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“东方主义”的滥觞:希腊古典史家作品中的“他者”形象研究
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摘要
本文以古典时期希腊世界的政治、经济、文化状况为背景,在参照与比较荷马时期以降各类文本与艺术品的基础上,分析希罗多德、修昔底德与色诺芬这三位希腊古典史家作品中的“他者”形象。
     前言由三部分组成。第一部分解释了本文的理论依据。本文对“他者”的界定与分析方法来自于后殖民主义文化批评理论,主要借鉴了萨义德关于“东方主义”话语的学说,以及斯皮瓦克将女性主义视角与后殖民批评相结合的分析范式。第二部分阐述了古典时期希腊城邦的公民属性,界定了当时希腊世界中三类主要的“他者”群体,即妇女、蛮族人与奴隶。第三部分简要介绍、评价了国内外相关研究成果,并说明了本文的研究思路。
     第一章追溯了荷马到古风时期希腊人的女性观、蛮族观与奴隶观。对于女性,希腊人认为她们应该处在“私人领域”内。对于蛮族人,“泛希腊”意识与“希腊人”身份认同的形成,以及殖民运动的展开,使希腊人产生了将自己与蛮族人区别开来,并认为后者在各方面都比自己低下的认识。对于奴隶与奴隶制,《荷马史诗》中的相关描述透露出矛盾的态度。希腊人既歧视奴隶,将被奴役视为不幸的遭遇;又美化奴隶制与奴隶主,认为奴隶应该为主人尽忠,在为其效力的过程中表现自己的才智与品格。
     第二章分析了古典史家作品中的女性形象,并探讨了其成因。古典史家往往将介入公共事务的女性不同程度地“他者化”,甚至将其中的某些女性建构成头脑混沌、缺乏理智的负面形象。相反,对于恪守性别秩序,未曾跨越“私人领域”的女性,则赋予她们独立自主、世事洞明与智慧贤达等诸多美好的品质。这样的形象建构呼应了戏剧诗人对女性角色的塑造,反映并维护了当时压制女性的性别制度,响应了旨在“征用”女性为男性公民服务,进而为城邦服务的性别意识形态。
     第三章分析了古典史家作品中的蛮族人形象。在继承荷马到古风时期蛮族观的基础上,与波斯人的冲突、民主制的建立等历史事件使古典时期的希腊人产生了一种带有较为强烈的仇外情绪的蛮族观。因此大多数情况下,古典史家以“他者化”的方式呈现蛮族人,认为其“他者性”主要体现在两方面:一方面,蛮族人实行并臣服于专制统治,希腊人则建立了民主制,两者存在政治制度上的对立;另一方面,蛮族人的行为方式或文化习俗与希腊人是颠倒的,并且具有野蛮、愚昧、怪异等特点。古典史家对波斯人形象的建构是前者的具体表现,并与悲剧《波斯人》有异曲同工之妙;对埃及人、斯基泰人以及阿玛宗女战士形象的建构则是后者的具体表现。有时,古典史家也会以中立的态度呈现蛮族人,但这种情况相对来说比较罕见。
     第四章分析了古典史家作品中的奴隶形象。古典史家将奴隶等同于蛮族人,后来得到亚里士多德阐释的“自然奴隶”观念可以追溯到他们那里。在此基础上,古典史家又从身体、心智与行为等方面将奴隶“他者化”。相对于自由人或公民,奴隶的身体不能免于暴力,而且丑陋畸形。身体的残缺暗示了头脑与心理的残缺,所以奴隶的行为反映出他们低下的智能与扭曲的心态。同时,古典史家认为奴隶也可以具有理性。但奴隶的“理性”仅限于推动他们获取物质利益,追求安逸的生活条件,与争取自由,成为公民无关,因而是可供奴隶主利用的工具。上述情形与戏剧或演说词呈现奴隶的方式往往是一致的,也是对《荷马史诗》中矛盾的奴隶观的继承。而且,由于认定奴隶与自由人的区别是不可更改的,古典史家在写作过程中也常常省略他们参与战争的事迹,忽视其在军事行动中的作用,因为希腊人当兵参战的权力是与公民权联系在一起的。而对于奴隶反抗奴隶制并获得成功,成为自由人的事实,他们则尽量避而不谈。
     结语部分总结了古典史家作品中“他者”形象建构的原则与特点。萨义德将“东方主义”话语追溯到《波斯人》。在分析了古典史家作品中的“他者”形象,并为此参照、比较了荷马时期以降各类文本与艺术品之后,我们可以认为,后世“东方主义”话语体系呈现“他者”时所依赖的基本原则,所采取的主要策略,及其运行机制所具有的重要特点,在古典时期已经发展得比较成熟了。古典史家对“他者”形象的呈现,与当时其他文本与艺术品对“他者”形象的呈现,一起构成了后世“东方主义”话语的源头。
Basing on the reference to the texts and works of art from Homeric age,combining with the Greek politics, economy and culture in Classical age, thedissertation is a research of the constructions of “the Others” in all three classicalhistorians, Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophonen’s works.
     The introduction is composed by three parts. Part one explains the theory in thisdissertation. The ways of definition and analysis of “the Others” in this dissertationare learned from the research of Orientalism made by Edward W. Said and theanalytical paradigm provided by Gayatri C. Spivak, who introduced new perspectiveof Feminism to Post Colonial Criticism. Part two defines three main kinds of “theOthers” in Classical Greek world, Female, Barbarians and Slaves, in line accordancewith the characteristics of Polis. Part three summarizes and evaluates domestic andoversea researching, meanwhile explain the structure of this dissertation.
     Chapter one traces Greek ideals of female, barbarians and slaves from Homericage to Archaic period. For female, Greeks thought they should be restricted in“private sphere”. Barbarians were considered as different and inferior to Hellenes forthe existence of Panhellenism and Hellenic personal identification. For slaves andslavery, the contents about which in Homer’s Epic provided some conflicting opinions.On one hand, Greeks discriminated slaves and being slaved was regarded asextremely miserable experience. On the other hand, they beautified slavery andslave owners. Slaves were thought to emerge their ability and character in dedicatingthemselves to their owners.
     Chapter two analyses the constructions of female images in classical historians’works and discusses their cause. The women who introduced into “public sphere”were always displayed as “the Others”. The constructions of their images werechaotic and negative. In contrast, the women who kept themselves in “privatesphere” were given many kinds of wonderful qualities. These constructionsmaintained gender system and responded gender idealism with female roles indramas during Classical age.
     Chapter three analyses the constructions of barbarians in their works. Traditionsfrom Homeric period and great historical events in classical period led to thephenomenon that barbarians were considered as “the Others” by most Hellenes andtheir “otherness” mainly reflected in two aspects: on one hand, barbarians succumbto despotic rulers, which was the opposite to Hellenes’ democracy. On the otherhand, barbarians’ system of behavior and their culture customs were the reverses ofHellenes’. In this background, Herodotus and Xenophon adopted Aeschylus’ ideas ofPersians. In History and Cyropaedia, Persians were constructed as “the Others” whosuccumb to tyrannies and were unaware of freedom, which was consistent withconditions in Persians. Meanwhile, like another authors and craftsmen, Herodotusconstructed other barbarians as “the Others” through the method that theircharacterizations, which were always savagery and ignorant, were portrayed as thereverses of Hellenes’, of which Egyptians, Scythians and Amazons in History weretypical symbols. In classical period, the phenomenon that constructing barbarians asneutral images also existed and was reflects in the three historians’ works, butcompared with the construction as “the Others”, the existence of neutral imageswere not beneath discussion.
     Chapter four analyses the constructions of slaves in their works. Slaves wereconsidered as the same as barbarians by classical historians, which led to theirconstructions of them were the harbinger of the idea “nature slave” that would beexplained detailed in Aristotle’s Politics. In this background, slaves as “the Others”were distinguished from free men/citizens in body, mind and behaviour. Slaves’bodies could not be absolved from violence, meanwhile were ugly and abnormal,which mirrored their incomplete in intelligence or mind, so that slaves’ behaviourswere always foolish or metamorphic. Sometimes classical historians considered thatslaves also had some logos to a certain degree. Dependent on the logos, slaveowners were able to aware slaves through some methods that their profits wereconsistent with their owners to whom they should devote themselves. Obviously,slaves’ acknowledged “logos” were what made them as slaves forever, not whatmade a man as a real free citizen. Besides, distinguish between slaves and free men/citizens was realized as unconditional, so that classical historians omitted slaves’deeds in military operations for intimate relationship between joining in the armyand citizenship, meanwhile avoided their achieved revolt to slavery.
     The epilogue summarizes principle and specialty in the constructions of “theOthers” in classical historians’ works. Said has traced Orientalism to Persians. Afteranalyzing the constructions in their works with the reference to the texts and worksof art from Homeric age, it could be acknowledged that the present of “the Others”in Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon’s works composed beginnings ofOrientalism with which in another ancient Greek texts and works of art.
