江汉平原中全新世古洪水事件环境考古研究
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摘要
沙洋钟桥、天门石家河古城谭家岭和三房湾等遗址构成了江汉平原地区新石器时代晚期以来较为完整的考古地层年代序列,是含有中全新世晚期古洪水灾变事件信息和丰富测年材料的典型考古遗址,具备了古洪水事件环境考古研究的理想条件。通过对这三处中全新世晚期典型遗址古洪水事件考古地层学和年代学、孢粉、锆石微形态、粒度、磁化率、地球化学等多环境代用指标的综合研究,结合研究区现代洪水沉积物特征指标的对比分析、文化遗址数量变化、时空分布、地层堆积特征、区域遗址变动情况及江汉平原众多中全新世考古遗址的地理位置、年代学数据、地貌高程、古洪水层埋深和文化层厚度等资料的统计,对江汉平原中全新世古洪水事件及其与人类文明演进的互动响应关系进行系统的环境考古研究,以揭示该区中全新世古洪水事件的年代、特征过程、发生的环境背景与东亚季风降水变化的关系,并弄清古洪水事件对新石器时代各期文化和人类文明演进过程的影响。研究结果表明：
1)钟桥遗址地层中第5层、第7层和第10层三个自然淤积层为三期古洪水沉积层；谭家岭遗址地层中第9层石家河文化早期淤积层是一种与古洪水有关大体经过较弱水动力搬运过程(物源较近)的湖沼相沉积层；三房湾遗址地层底部的第14层黄灰色土为古洪水沉积物,第15层灰色淤泥亦可能经历过洪水的影响,特别是其上部层位,而第13层青灰色淤泥应属湖沼相沉积,可能经历过流速较为缓和、有一定水面范围的浅水湖沼环境。其判别的主要依据有：①遗址古洪水层与该区现代洪水层沉积物在粒度分布频率曲线以及其它粒度参数特征方面的相似性；②古洪水层与现代洪水层磁化率值均较低,而文化层较高；③古洪水层与现代洪水层在锆石微形态特征上具有相似性,多为半浑圆状或浑圆柱状,有些已由四方双锥形被磨至近浑圆状,表明均有被流水长途搬运后留下的磨圆特征；④古洪水层的Rb/Sr值均高于文化层：⑤古洪水层的Cu含量较低,而文化层偏高；⑥与遗址的文化层相比,古洪水层所含孢粉总量比较少,经常出现水生草本和藻类,且有孢粉的远源再沉积现象,突出表现为古洪水层中松属和柏科等含量较高,可能为远距离搬运(流水或风力搬运)再沉积在新的堆积体中。
2)结合江汉平原三个典型考古遗址文化地层对比,根据AMS14C和OSL测年结果以及考古器物断代,钟桥遗址在4800～4597cal.aBP之间、4479-4367cal. a BP之间和4168-3850cal. a BP之间分别出现三次古洪水事件；三房湾遗址古洪水事件发生在4913～4600cal.aBP之间。江汉平原及其周边地区众多文化遗址典型古洪水沉积层时代对比表明,屈家岭文化中晚期(4900～4600cal.aBP)和石家河文化末期至夏代(4100～3800cal.aBP)两次特大洪水事件在长江中游的江汉平原地区非常普遍。从106个江汉平原及其周边地区7000～3000cal.aBP考古遗址的文化层14C年代数据树轮校正结果和12个释光年代数据来看,4900-4600cal.a BP和4100～3800cal.aBP古洪水事件期与5000-3500cal. a BP考古遗址出现频数最低的两个时期相一致,这也相互映证了洪水发生年代的结论。
3)地貌与古水文过程分析表明,钟桥遗址地层中古洪水层所反映的洪水规模至少应当与中-大洪水规模相当；三个古洪水事件沉积层可能并非由长江荆江段干流洪水直接泛滥沉积形成,应是由长江干流洪水涨水顶托冲入古扬水通道泛滥覆盖遗址所在区域而堆积形成的洪积物。天门谭家岭遗址与三房湾遗址所在的石家河古城区域现今仍属于汉江罗汉寺灌区的中心位置,因此,三房湾遗址地层底部存在的两期古洪水沉积层与史前时代汉江洪水的关系密切。对江汉平原中全新世古洪水事件发生规律、机制及其气候环境背景的进一步分析,其结果反映出5000-3000a BP气候干湿波动最大,但总体向干旱化趋势发展,本区中全新世主要的旱涝灾害、降温气候事件就发生在这一时段里,尤其是在5000-4500a BP及4000a BP前后的时段气候表现得尤其不稳定,江汉湖群也处于不稳定或持续变动期,这与屈家岭文化中晚期(4900～4600cal.a BP)和石家河文化末期至夏代(4100～3800cal.a BP)两次古洪水事件相对应,江汉平原地区5000～3000cal.a BP异常洪水事件发生与全新世大暖期后期气候逐渐恶化过程在发生时间上相吻合,表明这两次古洪水事件与气候环境变化驱动的江汉平原湖群扩张存在一定联系。
4)江汉平原及其周边地区屈家岭文化至西周时期考古遗址总体上高程分布有逐渐降低的趋势,但在这个时段中间存在两个遗址高程增加速度较快的时期,在屈家岭文化晚期以及石家河文化晚期与夏朝时期遗址高程的增加可能预示洪水位的提高。因此,在江汉平原及其周边地区,遗址高程变化与古洪水事件、湖面变化三者间的关系是相一致的,即从屈家岭文化早期到晚期、从石家河文化晚期到夏朝时期由于洪水事件发生与湖面扩张而使这两个时期的文化遗址高程增加。屈家岭文化早期江汉湖群已开始扩张,由于气候适宜且稳定,洪涝灾害较少,人类因稻作农业生产发展的刺激而在以平原低地为主的地方生活：屈家岭文化晚期发生了分布范围较广的特大洪水事件,湖泊扩大,人类居住地仅限于地势较高的岗地与平原过渡地带；屈家岭文化末期至石家河文化中期湖群萎缩,遗址重新出现在低地平原；石家河文化晚期以后又进入了4000a BP前后的异常洪水事件期,湖群再次扩张,人类再次从低地平原迁出向高海拔区分布。夏朝时期整个江汉平原及其周边地区仅剩10处遗址,且均分布在海拔50m以上地区,表明该时期确实经历过显著的特大洪水事件,受洪水影响人类只能在海拔较高的地方生存。
