工程陶瓷高速深磨机理及热现象研究
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摘要
工程陶瓷具有强度高、硬度大且耐磨损等优越的性能。然而,这也使工程陶瓷材料难于加工、在加工表面/亚表面易产生损伤,导致其加工效率低、成本高。正是这些加工难题限制了工程陶瓷的广范使用。本课题旨在将高速深磨工艺应用于工程陶瓷加工,深入研究工程陶瓷磨削机理和高速深磨的磨削机制,为该难题的解决提供有效方案、实验基础以及理论依据。
本课题对氧化铝、氧化锆和氮化硅这三种陶瓷进行了系统的高速深磨实验,研究了陶瓷材料的显微结构、物理性能及磨削参数对磨削表面/亚表面特征、磨削力、磨削能量和磨削温度的影响,并对部分工况下磨削温度中途急剧升高的原因和机理进行了系统的研究。磨削实验中,使用最高砂轮线速度达160m/s、最大磨削深度达6mm、从而使最大磨除率达到120 mm~3/(mm·s),工件亚表面残留裂纹的深度不大于10μm,这种损伤深度能在后续的精加工中轻易去除。
大量的研究表明工程陶瓷材料的去除机理在很大程度上受其显微结构和物理特性的影响。本课题选用的三种材料在其显微结构和物理性能上具有独特的特征。晶粒尺寸大、硬度大且韧性低的特点使氧化铝的延/脆性临界切深小,易发生脆性断裂去除,它的磨削表面以脆性断裂痕迹为主要特征,亚表面频繁出现沿着晶粒边界的裂纹。部分稳定氧化锆的晶粒细密、韧性最好、硬度最低,延/脆性临界切深也最高,磨削表面以显微塑性变形为主要特征,只是部分区域出现了脆性剥落坑,与之相吻合的是在它的亚表面也偶尔可观察到尺寸较大的横向裂纹。氮化硅晶粒细密,具有较高的韧性和较低的硬度,综合的延性指标较好,磨削表面和氧化锆的类似,也以显微塑性变形为主要特征。三种材料中氧化铝的表面粗糙度最大(R_a约为0.9μm),氧化锆与氮化硅的表面粗糙度值接近(R_a约为0.7μm)。最大未变形切屑厚度降低,磨削表面的塑性去除痕迹增加,脆性断裂痕迹减少。
为了更进一步地了解工程陶瓷在高速深磨中的材料去除机理,本课题建立了工程陶瓷高速深磨的磨削力模型,该模型计算值和实测值的趋势一致,数值也相近。理论和实验结果均表明,陶瓷磨削力与陶瓷材料力学性质、去除方式及磨削参数有着密切关系。在以塑性变形为主的磨削过程中磨削参数对磨削力的影响要大于以脆性断裂为主的磨削过程。塑性变形为主的磨削过程中,显微硬度高的材料磨削力大,而在以脆性断裂行为主的磨削过程中,断裂韧性高,显微硬度低的陶瓷磨削力大。高速深磨试验也表明塑性去除为主的氧化锆和氮化硅的比磨削能高于以脆性断裂去除为主的氧化铝。
磨削温度的测试和分析表明93%以上的能量消耗于金刚石砂轮对陶瓷工件的划擦和塑性耕犁作用过程,并转化为热能,且只有极少一部分的热传入工件,绝大部分的热量被冷却液、磨屑和砂轮带走,使得磨削区的温度通常保持在100～300℃范围内。各种陶瓷材料的磨削温度和磨削区热通量有着良好的线性关系。在实验过程中发现部分工况的最高温度可达600～1100℃,接近干磨温度。研究确定产生这一现象的原因是磨削区的冷却液沸腾。
Advanced engineering ceramics have excellent mechanical properties, such as high strength, high hardness and great resistance to friction. However, these excellent properties also render their manufacturing difficult and easily cause damage in the machined surface and subsurface. As a result, the machining efficiency is low and its associated cost is high. This has thus limited the widespread applications of advanced engineering ceramics. This thesis project thus aimed at developing a high speed deep grinding (HSDG) technology for efficiency machining of advanced ceramics and investigating the associated removal mechanisms.