引文
①胡亚敏、肖祥:《“他者”的多幅面孔》,《文艺理论研究》,2013年第4期。
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    ⑥20世纪,后殖民主义文化批评理论在西方产生并走向前台,是基于两条线索的合流。一是西方世界的现代发展史及其反思,二是西方帝国主义的殖民史以及对殖民主义的反抗。我们先来看前一条线索。在文学领域中,浪漫主义、批判现实主义和现代主义文学对西方资本主义社会的批判可以说一直伴随着资本主义的发展。其中最为有力的批判是从马克思主义那里生发出来的社会革命。但是资本主义的历史在不断推进,社会主义革命却一波三折。面对这种情况,西方马克思主义者开始思考新的可能性
    来消除资本主义社会的种种弊端。由于资本主义本身对社会危机的调节和干预,重举经典马克思主义
    的“武器的批判”这种方式已经不太可行。因此,对资本主义的新一轮批判逐渐转入了文化领域。西
    方马克思主义的早期代表人物认为,因为经济地位的分化,工人阶级要促成行动,就必须首先跳出经
    济决定论的狭隘视野,从总体上把握资本主义的情况,造成整体的阶级意识。这实际上已经预设了文
    化行动之于政治革命的优先性。葛兰西认为,既然每个人都必然属于一定的社会群体,那么在批判资
    本主义的目标上,一种具有统一世界观和坚定意志的集团就十分重要了。在这方面,政党作为特定的
    掌握领导权的力量,不仅具有集中阶级力量的作用,同时也是人们形成自觉的自我(政治)意识的基
    础(葛兰西:《狱中札记》,曹雷雨等译,中国社会科学出版社,2000年,第236—254页)。这里的“领
    导权”主要是指“文化领导权”:“在现代世界中,人们应当强调政党在制定和传播世界观中所具有的
    重要意义,因为它们所做的事情,主要就是制定出与之相符的伦理和政治,并把它当做就是它们的‘历
    史实验室’那样去推动。”(葛兰西:《狱中札记》,第246页)同样是立足于对资本主义的整体性批判,
    文化和意识形态相对于经济和阶级斗争来说,占据了首要位置。早期马克思主义者的这种转化在法兰
    克福学派那里得到了进一步凸显。基于对包括斯大林领导的苏联在内的“独裁国家”的考察,法兰克
    福学派放弃了阶级革命的想法,从文化到阶级斗争两步走的模式被集中在了文化方面。此后,西方各
    种现代或后现代理论把反思的源头伸向了由启蒙运动设定的整个“现代性”方案上,从而在整体上解
    释资本主义的历史及其在当代出现的新情况。其中,后现代主义复杂的批判行动不仅围绕“人”这个
    概念展开,而且延伸到了西方对于“人”的思维方式上。简要来说,“二元对立”这一根植久远的思维
    方式一方面塑造了西方人战胜自然的信念。另一方面也助长了人与人之间压制与反压制的好斗天性。
    独立的“人”的发明——笛卡尔以最无可置疑的公式建立起来的作为主体的,独立的个人相对于其余
    一切存在对象的优先性——取得的不过是这场斗争的合法性而已。但是这种合法性是以伪装为知识的
    方式出现的:它以看似客观,抹平差异的方式使压制合法并难以察觉。对于“二元对立”这种思维方
    式的反思,最终落实到德里达所谓的“无中心的,结构性差异关系的回复”。而对于“人”这一概念的
    反思,则落实到福柯所谓的“人死了”的观点上。“人”既然已经死了,那么建立在“人”这一概念上
    的各种知识也就卸下了其“客观性”的伪装,暴露出了其与压制性的权力结盟的本来面目。以上是前
    一条线索,也是西方各种现代或后现代“高深理论”得以产生的一个重要背景。我们再来看后一条线
    索。殖民主义与西方资本主义发展的历史几乎同步,而在殖民过程中,西方殖民者也一直受到了殖民
    地当地民众的反抗。由于殖民活动的根本目的是经济利益,文化与政治方面的占领是其辅助,所以殖
    民地民众的反抗也以政治军事斗争为主,文化反抗则处于附属地位。问题在于,一个国家、民族或政
    治单位是一个政治、经济与文化的共同体,政治上的独立并不意味着全方位的独立自主。前殖民地国
    家在独立后往往面临着文化上的去殖民化,即摆脱前宗主国文化的影响,“重塑自我”的问题。因此,
    殖民地民众在取得政治独立后,其文化反抗的行为并没有真正结束,而是要回答并解决以下一系列问
    题:西方文化是怎样对殖民地民众进行“洗脑”的?西方文化与民族资产阶级、受过西式教育的本土
    精英之间又是何种关系?高扬民族主义、强调“民族文化”,会不会沦为纯粹的猎奇行为或者廉价的怀
    旧情绪?弗朗兹法农认识到了民族主义本身存在的陷阱,认为反对殖民主义不能只沿着民族主义的道
    路前进,因为民族主义的思维方式与帝国主义、殖民主义是同构的,只是方向相反。同时,法农也指
    出,殖民者之所以能强行改写殖民地民族的历史与文化,使自己的文化凌驾其上,主要是因为他们凭
    借权力垄断了有关“真理”的话语,而这种垄断也是建立在有关西方文化所具有的“先进性”或“优
    越性”这一巨大的神话之上的(萨义德:《文化与帝国主义》,李琨译,生活读书新知三联书店,2003
    年,第382—390页)。法农的认识表明了文化反抗自身的局限,以及西方殖民主义文化控制的秘密之
    所在,也预示着后殖民主义文化批评理论的出场。通过以上梳理,我们可以对“后殖民主义文化批评
    理论”下一个比较明确的定义:“后殖民主义文化批评理论”与针对殖民主义的批评和反殖民运动一样,
    是针对帝国主义的反抗方式。针对殖民主义的批评主要围绕殖民者的政治、经济和军事行动展开,“后
    殖民主义文化批评与理论”针对的则是文化层面。就反抗的表现形式而言,文化上的自觉反抗在时间
    上延后于政治、经济方面的直接反抗,并且从某种意义上说,正是在脱殖之后,尤其是在全球化的背
    景下,殖民主义的文化后果才得以深刻地显现出来。所以我们可以把“后殖民主义文化批评理论”看
    做脱殖之后的文化反抗的逻辑结果。下面我们再来看一看它与前一条线索中提及的各种西方“高深理
    论”之间的关系。本文认为,它们两者之间是互证与互补关系,它们的共同目标是批判西方资本主义
    的现代性神话或者文明进步的神话。通过借助后现代主义的文化反思和批判,后殖民批评得以更深刻
    地看到西方文化殖民的“认知暴力”的实施过程与运转机制,从而揭示它与民族主义、民族资产阶级
    以及民族主义知识分子精英之间的复杂关系,并进一步划定文化反抗的界限、可能性和方向。而通过
    借助后殖民批评,后现代主义的文化反思和批判也得以延续其理论生命力,扩展其适用范围。也正是
    在这个意义上,我们才说,后殖民批评处在西方历史的文化反思与殖民历史的文化反思这两条线索的
    交汇点上。参见李应志:《解构的文化政治实践——斯皮瓦克殖民文化批评研究》,上海三联书店,2008
    年,第9—17页。
    ①刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第40页。
    ②萨义德赋予Orientalism一词三重含义。第一,作为一种学术研究学科。萨义德说:“最易于为人接受的是其作为学术研究的一个学科的含义;这一称谓的确仍然用于许多学术机构中。”(萨义德:《东方学》,王宇根译,生活读书新知三联书店,1999年,第3页)在他看来,任何教授东方,书写东方或研究东方的人——不管是人类学家、社会学家、历史学家还是语言学家,无论面对的是具体的还是一般的问题——都是“东方学家”,他们所从事的就是“东方学”。第二,作为一种思维方式。萨义德认为:“东方学是一种思维方式,在大部分时间里,the Orient(东方)是与the Occident(西方)相对而言的,东方学的思维方式即以二者之间这一本体论和认识论意义上的区分为基础。”(同上,第3—4页)在西方,有大量的作家,其中包括诗人、小说家、哲学家、政治理论家、经济学家以及帝国的行政官员,接受了这一东方/西方的区分,并将其作为建构与东方、东方的人民、习俗、“心性”(mind)和命运等有关的理论、诗歌、小说、社会分析和政治论说的出发点。这一意义层面上的东方主义含义更加宽泛,可以容纳比如说埃斯库罗斯、雨果、但丁和马克思。第三,作为一种权力话语方式。萨义德指出:“如果将18世纪晚期作为对其进行粗略界定的出发点,我们可以将东方学描述为通过做出与东方有关的陈述,对有关东方的观点进行权威裁断,对东方进行描述、教授、殖民、统治等方式来处理东方的一种机制:简言之,将东方视为西方用以控制、重建和君临东方的一种方式。”(同上,第4页)他运用福柯的话语理论来解释东方学,从而认为:“如果不将东方作为一种话语来考察的话,我们就不可能很好地理解这一具有庞大体系的科学,而在后启蒙(post-Enlightenment)时期,欧洲文化正是通过这一学科以政治的,社会学的,军事的,意识形态的,科学的以及想象的方式来处理——甚至创造——东方的。而且,由于东方学占据着如此权威的位置,我相信没有哪个书写、思考或实际影响东方的人可以不考虑东方学对其思想和行动的制约。简言之,正是由于东方学,东方过去不是(现在也不是)一个思想与行动的自由主体。”(同上,第4—5页)萨义德进一步指出,这三种意义上的Orientalism是相互联系在一起的。18世纪晚期以来,第一种和第二种意义上的Orientalism之间存在着明显的交合,并由此发展处第三种意义上的Orientalism。它无论是作为一种思维方式还是作为一种权力话语方式,都是从作为一种学术研究的“东方学”中引申出来的。在国内学术界,Orientalism一词通常译为“东方主义”。而《东方学》一书的译者王宇根认为,既然该词三个方面的含义都是从作为学术研究的“东方学”中引申出来的,而汉语无法用一个词囊括这三种含义,那么译文只能采取变通的方式。要么将学科意义上使用的Orientalism译为“东方学”,将作为思维方式和话语方式的Orientalism译为“东方主义”;要么对三者不加区分,通译为“东方学”或“东方主义”。他在自己的译文中将之统一译为“东方学”(参见刘海静:《抵抗与批判——萨义德后殖民文化理论研究》,中央编译出版社,2013年,第93—95页)。本文强调Orientalism作为思维方式与话语方式的这两方面,因此在引用王宇根的译文时,保留“东方学”这一译名;在其他地方提及时,则称之为“东方主义”。
    ③“话语”(discourse)是现代批评理论中历史相对较短,定义多样,使用范围十分广泛的一个术语。该术语首先出现在语言学中,指“用来交流的语意连贯的语篇”。我国语言学家黄国文对之做了进一步阐释:语篇通常是指由一系列连续的话段或句子构成的语言整体。它可以是独白、对话,也可以是众人的交谈。可以是文字标志(如商标),也可以是诗歌、小说。可以是口头讲话,也可以是书面文章。短者一二句成篇,长者洋洋万言。无论是一句问候,一次谈话话,还是一场论文答辩,一次记者招待会,或者一本书,一封信,都可以是语篇。福柯借助这一发源于语言学的术语,通过《话语的秩序》、《疯癫与文明》、《惩罚与规训》、《临床医学的诞生》、《知识考古学》以及《词与物》等著作的论述,发展出了一套“话语—权力”理论。福柯认为,“话语”渗透进了社会生活的各个层面,深刻影响着人们的观念与行为,并与权力体制关系密切。他没有为“话语”下一个确切的定义,而是着重研究其运行机制,也即“谁说”,“说什么”,“怎么说”,以及这一机制与权力机制之间的相互作用。简要来说,话语与权力是一种辩证的同构关系,影响、控制话语运作的最根本因素是权力,权力是通过话语来实现的,话语既是权力的产物,又是其组成部分。看似客观的各种“知识”或“知识体系”,比如对于“何谓理性,何谓疯癫”的定义,也属于话语体系的一部分,会随着社会权力结构的变化而变化。萨义德学说中的“话语”概念主要来自于福柯的“话语—权力”理论。参见刘海静:《抵抗与批判》,第94页;刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第15—17页。
    ①参见刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第42—50页。
    ②转引自杨国昌、晏杰雄:《水的原型意义及勾联》,《中南民族大学学报》(人文社会科学版),2005年第1期。
    ①萨义德:《东方学》,第8页。
    ②参见刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第63—67页。
    ③萨义德:《东方学》,第77—78页。
    ④萨义德:《东方学》,第357页。
    ⑤参见刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第71—75页。
    ⑥转引自萨义德:《东方学》,第192—193页。
    ①转引自萨义德:《东方学》,第47—48页。
    ②转引自萨义德:《东方学》,第40—41页。
    ①萨义德:《东方学》,第414页。参见刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第84—86页。
    ②参见刘惠玲:《话语维度下的萨义德东方主义研究》,第84—88页。
    ③D. Fuss, Essentianlly Speaking: Femisim, Nature and Difference, Rouledge,1989, p. i.