5)石家河文化早中期因人口增加和稻作农业发展刺激人类活动向地势低平的江汉平原腹地持续扩展,而至石家河文化晚期江湖水位的波动上升引起洪患加剧,人类所面对的洪水威胁也越来越大,这种社会发展过程和环境变化过程特别是古水文过程的矛盾在石家河文化末期已特别突出,这是导致该区石家河文化最终走向衰落和灭亡的主要原因。具有全球意义的4000a BP前后气候异常引起的特大洪水事件,以及石家河文化末期该地区内部或同中原以及其它地区间的冲突,都加速了石家河文化的崩溃。夏商周文明与石家河文化已属于不同渊源的社会团体,彼此之间不能衔接。
日本学者认为4000cal.a BP前后欧亚大陆广泛发生的夏季风减弱与气候干旱事件导致新石器时代末长江中游石家河文化的衰落。本文的研究则表明,ca4000cal. a BP气候异常引起的特大洪水事件是长江中游区石家河文化消亡的重要环境因素。3500BC～1500BC中国文明形成与早期发展阶段的史前洪水及其对新石器文化终结和国家兴起的社会影响一直是历史学家关注的热点问题。然而,大多数的讨论都是基于早期青铜时代流传下来的著名神话“大禹治水”。这些洪水事件的可靠地质年代学及沉积学证据十分缺乏。江汉平原及其周边地区具有可靠年代的大洪水沉积记录增加了我们关于4000cal.a BP前后气候事件中国季风区短尺度快速气候变化的认识,同时也提供了可靠的大禹时代史前洪水证据来说明其对中国新石器文化衰落和青铜时代国家兴起的社会影响。
The Jianghan Plain lies in the northern part of the middle Yangtze River area, Central China and is a region that has recently formed from the fluvial processes of the Yangtze River and the Hanshui River, as well as from the later tectonic subsidence and lacustrine processes. It is known for its well-developed Neolithic rain-fed agriculture and for its accommodation of many historical urban and administrative centers during the last4000years. Numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age ruins have been found in and around this plain of the mainstream and tributaries. In recent years, on the protective archaeological excavation of South-to-North Water Diversion Project, archaeological departments have discovered that palaeoflood deposits exist in many archaeological ruins in the Jianghan Plain. Among them, three archaeological sites of Zhongqiao in Shayang, Tanjialing and Sanfangwan in Shijiahe townsite of Tianmen constitute a complete chronological sequence of archaeological strata in the Jianghan Plain area since the late Neolithic Age. They are typical archaeological sites with catastrophic palaeofloods information and a wealth of dating material of the late Mid-Holocene, which possess ideal conditions for environmental archaeology of Holocene palaeoflood events in the Jianghan Plain.