Three advanced engineering ceramics, including alumina, nitride silicon and yttria partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia (PSZ), were ground under various HSDG conditions. Effects of microstructures, mechanical properties of the ceramics and grinding conditions on grinding surface/subsurface characteristics, grinding force, grinding energy and grinding temperature were systematically investigated. A study was also performed to understand the generation of grinding heat and the mechanism responsible for the rapid rise of temperature under some extreme HSDG conditions. Based on the results from the investigations, we have successfully applied the HSDG for grinding the ceramics using a wheel velocity up to 160m/s. This enabled to achieve a depth of cut of 6 mm, producing a removal rate of 120 mm~3/(mm·s), while the depth of subsurface micro crack was not greater than 10μm which can be removed readily by the following grinding process.
The investigations indicated that the removal modes of ceramics were determined by their microstructures and mechanical properties. The alumina used had relatively large grains size, high hardness and low fracture toughness, so the critical depth of ductile and brittle transition was relatively low, having tendency towards fracturing during grinding. The ground surfaces of alumina were generated by brittle fracture and the cracking along grain boundaries were observed frequently in its subsurface. The PSZ and silicon nitride had relatively small grains, low hardness and high fracture toughness, so the surfaces of PSZ and nitride silicon were generated by the combined removal modes of brittle and ductile, and the lateral cracking were generated occasionally in the subsurface of PSZ. Under the same grinding conditions, the value of surface roughness of the ground alumina (R_a about 0.9μm) was the highest among the three ceramics, and the surface roughness values of PSZ and silicon nitride were very close (R_a about 0.7μm).
In order to understand the removal mechanism of engineering ceramics under HSDG, an analytical grinding force model of the HSDG ceramic was developed. The model results were in good agreement with the experimental results. Experiment and numerical results indicated that the material mechanical properties, removal modes and grinding conditions significantly influenced the grinding force of the ceramics. The increase in microhardness of ceramics resulted in a greater grinding force when the ductile removal was dominant. When the brittle fracture was dominant, the increase in fracture toughness of ceramics and the decrease in micro hardness of ceramics resulted in greater grinding forces. The experiment also showed that the special energy of PSZ or silicon nitride was higher than that of alumina.
The measurement of grinding temperature involved in the HSDG processes indicated that 93 percent of the grinding energy was expended on the attrition and ploughing between the wheel and the workpiece, which was then generated into grinding heat. A small portion of the grinding heat was transferred into the workpiece, but the majority of the heat was removed from the grinding zone by the coolant and the removal of chips, and was transferred into the grinding wheel. Under the normal HSDG conditions, the temperature was in the range of 100～300℃. There existed quite linear relationships between the heat flux and temperature of grinding zone for the three ceramics. Under some extreme conditions, the temperature could rapidly rise to about 600 to 1100℃, close to the temperature of dry grinding. The experiment and theoretical investigations indicated that the film boiling of coolant in grinding zone might be responsible for this rapid temperature rise.