    ④关熔珍:《斯皮瓦克研究》,四川大学博士学位论文,2007年,第104页。
    ⑤萨义德:《东方学》,第314—315页。
    ①转引自许晓琴:《东方、东方学、东方主义——萨义德后殖民批评与东方学批判》,《语文学刊》,2010年第2期。
    ②波伏瓦:《第二性》,陶铁柱译,中国书籍出版社,1998年,第11页。
    ①参见关熔珍:《斯皮瓦克研究》,第103—137页。
    ②参见关熔珍:《斯皮瓦克研究》,第144—161页。
    ①S. N. Kramer, History Begins at Sumer, The University of Pennsylvania Press,1981, pp.30-35.
    ②参见晏绍祥:《荷马时代的polis》,《历史研究》,2004年第2期;晏绍祥:《荷马社会研究》,上海三联书店,2006年,第77—118页。
    ③晏绍祥:《古典民主与共和传统》上卷,北京大学出版社,2013年,第4页。
    ④托马斯·R马丁:《古希腊简史——从史前到希腊化时代》,杨敬晴译,上海三联书店,2011年,第67—68页。
    ⑤晏绍祥:《古典民主与共和传统》上卷,第8页。
    ①Plutarch, Lycurgus,6.
    ②Xenophon, Constitution of Lacedaemonians,15.6-7.
    ③下文对雅典民主制的介绍主要参考了萨拉·B·波默罗伊等:《古希腊政治、社会和文化史》,傅洁莹、龚萍、周平译,上海三联书店,2010年。
    ④古希腊的僭主(Tyrannos)是指未经合法程序而凭借武力夺取统治权的人,因此不同于拥有合法继承权的国王。僭主为了保持统治,往往会指定其男性后代为继承人,建立家族王朝。但有时为了对抗原先的王室与贵族,取得并维护自己的统治地位,他们也会尽力争取平民的支持。比如前540年,萨摩斯岛的僭主为城邦改建了供水系统,并修建了诸多公共建筑,给广大平民提供了工作机会,提高了他们的生活质量。有的僭主十分重视民众利益,其统治因受大众欢迎而持续了数十年之久。所以在古代希腊,僭主统治并不完全等同于暴政。参见马丁:《古希腊简史》,第87页,第99—100页。
    ⑤参见亚里士多德:《雅典政制》,日知、力野译,商务印书馆,1959年。
    ①公职津贴制度并不是雅典独有的制度。在其他城邦中,为了保证公民参政,也不同程度地实行了公职津贴制度。参见G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World, Gerald Duckworthand Co Ltd,1983, pp.289-290.
    ②晏绍祥:《古典民主与共和传统》上卷,第10页。
    ③R. Just, Women in Athenian Law and Life, Routledge,1989, p.29.
    ④在阿提卡方言中,同样不存在阴性形式的词汇还有“雅典人”(Athenaios)一词。参见M. X. Zelenak,Gender and Politics in Greek Tragedy, Peter Lang,1998, p.21.
    ①S. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, Harvard University Press,1995, p.114.
    ②关于古典时期雅典妇女与斯巴达妇女的日常生活以及她们与城邦的关系,可参见裔昭印:《古希腊妇女——文化视阈中的研究》,商务印书馆,2001年。
    ③P. Cartledge,“AHeterology of Classical Creek Slavery”, Greece and Rome40(1993), pp.163-180.
    ④P. Cartledge,“AHeterology of Classical Creek Slavery”.
    ⑤徐松岩:《古典时代雅典奴隶人数考析——兼评“持续增长说”》,《世界历史》,1994年第3期。古代史料提及的古典时期雅典奴隶的人数大大高于这个数字。公元2世纪晚期,埃塞奈俄斯在自己的著作中提到了雅典、埃吉那和科林斯的奴隶人数(Athenaeus, Sophists at Dinner,272b-d)。埃吉那的奴隶最多,有470000人,这个数字据说引自亚里士多德亡佚的一部著作《埃吉那政制》(Constitution of theAiginetans)。科林斯其次,有460000人,引自厄庇泰迈俄斯(Epitaimaios)亡佚的著作《历史》(Histories)。雅典第三,有400000人,引自克特斯克勒斯(Ctesicles)某部亡佚的著作。他在法勒荣的德米特里乌斯(Demetrius of Phaleron)于前317年—前316年进行的人口普查的基础上给出了这个数字。埃塞奈俄斯提到的这些资料都来自于公元前4世纪。此外,还有一个公元前4世纪的数字来自于公元10世纪的一本辞典。据说,雅典将领希珀里得斯预料到腓力二世将对雅典发起进攻,便计划释放所有奴隶、债务人等一切被剥夺了公民权的人,以便让他们一同来保卫城邦。他认为,当时以及整个前4世纪余下的时间里,仅劳里昂银矿中就有超过150000名奴隶。现代学者通过研究认为,雅典奴隶人数最多时达到了10万左右,占总人口的40%。参见M. I. Finley,“Was Greek Civilization Based on Slave Labour?”Historia8(1959), pp.145-164; T. E. Rihll,“ClassicalAthens”, in K. Bradley and P. Cartledge eds., TheCambridge World History of Slavery, Vol. I, Cambridge University Press,2011, pp.48-73.
    ⑥A. Zimmern, The Greek Commonwealth: Politics and Economics in Fifth Centrty Athens, OxfordUniversity Press,1911, p.399.
    ⑦T. E. Rihll,“ClassicalAthens”.
    ①Diodorus Siculus,3.12.5-3.13.3.
    ②Aeschines, Against Timachus,97.
    ③Lysias, Against Eratosthene,8-9.
    ④Demosthenes, Against Aphobus I,9.
    ⑤Y. Garlan, Slavery in Classical Greece, translated by J. Lloyd, Ithaca and London,1988, p.65.
    ⑥关于斯基泰“警察”奴隶的情况,可参见孙艳萍:《古代雅典的奴隶“警察”》,《广西师范学院学报》(哲学社会科学版),2006年第10期。
    ⑦D. Ogden, Greek Bastardy in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods, Clarendon Press,1996, pp.130-131.
    ⑧Xenophon, Oeconomicus,9.5.
    ⑨G. R. Morrow, The Murder of Slave in Attic Law, Classical Philolog,1937, pp.214,220.
    ①马丁:《古希腊简史》,第93—95页。
    ②对于“泛希腊”意识以及文化上的“希腊人”身份认同的形成,可见本文第一章《观念追溯》第二节“荷马到古风时期希腊人的蛮族观”中的相关论述。“泛希腊”意识与“希腊人”身份认同的存在是我们分析古典史家作品中蛮族人形象的重要前提。
    ③对于当时悲剧中女性角色的详细讨论可见笔者撰写于2009年的硕士论文《古典时期雅典悲剧中的女性形象》。
    ④对于当时悲剧中奴隶角色的分析可见本文第三章《古典史家作品中的奴隶》中的相关内容。悲剧中的奴隶形象是我们讨论古典史家作品中奴隶形象的重要参照。
    ①Isocrates, Panegyricus,150-151.
    ②Isocrates, To Philip,124.
    ③Isocrates, Panegyricus,50.
    ④Isocrates, To Philip,241.
    ①R. Browning,“Greeks and Others: fromAntiquity to the Renaissance”, in T. Harrison ed., Greeks andBarbarians, Roueledge,2002, pp.257-277.
    ②F. S. Brown and Wm. B. Tyrrell,“AReading of Herodotus’Amazons”, Classical Journal Vol.80, No.4(1985), pp.297-302.
    ③R. V. Munson,“Artemisia in Herodotus”, Classical Antiquity7(1988), pp.91-106.
    ④伯里克利认为,女性最大的荣耀就是极少成为男人的谈资,无论优点还是缺点。见Thucydides,2.45.
    ①参见F. D. Harvey,“Women in Thucydides”, Arethusa18(1985), pp.67-90; T. Wiedemann,“Thucydides,Women and the Limits of RationalAnalysis”, Greece and Rome30(1983), pp.163-70.
    ②M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Penguin,1985; W. E. Higgins, Xenophon the Athenian: The Problemof the Individual and the Society of the Polis, SUNYPress,1977.
    ③F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus: The Representation of the Other in the Writing of History, translatedby J. Lloyd, University of California Press,1988.
    ④A. Andrewes,“Thucydides and the Persians”, Historia10(1961), pp.1-18.
    ⑤V. Gray,“Herodotus and the Rhetoric of Otherness”, The American Journal of Philology, Vol.116, No.2(Summer,1995), pp.185-211.
    ①V. J. Gray, The Character of Xenophon’s ‘Hellenica’, The Johns Hopkins University Press,1989; J.Tatum,Xenophon’s Imperial Fiction, Princeton University Press,1989.
    ②F. D. Harvey,“Herodotus and the Man-Footed Creature”, in L. J.Archer ed., Slavery and Other Forms ofUnfree Labour, Rouledge,1988, pp.42-52; D. Wiesen,“Herodotus and the Modern Debate over Race andSlavery”, Ancient World3(1980), pp.3-14.
    ③M. H. Jameson,“Agriculture and Slavery in ClassicalAthens”, Classical Journal73(1977), pp.122-45.
    ④S. B. Pomeroy,“Slavery in the Greek Domestic Economy in the Light of Xenophon’s Oeconomicus”, in V.J. Gay ed., Oxford Readings in Classical Studies: Xenophon, Oxford University Press,2010, pp.31-40.
    ⑤可见本文第三章《古典史家笔下的奴隶》中的相关论述。
    ⑥P. Cartledge, The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others, Oxford Paperbacks,1993.
    ①P. Hunt, Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, Camridge University Press,1998.
    ②E. Hall, Iventing the Barbarian: Greek Slef-definition through Tragedy, Oxford University Press,1989.
    ③可参见S. Sa d,“Greeks and Barbarians in Euripides’Tragedies:The End of Differences?”, in T. Harrisoned., Greeks and Barbarians, Routledge,2002, pp.62-100.