Based on the detailed analyses of three typical archaeological sites, multidisciplinary approach such as the archaeological stratum, AMS14C and OSL dating, pollen, micromorphology of zircon, grain size, magnetic susceptibility and geochemistry are used to research the late Mid-Holocene palaeofloods. Then, by the integrated study with a comparative analysis for characteristics of the modern flood sediments, quantity change and spatial-temporal distribution of archaeological sites, characteristics of stratigraphic accumulation and settlement changes in the study area, as well as the geographic location, chronological data, terrain elevation, depth of palaeoflood layers and the thickness of cultural layers in numerous archaeological sites of the Jianghan Plain during the Mid-Holocene, systematic environmental archaeology of the interactive response relationships between Mid-Holocene palaeofloods and evolution of human civilization in the Jianghan Plain are conducted to reveal the chronology, features of the flood process and environment background of Mid-Holocene palaeoflood events, and to examine their relations with monsoon rainfall changes of East Asia. The impacts of palaeoflood events on the Neolithic cultures and evolution process of human civilization are also clarified.
1) The5th,7th and10th natural layers of the Zhongqiao site are palaeoflood deposits, which represented three palaeoflood episodes. The9th early Shijiahe cultural layer of the Tanjialing site is an palaeoflood related lacustrine sediments generally after the weaker hydrodynamic transport process; the14th yellow gray soil layer in the bottom of Sanfangwan site is palaeoflood deposit, while the15th gray silt layer may also have experienced the impact of floods, especially the upper layer, but the13th cinerous mud layer shall be lacustrine sediments, which may have experienced a limnology environment with moderate flow rate and shallow water. The identifying features are as follows:①The palaeoflood sediments in the Zhongqiao and Sanfangwan site take on great similarities with modern flood sediments in the study area in frequency distribution curves and other grain size parameters;②Magnetic susceptibility values are lower than those of sediments from cultural layers;③There are some resemblance of the zircon shape characteristics between palaeoflood deposits and those of modern flood deposits, that shapes of zircon are mainly oval and nearly spheral, rounded due to long distance transport;④Rb/Sr contents are higher than those of sediments from cultural layers;⑤Cu contents are lower than those of sediments from cultural layers;⑥Compared with the site cultural layers, total amount of pollen in palaeoflood deposits is relatively less, often containing aquatic herbs and algae, and the contents of Pinus, Cupressaceae are higher due to long distance transport redeposition in new stacked body.
2) According to the results of AMS14C, OSL and archaeological artifacts dating, combined with the cultural stratigraphic correlation of three typical archaeological sites in the Jianghan Plain, three palaeoflood episodes (i.e.4800～4597cal.a BP,4479～4367cal.a BP and4168～3850cal. a BP) occurred in the Zhongqiao site, while palaeofloods of4913～4600cal.a BP are recorded at the Sanfangwan site. From comparisons of typical palaeoflood deposit layers in numerous Neolithic sites, two Mid-Holocene extraordinary palaeoflood events occurred commonly over the Jianghan Plain area of the middle Yangtze River at approximately4900～4600cal.a BP (i.e. mid-late Qujialing cultural period) and4100～3800cal.a BP (i.e.from late Shijiahe cultural period to Xia Dynasty). From106radiocarbon data and12luminescence data dating from cultural layers in archaeological sites around the Jianghan Plain during7000～3000cal.a BP, above two palaeoflood episodes correlate well with two lowest frequency of site occurring numbers between5000～3000cal.a BP. This mutually reflected the conclusion of chronology of the palaeoflood events.
