the last deglaciation,28-35ka, 40-45corresponds to the abnormal warm period of the last glacial maximum and abnormal megathermal period of the Interstadial of the last glacial age,65-70ka corresponds to the early Interstadial of the last glacial age. So we can see the terrace formation is mainly influenced by the humid and warm climate.
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