    ④K. Vlassopoulos, Greek and Barbarians, Cambridge University Press,2013.
    ①K. Vlassopoulos, Greek and Barbarians, pp.39-41.
    ②R.Alston, E. Hall and L. Proffitt eds., Reading Ancient Slavery, Bristol Classical Press,2011; K. Bradleyand P. Cartledge eds., The Cambridge World History of Slavery, Vol. I, Cambridge Univesity Press,2011.
    ③赵稀方:《后殖民理论》,北京大学出版社,2009年。
    ①黄洋:《古代希腊罗马文明的“东方”想象》,《历史研究》,2006年第1期。
    ②蒋保:《论希罗多德的埃及观》,《学海》,2010年第5期。
    ①Homer, Iliad,1.244.
    ②Homer, Iliad,9.443.
    ①Homer, Odessey,19.107-14.译文参见荷马:《奥德赛》,王焕生译,人民文学出版社,1997年,第354页。本文中《奥德赛》的译文主要参考了王焕生译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ①Hesiod, Works and Days,55-59,61,71,64,71-75,65-66,77-78,90-91,100-102.译文参见赫西俄德:《工作与时日神谱》,张竹明、蒋平译,商务印书馆,1991年第2—5页。
    ②Hesiod, Theogony,601-612.译文参见赫西俄德:《工作与时日神谱》,第44—45页。
    ③萨福:《萨福抒情诗集》,罗洛译,百花洲文艺出版社,1989年,第51—52页。
    ①S. B. Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity, Random House@Trade,1975, p.35.
    ②Herodotus,9.28-30.
    ③晏绍祥:《古典民主与共和传统》上卷,2013年,第5页。
    ④Thucydides,1.3.译文参见修昔底德:《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》,谢德风译,商务印书馆,1960年,第3—5页。本文中《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》的译文主要参考了谢德风译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ①S. Clovin,“Greek Dialects in the Archaic and ClassicalAges”, in E. J. Bakker ed., A Companion to theAncient Greek Language, Oxford University Press,2010, pp.200-212.
    ②A. M. Davies,“The Greek Notion of Dialect”, in T. Harrison, pp.153-171.
    ③K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, p.37.
    ④K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, pp.39-41.
    ①E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, pp.15,26-27,41-43.
    ②Homer, Iliad,24.629-632.
    ③Homer, Iliad,1.115.
    ④Homer, Iliad,11.385,17.52.
    ⑤Homer, Iliad,11.385,17.52.
    ⑥Homer, Iliad,11.385,17.52.
    ⑦Homer, Iliad,6.226-232.
    ⑧Homer, Iliad,3.297,4.44-49.
    ⑨E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, pp.44-45.
    ①A. Diller, Race Mixture among the Creeks before Alexander, Urbana,1937, pp.74-77.
    ②Homer, Iliad,24.495-497.
    ③Homer, Iliad,11.393,19.284-285.
    ④E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.42.
    ⑤Homer, Iliad,2.718,11.385,23.850-883.
    ⑥Homer, Iliad,11.262,13.202-203,14.496-498,17.39-40,126.
    ⑦Homer, Iliad,18.176-177.
    ⑧Homer, Iliad,2.391-393,15.347-351.
    ⑨Homer, Iliad,2.872-873.
    ⑩K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, p.172.但是荷马用来形容卡里亚人的barbarōphonos一词(bārbaros即“蛮族人”一词即由该词演变而来)确实仅指他们的语言难以听懂,不表示他们作为非希腊的蛮族人在才智、品德等方面低于希腊人的意思。参见E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian: Greek, p.10.
    ①Homer, Iliad,13.4-6.译文参见荷马:《伊利亚特》,陈中梅译,译林出版社,2012年,第287页。本文中《伊利亚特》的译文主要参考了陈忠梅译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ②Homer, Iliad,12.310-348.
    ③K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, p.173.
    ④见Homer, Odyssey,4.611-619.另外,后来希腊人认为,割耳、挖眼、刖鼻、剪舌等刑罚是“蛮族人的行径”,但在《奥德赛》中,希腊人也喜好肉刑。比如安提奥诺斯威胁伊罗斯,要把他送给国王埃克托斯,后者会割下他的耳朵和阳具,作为生肉扔给狗群(Homer, Odyssey,18.85-7),而忒勒玛科斯和奥德修斯的手下也是这样对待墨兰提奥斯的(Homer, Odyssey,22.475-7)。
    ⑤Homer, Odyssey,9.105-116.
    ⑥Homer, Odyssey,9.193-298.
    ⑦K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, p.173.
    ①Homer, Odyssey,7.112-121.
    ②Homer, Odyssey,8.557-564.
    ③Homer, Odyssey,7.86-102.
    ④E. Cook,“Near Eastern Sources for the Palace ofAlkinoos”, American Journal of Archaeology (2004)108,43-77; K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, p.173.
    ⑤C. Bērard,“The Image of the Other and the Foreign Hero”, in B. Cohen ed., Not the Classical Ideal:Athens and the Construction of the Other in Greek Art, BrillAcademic Pub,2000, pp.390-412.
    ⑥M. C. Miller,“The Myth of Bousiris: Ethnicity andArt”, in B. Cohen, pp.423-442.
    ⑦H. A. Shapiro,“Amazon, Thracians, and Scythians”, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies24(1983), pp.105-114.
    ⑧K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, p.188.
    ①D. A. Campell, Greek Lyric, Vol. II, Harvard University Press,1988, p.99.
    ②E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.10.
    ③转引自K. Bartol, Greek Elegy and Iambus: Studies in Ancient Literary Source, Adam MickiewiczUniversity Press,1993, p.111.
    ④K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and Barbarians, pp.175-176.
    ⑤Homer, Odyssey,24.252.
    ①Homer, Odyssey,17.322-323.
    ②Homer, Iliad,6.454-458.
    ③Homer, Odyssey,8.522-532.
    ④Homer, Odyssey,480-490.
    ①无论男人还是女人,失去自由沦为奴隶总是悲惨的。但《荷马史诗》对两者的态度略有不同。对于被奴役的妇女,史诗直接表达了深切的同情(见上文)。对于被奴役的男人,因为一般情况下男人被认为会战死沙场而不是被俘,所以史诗总要解释他们沦为奴隶的原因和经过。比如《伊利亚特》中说道,普里阿摩斯的儿子鲁卡昂曾被阿喀琉斯抓获,带到列姆诺斯卖作奴隶(Homer, Iliad,21.37-40)。《奥德赛》中,奥德修斯询问牧猪奴欧迈奥斯究竟是如何沦为奴隶的。欧迈奥斯回答说,他本是叙里埃岛上两座城市的统治者奥尔墨诺斯的儿子,被航海的腓尼基人诱骗上船,来到伊塔卡,又被拉埃尔特斯买下,成了牧猪奴(Homer, Odyssey,15.381-388,15.415-484)。奥德修斯也述说过自己沦为奴隶的原因:“国王吩咐伴行人安全送我去见阿卡斯托斯国王,可是那些人心中对我不怀好意,要让我遭受不幸。当那条海船离开陆地一段距离,他们立即计划要让我沦为奴隶。”(Homer, Odyssey,14.336-339)参见P. Hunt,“Slaves in Greek Literary Culture”, in K. Bradley and P. Cartledge, pp.22-47.
    ②P. Hunt,“Slaves in Greek Literary Culture”.
    ③Homer, Odyssey,15.485-491.
    ④那些进驻奥德修斯庄园的求婚者恰恰相反,会虐待奴隶,使他们疲惫不堪。一名女奴说:“但愿求婚人今天是最后、最末一次在奥德修斯的厅堂上享用如意的饮宴。他们派我干磨面的重活,把我累得肢节瘫软。愿这是最后一次设筵。”(Homer, Odyssey,20.116-119)
    ⑤Homer, Odyssey,14.139,15.268-279.
    ⑥Homer, Odyssey,14.139,15.268-279.
    ⑦Homer, Odyssey,15.363-365.
    ⑧Homer, Odyssey,20.409-411
    ⑨Homer, Odyssey,18.322-325.
    ⑩Homer, Iliad,1.112-115.
    ①Homer, Iliad,3.400-409.
    ②Homer, Iliad,19.290-300.
    ③Homer, Odyssey,1.430-433.
    ④奴隶侍妾生下的孩子地位比合法妻子生下的孩子地位低,但也算贵族。参见Homer, Odyssey,4.11-412,14.200-204.
    ⑤Homer, Odyssey,14.417.
    ⑥Homer, Odyssey,14.524-533.
    ⑦Homer, Odyssey,17.318-323.欧迈奥斯虽然是奴隶,但说出这样的话来,可见其思维方式已经与奴隶主一般无二了。参见L. Hunnings,“The Paradigms of Execution: Managing Slave Death from Homer toVirginia”, in R. Alston, E. Hall and L. Proffitt, pp.51-70.
    ⑧Homer, Odyssey,22.113,201,265-270,278-282.所以说奴隶也能具备才智和德性。
    ①Homer, Odyssey,22.424-455,2461-2473.这12名女奴蔑视女主人潘奈洛佩及有资历的老奴欧律克勒娅,又与求婚者私通,等于犯下了双重罪行。她们最后被带出厅堂外绞死,表示被逐出了奥德修斯的家庭。参见L. Hunnings,“The Paradigms of Execution: Managing Slave Death from Homer to Virginia”.
    ①Homer, Odyssey,22.186-200,474-477.
    ②P. Hunt,“Slaves in Greek Literary Culture”.
    ③Homer, Odyssey,22.186-200,474-477.
    ④W. G. Thalmann, The Swineherd and the Bow: Representation of Class in the Homer’s Odyssey, CornellUniversity Press,1998, p.90.
    ⑤Homer, Odyssey,21.214-216.参见K. Raaflaub,“Homeric Society”, in I. Morris and B. Powell eds., ANew Companion to Homer, BrillAcademic Pub,1997, pp.624-648.
    ①Herodotus,2.111.
    ②Herodotus,3.50.
    ③Herodotus,6.126.译文参见希罗多德:《历史》下册,王以铸译,商务印书馆,1959年,第455页。本文中《历史》的译文主要参考了王以铸译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ①Thucydides,3.36,3.116.4,7.68.2,7.29.4.
    ②Thucydides,1.89.3,1.103.3,2.14,2.70.3.
    ③Herodotus,6.126-130.
    ④Thucydides,1.9.1,1.126,1.128,2.29,2.101.4,6.55,6.59.
    ①Thucydides,2.4.3-4.
    ②Thucydides,4.107.3.
    ③Thucydides,4.133.2.
    ④Thucydides,5.16.2.
    ①Herodotus,4.1,4.146.