3) Geomorphic and palaeo-hydrologic process analyses indicate that, the flood scale reflected by the palaeoflood layers in the Zhongqiao site should be at least above the moderate-large scale. These three palaeoflood layers may not be the main stream flood deposition directly; they should be diluvial sediments formed by mainstream of the Yangtze River flood water backwater into the ancient Yangshui channel and stacked to area of the site. The area of ancient Shijiahe townsite still belongs to the center position of the Luohansi Irrigated Area, Hanjiang River. Thus, there are close relationships between palaeoflood deposits at the bottom of the Sanfangwan site and the Hanjiang River floods during prehistoric era. High-resolution investigations of the cave speleothem and of the lake and subalpine peat sediments have documented prominent climatic fluctuations between5000and3000cal.a BP in Jianghan Plain and surrounding monsoonal regions of China, but, as a whole, reflecting the long drying trend. The main droughts, floods and cooling climatic events of the mid-Holocene have occurred at this time, especially between approximately5000-4500cal. a BP and4000cal. a BP, with high climate variability and obvious expansion of the Jianghan lakes. These two fluctuations were just associated with the above two identified palaeoflood events at approximately4900～4600cal.a BP and4100-3800cal.a BP, respectively. It was suggested that these two palaeoflood events have close relationships with the expansion of Jianghan lakes driven by the climatic change in this area.
4) From the Qujialing cultural period to the Western Zhou Dynasty in and around the Jianghan Plain, elevation distribution of archaeological sites gradually decreased, but during this time there were two periods (i.e. late Qujialing cultural period, late Shijiahe cultural period to Xia Dynasty) that the sites elevation increased faster, which may indicate the rises of flood level. Therefore, in the Jianghan Plain and its surrounding area, changes of sites elevation, palaeofloods and lakes are consistent, that is, from early Qujialing cultural period to late Qujialing cultural period, and late Shijiahe cultural period to the Xia Dynasty, extensive flood events and lake expansion led to the increase of cultural sites'elevation. During the early Qujialing cultural period, the Jianghan Lakes begun expansion; due to suitable and stable climate, fewer floods occurred; as the stimulation of the development of rice agriculture production, human living places were mainly in lowland. The late Qujialing cultural period appeared an extensive flood event with lake expansion, and human habitation was limited to higher ground hillock and plain areas. From the late Qujialing cultural period to the middle Shijiahe cultural period, with the Jianghan Lakes shrinking, sites re-appeared in the lowland plains. After the late Shijiahe cultural period, extraordinary flood events occurred around4000a BP with lakes expanding again, human then move out from the lowland plains to the higher altitude areas. There were only ten sites in the Xia Dynasty all over the Hubei Province and all of them were located in areas with an altitude above50m, and this distribution trend fully demonstrated that this period must have witnessed significant catastrophic flood events, as a result, human beings affected by the flood could only survive in areas with an elevation above50m.
5) The water level rising of lakes and intensive flood disasters in the Jianghan Plain during the late Shijiahe cultural period, and human settlements expanding into the low-lying plain during the early-middle Shijiahe cultural period, all these factors intensified the discrepancy between social development and environmental change processes (especially the hydrological process) in the late existence of Shijiahe cultural period might be the key controlling factor resulting in the collapse of Shijiahe Culture. The severe extraordinary floods related to the climatic anomaly at4000cal. a BP and political and military conflicts from internal or other cultural areas all accelerated the collapse of the Shijiahe Culture. This view provides an improved insight for the collapse of Shijiahe Culture that is different from the study results at the Chengtoushan site in Hunan Province.