    ②Herodotus,1.146,6.18.
    ③Herodotus,3.117,4.26,4.193.
    ①Herodotus,5.87,9.5.
    ②Thucydides,2.4.2,2.78.3,3.74.
    ③Herodotus,3.118.5.
    ①Herodotus3.118-119,4.43.
    ②Herodotus,2.121,3.122-124,5.51.
    ①Herodotus,1.8-12.
    ②Herodotus,1.8-12.
    ③V. Gray,“Herodotus and the Rhetoric of Otherness”.
    ①Herodotus,9.108-112.
    ②V. Gray,“Herodotus and the Rhetoric of Otherness”.
    ③Herodotus,1.10.2.
    ④Herodotus,1.119.6.
    ⑤Herootus,9.110.1.
    ①坎道列斯妻子、阿美斯特莉斯等蛮族女王或王后的“他者性”不体现在性别方面,而体现在血统方面。从“蛮族人”身份的角度观察,她们的“他者性”十分明显。哈托格认为,希罗多德从婚姻、丧葬等方面不同程度地建构了蛮族人的“他者性”,其笔下蛮族国王的形象是研究这一“他者性”的切入点。这些国王的性情中包含着混沌与贪婪、傲慢与残酷,以及酷爱秘密统治,总是不由自主地违反法律或习俗,热衷肉体损毁等特征。蛮族王后或女王同样具有这些性格特征,比如热衷肉体损毁。斐列蒂玛割掉巴卡尔妇女的乳房,托米莉斯亵渎居鲁士的尸体,阿美斯特莉斯摧残玛西斯特的妻子等行为都体现了这一性格特征。再比如傲慢专横。坎道列斯的妻子诚然是受害者,但她强迫居基斯要么自杀,要么杀死坎道列斯,是对自由选择的嘲弄,跟她丈夫的行为没有本质区别。阿美斯特莉斯残害玛西斯特妻子的行为也是如此。这些女性的行为突出了蛮族人王室的双重危险性,因为国王与王后中的每一个人都是独裁者。参见V. Gray,“Herodotus and the Rhetoric of Otherness”; F. Hartog, The Mirror ofHerodotus, pp.212-259,332-334.
    ②色诺芬:《经济论雅典的收入》,张伯建、陆大年译,商务印书馆,1961年,第24页。
    ③色诺芬:《经济论雅典的收入》,32—33页。
    ①Xenophon, Cyropaedia,4.6.11,5.1.3,5.1.17,6.1.23.
    ②Herodotus,1.108-113.
    ③C. Dewald,“Women and Culture in Herodotus’Histories”, Women’s Studies,1981, Vol.8, pp.93-127.
    ①Herodotus,1.185,2.100,4.160,4.202-205.
    ②Herodotus,7.99,8.68,8.87-88,8.102-103讲述了阿尔特密西娅的事迹。
    ③Herodotus,7.96.1-2.
    ④Herodotus,7.99.3.
    ①R. V. Munson,“Artemisia in Herodotus”.
    ②Herodotus,8.87.3-4.
    ①Herodotus,7.99.2.
    ②Herodotus,8.68.1.
    ③Herodotus,5.78.
    ④Herodotus,7.143-144,8.56-63,8.75,8.109-112,8.124-125讲述了泰米斯托克利的事迹,与阿尔特密西娅的事迹交织在一起。
    ⑤Herodotus,7.142-144.
    ①Herodotus,8.109-110.
    ②Herodotus,8.79-80,8.83.
    ③阿尔特密西娅与泰米斯托克利的行为和处境多有可对照之处。在波斯人举行军事会议的同时,希腊人也在对战事展开争论。在波斯制度中不存在民主投票,而在希腊人的两次讨论中也未进行民主决策。希腊人享有作为自由人投票的权利,但泰米斯托克利用自己掌握的军事力量压服了他们:一开始他威胁要撤走雅典人的战船,后来甚至为了达到目的而和敌人暗通款曲。这位雅典将军的行为完全超出了一个建议者的范畴。希腊人虽然没有进行民主表决,但民主制毕竟是存在的,这是泰米斯托克利和阿尔特密西娅处境最大的不同。因为民主制的存在,前者可以成功地影响公共决策。通过他的代理,雅典能够控制全希腊,并保卫其建立在这一制度上的利益。相反在波斯阵营中,阿尔特密西娅却形单影只,孤立无援。可以认为,正是军事会议上的孤立导致了她后来在萨拉米斯海战中的行为。参见R. V.Munson,“Artemisia in Herodotus”.
    ①Herodotus,8.93.
    ②Herodotus,8.103.
    ①Euripides, Bacchae.
    ②T. E. J. Wiedemann,“Thucydides, Women and the Limits of RationalAnalysis”.
    ①Thucydides,3.82.2.
    ②Thucydides,3.74.
    ③T. E. J. Wiedemann,“Thucydides, Women and the Limits of RationalAnalysis”.
    ①S. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, Harvard University Press,1995, p.126.
    ②Lysias, Against Eratosthenes.
    ③S. Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece, p.126.
    ④S. des Bouvrie, Women in Greek Tragedy: an Anthropological Approach, Oxford University Press,1990, p.53.
    ⑤转引自K. J. Dover, Aristophanic Comedy, University of California Press,1992, p.17.
    ①Aristophanes, Women at the Thesmiphoria,830ff.
    ②Aristophanes, Lysistrata,1043-1053.
    ③Plato, Laws,817B-C.译文参见柏拉图:《柏拉图全集》第三卷,王晓朝译,人民出版社,2003年,第574页。本文中柏拉图著作的译文主要参考了王晓朝译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ④Plato, Laws,658C-D.
    ⑤Plutarch, Phocion,19.2-3.
    ⑥Alexis, Gynaikokratia,41.转引自J. Henderson,“Women andAthenian Dramatic Festivals”, Transactionsof the American Philological Society, Vol.121(1991), pp.133-47.
    ⑦J. Henderson,“Women andAthenian Dramatic Festivals”.
    ①Aristophanes, Peace,962-967.译文参见张竹明、王焕生译:《古希腊悲剧喜剧全集》第六册,译林出版社,2007年,第567页。本文中古希腊戏剧的译文主要参考了张竹明、王焕生译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ②Euripides, Alcestis.
    ①Herodotus,4.205.
    ①为了获得爱琴海与小亚细亚地区的控制权,波斯与以雅典和斯巴达为首的希腊诸邦展开了将近200年的拉锯,贯穿了整个古典时期。继公元前480年—公元前449年的“希波战争”后,伯罗奔尼撒战争期间,波斯在前期对整个希腊世界的局势持观望态度,在后期积极与斯巴达结盟,以自己雄厚的经济实力支持它击败了雅典。斯巴达获胜后,作为回报,波斯取得了对小亚细亚希腊诸邦的统治权。伯罗奔尼撒战争后,斯巴达支持波斯王子小居鲁士争夺王位,还发动了针对波斯的亚洲远征,这导致它与波斯的友好关系逐渐恶化。在此情况下,波斯一方面组织军事反击,另一方面则游说反对斯巴达的希腊城邦,鼓动它们联合起来,与自己一同进行针对斯巴达的斗争,这一系列行动引发了科林斯战争。这场战争延续日久,雅典势力在此期间再度复兴,为此,波斯与斯巴达都希望尽早结束纷争。最终,在波斯的压力下,希腊诸邦接受了《大王合约》,确立了城邦自治原则,而波斯也再次获得了爱琴海与小亚细亚的控制权。关于前478年后波斯与希腊世界交往的具体情况,可参见刘洪采:《希腊波斯关系研究:公元前478年—前386年》,复旦大学博士学位论文,2004年。
    ②古典时期,希腊世界存在寡头制与民主制两种政体,雅典及一部分城邦采取了民主制,另一部分则采取了寡头制。本文提及的作家或艺术家主要以雅典为舞台,面向雅典人上演戏剧,发表演说或传播自己的学说。因此大多数情况下,在他们创作的文本或艺术品中,希腊人往往被等同于“雅典人”,雅典城邦的情况被视为整个希腊世界的普遍情况。
    ③E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.154.
    ④Aeschylus, Suppliant Women,368-369,600-604.
    ①Euripides, Orestes,1167-1168.
    ②Euripides, Trojan Women,1168-1169.
    ③Euripides, Iphigenia among the Taurians,17,1020.
    ④Eruipides, Rhesus,174,182.
    ⑤Eruipides, Rhesus,173,495.
    ⑥Eruipides, Rhesus,2,130,264,738,828,886,993.
    ⑦Eruipides, Rhesus,388,406,484.
    ⑧《波斯人》上演于公元前472年的大狄奥尼索斯节,是现存最早的表现蛮族人的古希腊戏剧。
    ⑨修昔底德也持有类似观点。他在《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》中说:“希腊诸邦普遍由僭主们统治。僭主们的习惯是考虑他们自己,只关心他们个人的利益和家族势力的扩大。他们的政策的主要目标是安全,因而难以取得任何重大进展……因此,我们看到,在一个长时期内,希腊诸邦不能为民族大业联合起来,各邦自己也缺乏进取心。”(Thucydides,1.17.)
    ①Aeschylus, Persians,188-196.
    ②S. Forsdyke,“Athenian Democratic Ideology and Herodotus’Histories”, the American Journal ofPhilology, Vol.122, No.3(Aut.,2001), pp.329-358.
    ③Aeschylus, Persians,762-766.
    ④Aeschylus, Persians,388-389.
    ⑤Herodotus,3.80.
    ①不过,个人英雄主义的某些特质也依然被看重。参见K. J. Dover, Popular Morality in the Time of Platoand Aristotle, Hackett Pub Co.,1994, pp.229-234.
    ②M. I. Finley, Politics in the Ancient World, Cambridge University Press,1983, p.60.
    ③N. Loraux, Invention of Athens: the Funeral Oration in the Classical City, translated byA. Sheridan, ZoneBooks,2006, p.28.
    ④可见Thucydides,2.4-5.
    ⑤S. Goldhill,“The Great Dionysia and Civic Ideology”, in J. J. Winkler and F. I. Zeitlin eds., Nothing to Dowith Dionysos? Athenian Drama in Its Social Context, Princeton University Press,1990, pp.97-129.
    ①古典时期,大狄奥尼索斯节是雅典乃至全希腊最重要的祭祀酒神狄奥尼索斯的宗教节日。狂欢游行、悲剧比赛与喜剧比赛是节日庆典的主要组成部分。悲剧比赛开始之前还要举行四个仪式:十将军奠酒,展示提洛同盟的其他成员向雅典交纳的贡金或贡物,表彰为城邦做出杰出贡献的人士,以及战死士兵的遗孤装扮成重装步兵游行。每一个仪式都在彰显雅典城邦的荣耀与权威。参见Pickard-Cambridge, TheDramatic Festivals of Athens, Oxford University Press,1968.该书对大狄奥尼索斯节的各个环节、剧场的形式、座位的安排等均有十分详细的介绍。
    ②Aeschylus, Persians,173-174,592-593,659.
    ③Aeschylus, Persians,842.
    ①Aeschylus, Persians,45-48,55.
    ②Herodotus,7.144.
    ③E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.81.
    ④E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.81.
    ⑤Aeschylus, Persians,41,135,541,1073.
    ⑥Aeschylus, Persians,120-25,537-83.
    ⑦Aeschylus, Persians,486.
    ⑧Aeschylus, Persians,1046,1054,1056.
    ①Herodotus,3.80.
    ②J. G. Gammie,“Herodotus on Kings and Tyrants: Objective Historiography or Conventional Portraiture”,Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol.45, No.3(Jul.,1986), pp.171-195.
    ③Herodotus,1.96-101.
    ④Herodotus,1.108,1.119.7.
    ⑤Herodotus,1.209,1.214.
    ①Herodotus,3.14,3.16,3.28-29.
    ②Herodotus,3.30,3.32.
    ③Herodotus,7.8.1.
    ④Herodotus,9.110-11.
    ⑤Herodotus,1.183,9.108.
    ⑥Herodotus,9.112-13.阿美斯特莉斯派人肢解玛西斯特妻子的行为从喜好肉体损毁的方面突出了她作为蛮族人的“他者性”,也衬托出了薛西斯作为蛮族人的“他者性”,参见文本47页注释①。
    ①Herodotus,7.8.4.
    ②Herodotus,7.8.3.
    ③Herodotus,7.53-54,7.57.
    ④Herodotus,7.9,7.10.
    ⑤Herodotus,7.24.
    ⑥Herodotus,7.238.
    ⑦Herodotus,8.109.
    ⑧Herodotus,8.77.
    ⑨Herodotus,7.35.
    ①Herodotus,7.38,7.39,8.118,9.119.
    ②Herodotus,5.78.
    ③Aeschylus, Persians,16ff.
    ④Herodotus,7.61.
    ⑤Herodotus,7.101.1.
    ⑥Herodotus,7.101.3.
    ①Aeschylus, Persians,827-831.
    ②Herodotus,7.103.2.
    ③埃斯库罗斯和希罗多德的观众都知道,希腊的兵力无法跟波斯相比,但希腊打败了波斯,所以《波斯人》和《历史》中波斯人夸耀自己的兵力和财富其实是作者对他们的讽刺。参见J. G. Gammie,“Herodotus on Kings and Tyrants”.
    ④Herodotus,7.101.3.
    ⑤Aeschylus, Persians,591-597.
    ⑥Aeschylus, Persians,696-706.
    ⑦Aeschylus, Persians,241-242.
    ⑧Herodotus,7.102.
    ⑨参见A. W. H. Adkins, Merit and Responsibility: A Study in Greek Values, Clarendon Press,1960.
    ⑩J. G. Gammie,“Herodotus on Kings and Tyrants”.
    ①Aeschylus, Persians,243,255.
    ②Aeschylus, Persians,335-340,355-430.
    ③Herodotus,7.103-104.
    ④Herodotus,7.223.
    ⑤Herodotus,8.86.
    ①M. C. Miller,“Priam, King of Troy”, inA. M. Carter and S. P. Morris eds., the Ages of Homer: ATribute toEmily Townsend Vermeule, University of Texas Press,1995, pp.449-465; M. C. Miller,“Persians in the GreekImagination”, MeditArch19,2006, pp.109-123; H. A. Shapiro,“The Invention of Persia in ClassicalAthens”,in M. Eliav-Feldon, B. Isaac and J. Ziegler eds., The Origins of Racism in the West, Cambridge UniversityPress,2009, pp.57-87.
    ②E. Gruen, Rethinking the Other in Antiquity, Trustees of Oberlin College,2011, p.43.
    ③K. J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, Cambridge University Press,1978, p.105.
    ④Herodotus,1.59.
    ⑤Herodotus,2.111.
    ①Herodotus,2.126,2.127,2.128.
    ②Herodotus,2.131.
    ③Herodotus,1.32,1.34,1.47-91.
    ④Herodotus,1.8-12.
    ⑤Herodotus,3.50,3.53.
    ①Herodotus,5.23-24.
    ②Herodotus,5.37,5.124,5.126.
    ③Herodotus,6.5.
    ④J. G. Gammie,“Herodotus on Kings and Tyrants”.
    ⑤Herodotus,3.39,3.122.
    ①Herodotus,3.142-143.
    ②Herodotus,4.137.
    ③Herodotus,3.64-65. J. G. Gammie,“Herodotus on Kings and Tyrants”.
    ④Herodotus,7.158,7.163.
    ⑤Herodotus,2.173.
    ①Herodotus,2.115.
    ②Aeschylus, Persians,768-772.
    ③参见D. L. Gera, Xenophon’s Cyropaedia: Style, Gener and Literary Technique, Oxford University Press,1993, pp.8-10; E. Gruen, Rethinking the Other in Antiquity, p.55.
    ④Xenophon, Cyropaedia,1.1.5.
    ⑤Xenophon, Cyropaedia,1.1.2.
    ⑥Xenophon, Cyropaedia,3.3.4.,4.1.47.
    ⑦Xenophon, Cyropaedia,4.1.45-47,7.3.10.
    ①Xenophon, Cyropaedia,1.5,1.8-10.
    ②Xenophon, Cyropaedia,8.2.10.
    ③Xenophon, Cyropaedia,8.1.46-48,8.2.10,8.2.26-28.
    ④希罗多德:《历史》,徐松岩译注,上海三联书店,2008年,第11页。
    ①Herodotus,1.199.
    ②Herodotus,1.0.
    ③黄洋:《古代希腊罗马文明的“东方”想象》。
    ①Herodotus,2.35-36.
    ②Herodotus,4.5.
    ①F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.21.
    ②Herodotus,4.2.
    ③除了希罗多德,古典时期的其他作家也记述过斯基泰人。埃及库罗斯的《被缚的普罗米修斯》中,威力神说:“我们终于来到这大地遥远的去处,斯基泰人的地域,渺无人烟的荒漠。”后来,歌队唱道:“(斯基泰人)拥有最为边远的国土,在迈奥提斯湖畔。”再有阿里斯托芬的《阿卡奈人》中,歌队长说:“衰老的修昔底德受到克菲索得摩斯的起诉,他的能说会道使修昔底德吃尽了斯基泰蛮荒的苦楚。”埃斯库罗斯和阿里斯托芬都强调,斯基泰人的国土相当蛮荒,处于世界上最边远的地区。对于希腊人来说,地处边远的蛮荒国度意味着:它是(农耕)文明之外的区域,或者处在大地尽头,物产贫瘠,或者处在山中。山是文明与暴力的边界,两个城邦之间的分界线往往是山或森林,那里是牧人、伐木者等游离于城邦生活之外的人的“领地”。在《历史》中,希罗多德也详细记述了斯基泰人国土的地理与气候,尽显其边远、蛮荒的特征(Herodotus,4.7-9)。参见F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.13.
    ④Herodotus,9.62.
    ①Herodotus,9.63.
    ②Herodotus,7.9.
    ③Herodotus,7.9.
    ④F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, pp.45-46.
    ⑤Herodotus,4.126.
    ⑥F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.48.
    ⑦Herodotus,4.87.
    ①Herodotus,4.128.
    ②F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.46.
    ③Herodotus,4.136.
    ④Herodotus,4.136.
    ⑤Herodotus,4.127.
    ⑥参见Homer, Odyssey,9.109-114; Hesiod, Works and Days,225-237.
    ⑦F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.12.
    ①Herodotus,4.70.
    ②F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.115.
    ③参见Homer, Iliad,2.339ff.,13.245ff.,4.158ff.
    ④L. Gernet and J. D. B. Hamilton, The Anthropology of Ancient Greece, The Johns Hopkins University Press,1981, p.169.
    ⑤参见Homer, Iliad,3.296.
    ⑥德摩斯提尼说,发伪誓就是不敬神。见Demosthenes, Against Olympiodorus,52.
    ⑦Herodotus,6.86.
    ⑧Herodotus,6.86.
    ①Herodotus,4.68.
    ②Herodotus,4.59.
    ③Herodotus,4.127.
    ④Aeschines, On Embassy,45.
    ⑤J. P. Vernant, Myth and Thought among the Greeks, translated by J. Lloyed and J. Fort, Zone Books,1993,pp.126-167.
    ⑥L. Gernet,“Political Symbolism:The Common Health”,转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.122.
    ⑦参见Aeschylus, The Suppliant Women,365ff.
    ①Herodotus,4.67.
    ②Herodotus,4.68.
    ③同上。
    ④[Plato] Mino,315b-c.转引自E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.146.
    ⑤Sophocles, fr.126.2-3.转引自E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.147.
    ⑥M. Detienne, Dionysos Slain, Johns Hopkins University Press,1979, pp.62-63.A. S. Rabinowits, GreekTragedy, Blackwell Publishing,2008, p.50.
    ①A. S. Rabinowits, Greek Tragedy, Blackwell Publishing,2008, p.50.
    ②Herodotus,4.62.
    ③Herodotus,4.59.
    ④Herodotus,4.60.
    ⑤参见Homer, Odyssey,22.471-473.
    ⑥Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus,1274.
    ⑦Herodotus,2.169,3.150,4.160.
    ⑧D. C. Kurtz and J. Boardman, Greek Burial Customs, Cornell University Press,1971, p.144.
    ⑨Herodotus,4.71.
    ①Plutarch, Life of Solon,21.6.
    ②Herodotus,4.71.
    ③M. Alexiou, The Ritual Lament in Greek Tradition, Cambridge University Press,1974, p.7.
    ④Herodotus,4.71-72.
    ⑤Herodotus,4.64-66.
    ⑥Herodotus,9.81.
    ①Herodotus,4.114.
    ②Herodotus,4.114.
    ③Herodotus,4.114.
    ④Herodotus,4.116.