Prehistoric floods and their social impacts on the termination of Neolithic cultures and the rise of the state level society at approximately3500BC～1500BC (i.e. Chinese civilization with the early stages of development) have always been hot topics among the Chinese historians. However, most of the discussions were based on an ancient legend of Dayu Zhishui (Flood Mitigation by Great Yu) passed down from the last phase of the Neolithic Age. There is a lack of well-dated geologic and sedimentologic evidence for these floods in and around the Jianghan Plain area. This study not only increases our knowledge on rapid climate change at ca4000a BP, but also provides solid evidence for the prehistoric flood events in the Great Yu age, which is considered the turning point from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in China.
1)钟桥遗址地层中第5层、第7层和第10层三个自然淤积层为三期古洪水沉积层；谭家岭遗址地层中第9层石家河文化早期淤积层是一种与古洪水有关大体经过较弱水动力搬运过程(物源较近)的湖沼相沉积层；三房湾遗址地层底部的第14层黄灰色土为古洪水沉积物,第15层灰色淤泥亦可能经历过洪水的影响,特别是其上部层位,而第13层青灰色淤泥应属湖沼相沉积,可能经历过流速较为缓和、有一定水面范围的浅水湖沼环境。其判别的主要依据有：①遗址古洪水层与该区现代洪水层沉积物在粒度分布频率曲线以及其它粒度参数特征方面的相似性；②古洪水层与现代洪水层磁化率值均较低,而文化层较高；③古洪水层与现代洪水层在锆石微形态特征上具有相似性,多为半浑圆状或浑圆柱状,有些已由四方双锥形被磨至近浑圆状,表明均有被流水长途搬运后留下的磨圆特征；④古洪水层的Rb/Sr值均高于文化层：⑤古洪水层的Cu含量较低,而文化层偏高；⑥与遗址的文化层相比,古洪水层所含孢粉总量比较少,经常出现水生草本和藻类,且有孢粉的远源再沉积现象,突出表现为古洪水层中松属和柏科等含量较高,可能为远距离搬运(流水或风力搬运)再沉积在新的堆积体中。
2)结合江汉平原三个典型考古遗址文化地层对比,根据AMS14C和OSL测年结果以及考古器物断代,钟桥遗址在4800～4597cal.aBP之间、4479-4367cal. a BP之间和4168-3850cal. a BP之间分别出现三次古洪水事件；三房湾遗址古洪水事件发生在4913～4600cal.aBP之间。江汉平原及其周边地区众多文化遗址典型古洪水沉积层时代对比表明,屈家岭文化中晚期(4900～4600cal.aBP)和石家河文化末期至夏代(4100～3800cal.aBP)两次特大洪水事件在长江中游的江汉平原地区非常普遍。从106个江汉平原及其周边地区7000～3000cal.aBP考古遗址的文化层14C年代数据树轮校正结果和12个释光年代数据来看,4900-4600cal.a BP和4100～3800cal.aBP古洪水事件期与5000-3500cal. a BP考古遗址出现频数最低的两个时期相一致,这也相互映证了洪水发生年代的结论。
3)地貌与古水文过程分析表明,钟桥遗址地层中古洪水层所反映的洪水规模至少应当与中-大洪水规模相当；三个古洪水事件沉积层可能并非由长江荆江段干流洪水直接泛滥沉积形成,应是由长江干流洪水涨水顶托冲入古扬水通道泛滥覆盖遗址所在区域而堆积形成的洪积物。天门谭家岭遗址与三房湾遗址所在的石家河古城区域现今仍属于汉江罗汉寺灌区的中心位置,因此,三房湾遗址地层底部存在的两期古洪水沉积层与史前时代汉江洪水的关系密切。对江汉平原中全新世古洪水事件发生规律、机制及其气候环境背景的进一步分析,其结果反映出5000-3000a BP气候干湿波动最大,但总体向干旱化趋势发展,本区中全新世主要的旱涝灾害、降温气候事件就发生在这一时段里,尤其是在5000-4500a BP及4000a BP前后的时段气候表现得尤其不稳定,江汉湖群也处于不稳定或持续变动期,这与屈家岭文化中晚期(4900～4600cal.a BP)和石家河文化末期至夏代(4100～3800cal.a BP)两次古洪水事件相对应,江汉平原地区5000～3000cal.a BP异常洪水事件发生与全新世大暖期后期气候逐渐恶化过程在发生时间上相吻合,表明这两次古洪水事件与气候环境变化驱动的江汉平原湖群扩张存在一定联系。
4)江汉平原及其周边地区屈家岭文化至西周时期考古遗址总体上高程分布有逐渐降低的趋势,但在这个时段中间存在两个遗址高程增加速度较快的时期,在屈家岭文化晚期以及石家河文化晚期与夏朝时期遗址高程的增加可能预示洪水位的提高。因此,在江汉平原及其周边地区,遗址高程变化与古洪水事件、湖面变化三者间的关系是相一致的,即从屈家岭文化早期到晚期、从石家河文化晚期到夏朝时期由于洪水事件发生与湖面扩张而使这两个时期的文化遗址高程增加。屈家岭文化早期江汉湖群已开始扩张,由于气候适宜且稳定,洪涝灾害较少,人类因稻作农业生产发展的刺激而在以平原低地为主的地方生活：屈家岭文化晚期发生了分布范围较广的特大洪水事件,湖泊扩大,人类居住地仅限于地势较高的岗地与平原过渡地带；屈家岭文化末期至石家河文化中期湖群萎缩,遗址重新出现在低地平原；石家河文化晚期以后又进入了4000a BP前后的异常洪水事件期,湖群再次扩张,人类再次从低地平原迁出向高海拔区分布。夏朝时期整个江汉平原及其周边地区仅剩10处遗址,且均分布在海拔50m以上地区,表明该时期确实经历过显著的特大洪水事件,受洪水影响人类只能在海拔较高的地方生存。
5)石家河文化早中期因人口增加和稻作农业发展刺激人类活动向地势低平的江汉平原腹地持续扩展,而至石家河文化晚期江湖水位的波动上升引起洪患加剧,人类所面对的洪水威胁也越来越大,这种社会发展过程和环境变化过程特别是古水文过程的矛盾在石家河文化末期已特别突出,这是导致该区石家河文化最终走向衰落和灭亡的主要原因。具有全球意义的4000a BP前后气候异常引起的特大洪水事件,以及石家河文化末期该地区内部或同中原以及其它地区间的冲突,都加速了石家河文化的崩溃。夏商周文明与石家河文化已属于不同渊源的社会团体,彼此之间不能衔接。
日本学者认为4000cal.a BP前后欧亚大陆广泛发生的夏季风减弱与气候干旱事件导致新石器时代末长江中游石家河文化的衰落。本文的研究则表明,ca4000cal. a BP气候异常引起的特大洪水事件是长江中游区石家河文化消亡的重要环境因素。3500BC～1500BC中国文明形成与早期发展阶段的史前洪水及其对新石器文化终结和国家兴起的社会影响一直是历史学家关注的热点问题。然而,大多数的讨论都是基于早期青铜时代流传下来的著名神话“大禹治水”。这些洪水事件的可靠地质年代学及沉积学证据十分缺乏。江汉平原及其周边地区具有可靠年代的大洪水沉积记录增加了我们关于4000cal.a BP前后气候事件中国季风区短尺度快速气候变化的认识,同时也提供了可靠的大禹时代史前洪水证据来说明其对中国新石器文化衰落和青铜时代国家兴起的社会影响。
The Jianghan Plain lies in the northern part of the middle Yangtze River area, Central China and is a region that has recently formed from the fluvial processes of the Yangtze River and the Hanshui River, as well as from the later tectonic subsidence and lacustrine processes. It is known for its well-developed Neolithic rain-fed agriculture and for its accommodation of many historical urban and administrative centers during the last4000years. Numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age ruins have been found in and around this plain of the mainstream and tributaries. In recent years, on the protective archaeological excavation of South-to-North Water Diversion Project, archaeological departments have discovered that palaeoflood deposits exist in many archaeological ruins in the Jianghan Plain. Among them, three archaeological sites of Zhongqiao in Shayang, Tanjialing and Sanfangwan in Shijiahe townsite of Tianmen constitute a complete chronological sequence of archaeological strata in the Jianghan Plain area since the late Neolithic Age. They are typical archaeological sites with catastrophic palaeofloods information and a wealth of dating material of the late Mid-Holocene, which possess ideal conditions for environmental archaeology of Holocene palaeoflood events in the Jianghan Plain.