    ①米瑞斯(Myres)认为,在希罗多德看来,“对称”是自然界与人类世界的基本特征。自然界中,气候上,以赤道为中心南北对称,南方炎热,北方寒冷,炎热和寒冷分别决定了南方和北方事物的性质或习性。水纹地理上,尼罗河与伊斯特河对称。民族分布上,南方的伊比亚与埃及和北方的斯基泰人对称。物种习性上,尼罗河鱼与阿拉伯蛇都体现了“对称”原则。人类世界中则是希腊人与蛮族人的“对称”,具体表现为蛮族人与希腊人在制度和习俗上的对立或倒置。参见F. Hartog, The Mirror ofHerodotus, pp.14-16; W.A. Heidel, Greek Maps: The Frame of the Ancient Greek Maps,Arno Press,1976, p.21; J. L. Myres,“An Attempt to Reconstruct the maps Used by Herodotus,” Geographical Journal, Vol.6(Dec.1896), pp.606-631.
    ②Herodotus,7.150.
    ③Aeschylus, Persians,181-199.
    ④Aeschylus, Suppliant Women,277-290.
    ①Herodotus,3.119.
    ②Sophokles, Antigone,904-912.
    ①Xenophon, Hellenica,4.1.29-39. P. Cartledge, The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others, pp.48-49.
    ②Xenophon, Anabasis,1.9.
    ③Thucydides,1.6.
    ④Thucydides,2.97.4.
    ①Thucydides,7.29.4-5.
    ②Thucydides,2.37.
    ③以后的历史也反映出了希波战争对雅典人意识的影响。伯罗奔尼撒战争期间,在讨论麦加拉的贸易权时,伯里克利这样说道:“我们还要知道,无论是对于公民集体也好,对于公民各人也好,最大的光荣是从最大的危险中得来的。我们的祖辈在抵御波斯人的时候,他们远没有现在这么多的资源,就是仅有的那点资源,他们也都放弃了。他们击退了蛮族人,把他们的事业发展到现在的高度。我们绝不能落后于我们的祖辈,但是我们必须全力以赴在各个方面抗击我们的敌人,努力吧一个同样强大的帝国移交给我们的后代。”(Thucydides,1.144)这里,来自希腊世界内部的对手被与“蛮族人”相提并论了。
    ①从公元前5世纪开始,某些希腊英雄被按上了蛮族人身份。比如品达说伯罗普斯是吕底亚人(Olympian,1.23-24,36-38),欧里庇得斯说卡德摩斯是腓尼基人(Phoenician Women,5-6,638-639),埃斯库罗斯在《乞援人》中将达那俄斯表现为埃及人。同一时期的陶瓶画和雕刻艺术也经常突出他们的蛮族人身份。参见M. C. Miller,“Barbarian Lineage in Classical Creek Mythology and Art: Pelops, Danaosand Kadmos”, in E. S. Gruen ed., Cultural Borrowings and Ethnic Appropriations in Antiquity, F. Steiner,2005, pp.69-89.
    ②Aeschylus, Suppliant Women,55-58.
    ③E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.107.
    ④W. R. Halliday, Indo-European Folk-Tales and Greek Legend, Cambridge University Press,1933, p.104.
    ⑤Euripides, Hecuba,1057-1058,1070-1072.
    ⑥Euripides, fr.65.90-94.
    ⑦E. Hall, Inventing the Barbarian, p.105.
    ⑧G. M. Mara,“Democratic Self-Criticism and the Other in Classical Political Theory”, The Journal ofPolitics, Vol.65, No.3(Aug.,2003), pp.739-758.
    ①Thucydides,1.1.2.
    ②Thucydides,1.23.
    ③Thucydides,2.35-46.
    ④Thucydides,2.53.
    ⑤Thucydides,2.70.
    ⑥G. M. Mara,“Democratic Self-Criticism and the Other in Classical Political Theory”.
    ⑦Herodotus,2.142-143.
    ①I. S. Moyer,“Herodotus and an Egyptian Mirage:The Genealogies of the Theban Priests”, The Journal ofHellenic Studies, Vol.122(2002), pp.70-90.
    ②参见M. Miller,“Herodotus as Chronographer”, Klio46,1965, pp.109-128.
    ③参见D. B. Redford, Pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books, Benben Publications,1986, pp.63-64.
    ④参见N. Grimal, A History of Ancient Egypt, translated by I. Shaw, Oxford University Press,1992, pp.319-331; D. B. Redford, Pharaonic King-Lists, Annals, and Day-Books, pp.62.
    ⑤见Herodotus,2.37.
    ①A. B. Lloyd,“The Late Period”, in B. G. Tigger, B. J. Kemp D. O’connor andA. B. Lloyd eds., AncientEgypt: A Social History, Cambridge University Press, pp.279-348.
    ②参见P. Der Manuelian, Living in the Past: Studies in Archaism of the Egyptian Twenty-six Dynasty, HavardUniversity Press,1994.
    ③Herodotus,2.110.
    ④I. S. Moyer,“Herodotus and an Egyptian Mirage”.
    ⑤在古典时期的戏剧与雕塑中,也出现了以中立的方式呈现蛮族人的情况。欧里庇得斯的悲剧中,蛮族人在服饰、发型、财富的多寡等方面与希腊人有所区别,但这些区别并不含有将他们“他者化”的意味。比如服饰方面,《俄瑞斯忒斯》中,主人公穿着山羊皮制成的“迈锡尼靴子”(Orestes,1470),弗律癸亚人穿着“蛮族人的拖鞋”(Orestes,1370),两者形成对比。在《赫拉克勒斯的儿女们》中,通过衣服,甚至是拖拉衣服的方式都可以断定德摩丰是一个希腊人(Heracleidae,130ff.)。但这些区别并不是在贬低蛮族人。财富方面,欧里庇得斯和其他悲剧作家一样,喜欢想象蛮族人拥有大宗财宝,嗜
    好奢华享受,与灿烂闪烁的黄金密不可分。但在他的作品中,财富会从蛮族人手中转移到了希腊人手
    中。《赫拉克勒斯》中阿玛宗人金色的织锦和富丽的挂毯(Heracles,414-416),到了《伊翁》中都被赫
    拉克勒斯夺取了,并装饰在德尔菲的阿波罗神庙里(Ion,1145-1149)。《安德洛玛刻》中,赫耳弥俄涅
    带着金皇冠,穿着刺绣的衣服,命令仆人用金水壶去取水(Andromache,146,165ff.)。《厄勒克特拉》
    中,女主人公回忆起她的母亲被从弗律癸亚来的战利品和俘虏围绕,俘虏就像在特洛伊时那样,穿着
    饰有金制胸针的长袍(Electra,317ff.)。《俄瑞斯忒斯》中,特洛伊的奢侈品包围了墨涅拉俄斯和海伦。
    墨涅拉俄斯展示了令他自己骄傲的美丽和卷发,甚至可能会被误认为帕里斯,即他妻子的蛮族恋人。
    海伦穿着金质凉鞋,当她编织从特洛伊战利品里拿出来紫色织品时,身上撒着香水,屋中陈列着镜子,
    并被挥动羽毛扇子的蛮族仆役簇拥,她们头上佩戴着蛮族风格的饰品(Orestes,349,1110-1112,
    1426-1430,1468,1532)。可见,在拥有财富和奢侈品,嗜好享受这方面,希腊人和蛮族人是一致的。
    参见Sa d, S.,“Greeks and Barbarians in Euripides’Tragedies:The End of Differences?”, in T. Harrison, pp.
    62-100.而在前4世纪,雅典艺术家色诺芬图斯(Xenophantus)在一只陶瓶上制作了一副浮雕,表现
    波斯国王居鲁士和大流士一世及其随从在一座园林中狩猎野猪、野鹿与格里芬的场景。浮雕中,诸人
    穿着波斯服装,身形矫健,神态安然,还被标上了波斯语名字。这幅浮雕中波斯人的形象与前文所述
    欧里曼冬陶瓶画中的形象截然不同,丝毫没有被贬低的痕迹。参见K. Vlassopoulos, Greeks and
    Barbarians, p.197.
    ①P. Cartledge, The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others, p.142.
    ②Euripides, Iphigenia at Aulis,1400-1401.
    ③Euripides, Helen,276.
    ①D. B. Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture, Oxford University Press,1966, pp.66-67.
    ②希波克拉底:《希波克拉底文集》,赵洪均、武鹏译中国中医药出版社,2007年,第25页。
    ③希波克拉底:《希波克拉底文集》,第29页。
    ④希波克拉底:《希波克拉底文集》,第29页。
    ⑤I. Weiler,“The Greek and non-Greek World in theArchaic Period”, Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies9(1968), pp,21-29; B. Isaac, The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity, Oxford University Press,2004, pp.257-303.
    ①Aristotle, Politics,7.1327b23-33.译文参见亚里士多德:《政治学》,吴寿彭译,商务印书馆,1965年,第366-367页。本文中《政治学》的译文主要参考了吴寿彭译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ②Pollux, Onomastikon,4.119-120.转引自P. Hunt,“Slaves in Greek Literary Culture”, in K. Bradley and P.Cartleged, pp.22-47.
    ③P. Hunt,“Slaves in Greek Literary Culture”.
    ④Sophocles, Trachinian,1060.
    ⑤见Aeschylus, Agamemnon,1050; Sophocles, Antigone,1001-1002;Aristophanes, Frogs,679-682.
    ⑥Euripides, Orestes,1369ff.
    ⑦Aristophanes, Thesmophoriazusae,1082-1097,1098-1035,1176-1226.
    ⑧参见T. Long, Barbarians in Greek Comedy, Southern Illinois University Press,1986, pp.106-107.
    ⑨Aristotle, Politics,1.1252a27-35.
    ①Aristotle, Politics,1.1252a30-35,1.1252b10-15,1.1253b30-35,1.1254a10-15,1.1254b15-20,1.1254b20-25,1260b5-10.
    ②Aristotle, Politics,1.1254b26-35.
    ③Aristotle, Politics,1.1252b5-10,7.1327b23-33.
    ④Aristotle, Politics,3.1277a33-1277b5,3.1278a7-15.
    ⑤Herodotus,4.1-3.
    ①Herodotus,4.3.
    ②Herodotus,4.4.
    ③M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology, p.118.
    ④Herodotus,9.122.
    ⑤同上。
    ⑥Herodotus,9.122.
    ①S. Todd,“The Purpose of Evidence in Athenian Courts”, in P. Cartledge, P. Millett and S. Todd eds., Nomos:Essays in Athenian Law, Politics and Society, Cambridge University Press,1990, pp.33-36.
    ②Antiphon, Against Choreutes,23-25.
    ③Lycurgus, Leocrates,32.转引自V. J. Hunter, Policing Athens: Social Control in the Attic Lawsuits,420-320BC, Princeton University Press,1994, pp.154-158.
    ④Demosthenes, Against Androtion,25; Against Timocrates,167.另可参见V. J. Hunter, Policing Athens, pp.154-158.
    ⑤P. duBois, Torture and Truth, Routledge,1991, pp.52,68.