Based on the detailed analyses of three typical archaeological sites, multidisciplinary approach such as the archaeological stratum, AMS14C and OSL dating, pollen, micromorphology of zircon, grain size, magnetic susceptibility and geochemistry are used to research the late Mid-Holocene palaeofloods. Then, by the integrated study with a comparative analysis for characteristics of the modern flood sediments, quantity change and spatial-temporal distribution of archaeological sites, characteristics of stratigraphic accumulation and settlement changes in the study area, as well as the geographic location, chronological data, terrain elevation, depth of palaeoflood layers and the thickness of cultural layers in numerous archaeological sites of the Jianghan Plain during the Mid-Holocene, systematic environmental archaeology of the interactive response relationships between Mid-Holocene palaeofloods and evolution of human civilization in the Jianghan Plain are conducted to reveal the chronology, features of the flood process and environment background of Mid-Holocene palaeoflood events, and to examine their relations with monsoon rainfall changes of East Asia. The impacts of palaeoflood events on the Neolithic cultures and evolution process of human civilization are also clarified.
1) The5th,7th and10th natural layers of the Zhongqiao site are palaeoflood deposits, which represented three palaeoflood episodes. The9th early Shijiahe cultural layer of the Tanjialing site is an palaeoflood related lacustrine sediments generally after the weaker hydrodynamic transport process; the14th yellow gray soil layer in the bottom of Sanfangwan site is palaeoflood deposit, while the15th gray silt layer may also have experienced the impact of floods, especially the upper layer, but the13th cinerous mud layer shall be lacustrine sediments, which may have experienced a limnology environment with moderate flow rate and shallow water. The identifying features are as follows:①The palaeoflood sediments in the Zhongqiao and Sanfangwan site take on great similarities with modern flood sediments in the study area in frequency distribution curves and other grain size parameters;②Magnetic susceptibility values are lower than those of sediments from cultural layers;③There are some resemblance of the zircon shape characteristics between palaeoflood deposits and those of modern flood deposits, that shapes of zircon are mainly oval and nearly spheral, rounded due to long distance transport;④Rb/Sr contents are higher than those of sediments from cultural layers;⑤Cu contents are lower than those of sediments from cultural layers;⑥Compared with the site cultural layers, total amount of pollen in palaeoflood deposits is relatively less, often containing aquatic herbs and algae, and the contents of Pinus, Cupressaceae are higher due to long distance transport redeposition in new stacked body.
2) According to the results of AMS14C, OSL and archaeological artifacts dating, combined with the cultural stratigraphic correlation of three typical archaeological sites in the Jianghan Plain, three palaeoflood episodes (i.e.4800～4597cal.a BP,4479～4367cal.a BP and4168～3850cal. a BP) occurred in the Zhongqiao site, while palaeofloods of4913～4600cal.a BP are recorded at the Sanfangwan site. From comparisons of typical palaeoflood deposit layers in numerous Neolithic sites, two Mid-Holocene extraordinary palaeoflood events occurred commonly over the Jianghan Plain area of the middle Yangtze River at approximately4900～4600cal.a BP (i.e. mid-late Qujialing cultural period) and4100～3800cal.a BP (i.e.from late Shijiahe cultural period to Xia Dynasty). From106radiocarbon data and12luminescence data dating from cultural layers in archaeological sites around the Jianghan Plain during7000～3000cal.a BP, above two palaeoflood episodes correlate well with two lowest frequency of site occurring numbers between5000～3000cal.a BP. This mutually reflected the conclusion of chronology of the palaeoflood events.
3) Geomorphic and palaeo-hydrologic process analyses indicate that, the flood scale reflected by the palaeoflood layers in the Zhongqiao site should be at least above the moderate-large scale. These three palaeoflood layers may not be the main stream flood deposition directly; they should be diluvial sediments formed by mainstream of the Yangtze River flood water backwater into the ancient Yangshui channel and stacked to area of the site. The area of ancient Shijiahe townsite still belongs to the center position of the Luohansi Irrigated Area, Hanjiang River. Thus, there are close relationships between palaeoflood deposits at the bottom of the Sanfangwan site and the Hanjiang River floods during prehistoric era. High-resolution investigations of the cave speleothem and of the lake and subalpine peat sediments have documented prominent climatic fluctuations between5000and3000cal.a BP in Jianghan Plain and surrounding monsoonal regions of China, but, as a whole, reflecting the long drying trend. The main droughts, floods and cooling climatic events of the mid-Holocene have occurred at this time, especially between approximately5000-4500cal. a BP and4000cal. a BP, with high climate variability and obvious expansion of the Jianghan lakes. These two fluctuations were just associated with the above two identified palaeoflood events at approximately4900～4600cal.a BP and4100-3800cal.a BP, respectively. It was suggested that these two palaeoflood events have close relationships with the expansion of Jianghan lakes driven by the climatic change in this area.
4) From the Qujialing cultural period to the Western Zhou Dynasty in and around the Jianghan Plain, elevation distribution of archaeological sites gradually decreased, but during this time there were two periods (i.e. late Qujialing cultural period, late Shijiahe cultural period to Xia Dynasty) that the sites elevation increased faster, which may indicate the rises of flood level. Therefore, in the Jianghan Plain and its surrounding area, changes of sites elevation, palaeofloods and lakes are consistent, that is, from early Qujialing cultural period to late Qujialing cultural period, and late Shijiahe cultural period to the Xia Dynasty, extensive flood events and lake expansion led to the increase of cultural sites'elevation. During the early Qujialing cultural period, the Jianghan Lakes begun expansion; due to suitable and stable climate, fewer floods occurred; as the stimulation of the development of rice agriculture production, human living places were mainly in lowland. The late Qujialing cultural period appeared an extensive flood event with lake expansion, and human habitation was limited to higher ground hillock and plain areas. From the late Qujialing cultural period to the middle Shijiahe cultural period, with the Jianghan Lakes shrinking, sites re-appeared in the lowland plains. After the late Shijiahe cultural period, extraordinary flood events occurred around4000a BP with lakes expanding again, human then move out from the lowland plains to the higher altitude areas. There were only ten sites in the Xia Dynasty all over the Hubei Province and all of them were located in areas with an altitude above50m, and this distribution trend fully demonstrated that this period must have witnessed significant catastrophic flood events, as a result, human beings affected by the flood could only survive in areas with an elevation above50m.
5) The water level rising of lakes and intensive flood disasters in the Jianghan Plain during the late Shijiahe cultural period, and human settlements expanding into the low-lying plain during the early-middle Shijiahe cultural period, all these factors intensified the discrepancy between social development and environmental change processes (especially the hydrological process) in the late existence of Shijiahe cultural period might be the key controlling factor resulting in the collapse of Shijiahe Culture. The severe extraordinary floods related to the climatic anomaly at4000cal. a BP and political and military conflicts from internal or other cultural areas all accelerated the collapse of the Shijiahe Culture. This view provides an improved insight for the collapse of Shijiahe Culture that is different from the study results at the Chengtoushan site in Hunan Province.
Prehistoric floods and their social impacts on the termination of Neolithic cultures and the rise of the state level society at approximately3500BC～1500BC (i.e. Chinese civilization with the early stages of development) have always been hot topics among the Chinese historians. However, most of the discussions were based on an ancient legend of Dayu Zhishui (Flood Mitigation by Great Yu) passed down from the last phase of the Neolithic Age. There is a lack of well-dated geologic and sedimentologic evidence for these floods in and around the Jianghan Plain area. This study not only increases our knowledge on rapid climate change at ca4000a BP, but also provides solid evidence for the prehistoric flood events in the Great Yu age, which is considered the turning point from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age in China.
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