    ⑥Antiphon, Anonymous Prosecution for Murder,7.
    ①Sophocles, Oedipus Tyrannus,1154.
    ②Aristophanes, Peace,743-750.
    ③Aristophanes, Wasps,1292-1295.
    ④Aristophanes, Birds,1313-1336.
    ⑤Aristophanes, Birds,1313-1336.
    ⑥K. J. Dover, Aristophanic Comedy, University of California Press,1972, p.206.
    ⑦可见Aristohpanes, Lysistrata,1240; Knights,1228; Frogs,501.
    ⑧可见Plato, Gorgias,524c.另,在《历史》中,薛西斯吹嘘自己的实力时也说过,他手中的蛮族大军将在“鞭子”的督导下击败希腊人。这是希罗多德将蛮族人等同于奴隶的另一个例证。见Herodotus,7.103.
    ⑨V. J. Hunter, Policing Athens, p.168-169.
    ①K. L. Wrenhaven,“Greek Representations of the Slave Body:AConflict of Idea”, in R.Alston, E. Hall andL. Proffitt, pp.97-120.
    ②Demosthenes, Against Aristogeito I,24.另可参见T. McNiven,“Behaving Like an Other:TelltaleGestures inAthenian Vase Painting”, in B. Cohen, pp.71-97.不过这种舒缓的行动方式也是阿里斯托芬调侃的对象。《马蜂》中,布吕得克里昂要他父亲菲洛克里昂像精英人士那样走路,要他“像一个富翁那样,神气十足地摆一摆架子”(Wasps,1169)。
    ③T. McNiven,“Behaving Like an Other:Telltale Gestures inAthenian Vase Painting”.
    ④W. G. Thalmann,“Some Ancient Greek Image of Slavery”, in R.Alston, E. Hall and L. Proffitt, pp.72-96.
    ①K. L. Wrenhaven,“Greek Representations of the Slave Body:AConflict of Idea”.因为奴隶总被表现得比自由人矮小,所以有时他们会被误认为儿童。比如约翰奥克利在他以“死亡与儿童”为主题的研究中,多次把绘画和雕塑中的奴隶当成“男孩儿”或“女孩儿”。参见J. H. Oakley,“Death and the Child”,in J. Neils and J. H. Oakley eds., Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Images of Childhood from the ClassicalPast, Yale University Press,2003, pp.163-194.
    ②Herodotus,5.6.2.
    ③Aristophanes, Birds,760-761.
    ④Aristophanes, Lysistrata,330-331.
    ⑤J. H. Oakley,“Some Other Members of theAthenian Household:Maids and Their Mistresses inFifth-centuryAthenianArt”, in B. Cohen, pp.227-247.
    ⑥同上。
    ⑦K. L. Wrenhaven,“Greek Representations of the Slave Body:AConflict of Ideas”.
    ①Herodotus,2.134-135.
    ②F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.85.
    ③Herodotus,4.95.
    ④Aristotle, Historia Animalium,9.17.3.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.85.
    ⑤F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.87.
    ⑥Heraclitus,22B40.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.88.
    ⑦Empedocles,31B129; Ion of Chios,36B2.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.88.
    ⑧Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras,200.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.88.
    ①F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotu, p.94.
    ②Herodotus,4.95.
    ③F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotu, p.96.
    ④Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras85.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotu, p.97.
    ⑤Strabo,7.35.转引自D. Dueck, H. Lindsay and S. Pothecary eds., Strabo's Cultural Geography: theMaking of a Kolossourgia, Cambridge University Press,2011.
    ⑥Iamblichus, Life of Pyhagoras,257.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus, p.98.
    ①Plato, Republic,364b.
    ②Herodotus,4.95.
    ③Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras,69;Athenaeus,4.161b,4.238c-d.转引自F. Hartog, The Mirror ofHerodotu, p.99.
    ④Herodotus,8.104-106.
    ①修昔底德在提到开俄斯和斯巴达的奴隶时会用oiketai来指称,该词的字面意思是“家庭成员”,既可以用来指称自由人,也可以用来指称非自由人。但当他提到雅典的奴隶时,所用的称呼却是andrapodon,即“人足动物”(man-footed thing),该词对应另一个词tetrapoda,即“牛、牲口、家畜”,字面意思为“四足动物”(four-footed)。参见P. Cartledge, The Greeks: A Portrait of Self and Others, p.136.
    ②Xenophon, Oeconomicus,13.译文参见色诺芬:《经济论雅典的收入》,第44—45页。
    ③Xenophon, Oeconomicus,9.11.译文参见色诺芬:《经济论雅典的收入》,第32页。
    ①Xenophon, Oeconomicus,1.4;1.15;1.16;2.1;5.4.
    ②Euripides, Trojan Women,484-499.
    ③Euripides, Hecuba,354-368.
    ①Euripides, Hecuba,354-368.
    ②E. Hall,“The Sociology ofAthenian Comedy”, in P. E. Easterling ed., The Cambridge Companion to GreekTragedy, Cambridge University Press,1997, pp.93-126.
    ③Aeschylus, Libation Bearers,749-762; Sophocles, Ajax,489-491; Euripides, Trojan Women190-196,
    506-508; Hecuba,357-368.
    ④Euripides, Iphigenia among the Taurians,447-455.
    ⑤Aeschylus, Libation Bearers,76-85.
    ⑥Aeschylus, Libation Bearers,76-85.
    ①Euripides, Helen,728-731.
    ②Philemon, Fr.95.转引自P. Hunt,“Slaves in Greek Literary Culture”, in K. Bradley and P. Cartleged, pp.22-47.
    ③G. S. Daitz,“Concepts of Freedom and Slavery in Euripides’Hecuba”, Hermes99(1971): pp.217-226.
    ④Euripides, Hecuba,332-333.
    ⑤R. Kannicht, Euripides: Helen, Heidelberg,1969, p.208.
    ⑥E. Hall,“The Sociology ofAthenian Comedy”.另可参见P. DuBois, Slaves and Other Objects, TheUniversity of Chicago Press,2003, pp.144,148-149.
    ⑦Sophocles, Philoctetes,995-996.
    ①Euripides, Alcestis,675-678.
    ②Euripides, Trojan Women,509-510.
    ③参见J. Vogt, Ancient Slavery and the Ideal of Man, translated by T. Wiedemann, Oxford University Press,1975, pp.1-25.
    ④Euripides, Helen,726-733.
    ⑤Euripides, Ion,850-856.
    ⑥Euripides, Ion,836-838,1210-1216.
    ①Aristohpanes, Wealth,189-193.
    ②K. Dover, Aristophanic Comedy, University of California Press,1972, p.206.
    ③Aristohpanes, Frogs,179,640.
    ④Aristohpanes, Frogs,743.参见E. Hall, The Theatrical Cast of Athens, Oxford University Press,2006, pp.
    196-206.
    ⑤参见K. McCarthy, Slaves and Masters and the Art of Authority in Plautine Comedy, Princeton UniversityPress,2000; L. Salingar, Shakespeare and the Traditions of Comedy, Cambridge University Press,1974, p.
    109; E. Segal, Roman Laughter: The Comedy of Plautus, Cambridge University Press,1968, pp.164-167.
    ⑥Xenophon, Cyropaedia,8.1.43-44.
    ①Xenophon, Cyropaedia,7.5.78-79.译文参见:色诺芬《居鲁士的教育》,沈默译笺,华夏出版社,2007年,第401—402页。本文中《居鲁士的教育》的译文主要参考自沈默译本,后文如无其他情况,不一一注明。
    ②Xenophon, Memorabilia,3.9.9-10.
    ③J. Tatum, Xenophon’s Imperial Fiction, Princeton University Press,1989, p.190.
    ①Xenophon, Agesilaus,5.2-3.
    ②B. Due, The Cyropaedia: Xenophon’s Aims and Methods, Gepenhagen,1989, p.226.转引自P. Hunt,Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, p.150.
    ③Xenophon, Anabasis,3.1.23.
    ④Xenophon, Cyropaedia,7.5.84.
    ⑤Xenophon, Memorabilia,1.5.5,1.6.8,4.5.3-5; Oeconomicus,1.16-23.
    ⑥Thucydides,4.8.9,4.16.1.
    ⑦Thucydides,4.26,4.29.2.
    ①Thucydides,4.80.3.
    ②R. J. A. Talbert,“The Role of the Helots in the Class Struggle at Sparta”, Historia38(1989), pp.22-40.
    ③Thucydides,4.78.1,4.80.5.
    ④Thucydides,4.126.2.
    ⑤Thucydides,5.34.1.所谓“新公民”是指因军功而获得解放的黑劳士。布拉西达进攻雅典后的半个多世纪中,“新公民”的人数逐步增加,这意味着斯巴达对于黑劳士的政策发生了变化。但是关于“新公民”阶层的社会地位及其日常生活的具体情况究竟如何,则有待进一步研究。参见修昔底德:《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》下册,徐松岩译注,上海人民出版社,2012年,第371页。
    ⑥Thucydides,5.74.1,5.75.3.
    ⑦Thucydides,5.57.1.
    ①Xenophon, The Constitution of Lacedaemonians,11.2.
    ②P. Hunt, Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, pp.60-61.
    ③Thucydides,3.75.1.参见D. M. Lewis,“TheArchidamian War”, in D. Lewis, J. Boardman, J. Davies andM. Ostwald eds., The Cambridge Ancient History vol. V, Cambridge University Press,1992, pp.370-432.
    ④Thucydides,4.3.2.
    ⑤P. Hunt, Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, p.68.
    ⑥P. Hunt, Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, p.68.
    ⑦O. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, Cambridge University Press,1982, p.55.
    ⑧Thucydides,2.90.6,3.108.1,4.36.1.
    ①Thucydides,2.90.6,3.108.1,4.36.1.
    ②P. Hunt, Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, p.178.
    ③Diodorus Siculus,13.64.5-7.
    ④Xenophon, Hellenica,1.2.18.译文参见色诺芬:《希腊史》,徐松岩译注,上海三联书店,2013年,第16—17页。
    ⑤P. Hunt, Slaves Warfare and Ideology in the Greek Historians, p.179.
    ⑥Xenophon, Hellenica,6.5.1-52.
    ⑦Xenophon, Agesilaus,2.24; The Constitution of Lacedaemonians,12.4.
    ⑧Xenophon, Hellenica,7.1.22.
    ⑨Xenophon, Agesilaus,2.29; Hellenica,7.1.36.
    ⑩C. Cawkwell,“Introduction”, in R. Warner trans., Xenophon: A History of My Times, Harmondsworth,1966, pp.748.
    ①萨义德:《东方学》,第70页。参见赵稀方:《后殖民理论》,第45—46页。
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