本课题对氧化铝、氧化锆和氮化硅这三种陶瓷进行了系统的高速深磨实验,研究了陶瓷材料的显微结构、物理性能及磨削参数对磨削表面/亚表面特征、磨削力、磨削能量和磨削温度的影响,并对部分工况下磨削温度中途急剧升高的原因和机理进行了系统的研究。磨削实验中,使用最高砂轮线速度达160m/s、最大磨削深度达6mm、从而使最大磨除率达到120 mm~3/(mm·s),工件亚表面残留裂纹的深度不大于10μm,这种损伤深度能在后续的精加工中轻易去除。
大量的研究表明工程陶瓷材料的去除机理在很大程度上受其显微结构和物理特性的影响。本课题选用的三种材料在其显微结构和物理性能上具有独特的特征。晶粒尺寸大、硬度大且韧性低的特点使氧化铝的延/脆性临界切深小,易发生脆性断裂去除,它的磨削表面以脆性断裂痕迹为主要特征,亚表面频繁出现沿着晶粒边界的裂纹。部分稳定氧化锆的晶粒细密、韧性最好、硬度最低,延/脆性临界切深也最高,磨削表面以显微塑性变形为主要特征,只是部分区域出现了脆性剥落坑,与之相吻合的是在它的亚表面也偶尔可观察到尺寸较大的横向裂纹。氮化硅晶粒细密,具有较高的韧性和较低的硬度,综合的延性指标较好,磨削表面和氧化锆的类似,也以显微塑性变形为主要特征。三种材料中氧化铝的表面粗糙度最大(R_a约为0.9μm),氧化锆与氮化硅的表面粗糙度值接近(R_a约为0.7μm)。最大未变形切屑厚度降低,磨削表面的塑性去除痕迹增加,脆性断裂痕迹减少。
为了更进一步地了解工程陶瓷在高速深磨中的材料去除机理,本课题建立了工程陶瓷高速深磨的磨削力模型,该模型计算值和实测值的趋势一致,数值也相近。理论和实验结果均表明,陶瓷磨削力与陶瓷材料力学性质、去除方式及磨削参数有着密切关系。在以塑性变形为主的磨削过程中磨削参数对磨削力的影响要大于以脆性断裂为主的磨削过程。塑性变形为主的磨削过程中,显微硬度高的材料磨削力大,而在以脆性断裂行为主的磨削过程中,断裂韧性高,显微硬度低的陶瓷磨削力大。高速深磨试验也表明塑性去除为主的氧化锆和氮化硅的比磨削能高于以脆性断裂去除为主的氧化铝。
磨削温度的测试和分析表明93%以上的能量消耗于金刚石砂轮对陶瓷工件的划擦和塑性耕犁作用过程,并转化为热能,且只有极少一部分的热传入工件,绝大部分的热量被冷却液、磨屑和砂轮带走,使得磨削区的温度通常保持在100～300℃范围内。各种陶瓷材料的磨削温度和磨削区热通量有着良好的线性关系。在实验过程中发现部分工况的最高温度可达600～1100℃,接近干磨温度。研究确定产生这一现象的原因是磨削区的冷却液沸腾。
Advanced engineering ceramics have excellent mechanical properties, such as high strength, high hardness and great resistance to friction. However, these excellent properties also render their manufacturing difficult and easily cause damage in the machined surface and subsurface. As a result, the machining efficiency is low and its associated cost is high. This has thus limited the widespread applications of advanced engineering ceramics. This thesis project thus aimed at developing a high speed deep grinding (HSDG) technology for efficiency machining of advanced ceramics and investigating the associated removal mechanisms.
Three advanced engineering ceramics, including alumina, nitride silicon and yttria partially stabilized tetragonal zirconia (PSZ), were ground under various HSDG conditions. Effects of microstructures, mechanical properties of the ceramics and grinding conditions on grinding surface/subsurface characteristics, grinding force, grinding energy and grinding temperature were systematically investigated. A study was also performed to understand the generation of grinding heat and the mechanism responsible for the rapid rise of temperature under some extreme HSDG conditions. Based on the results from the investigations, we have successfully applied the HSDG for grinding the ceramics using a wheel velocity up to 160m/s. This enabled to achieve a depth of cut of 6 mm, producing a removal rate of 120 mm~3/(mm·s), while the depth of subsurface micro crack was not greater than 10μm which can be removed readily by the following grinding process.
The investigations indicated that the removal modes of ceramics were determined by their microstructures and mechanical properties. The alumina used had relatively large grains size, high hardness and low fracture toughness, so the critical depth of ductile and brittle transition was relatively low, having tendency towards fracturing during grinding. The ground surfaces of alumina were generated by brittle fracture and the cracking along grain boundaries were observed frequently in its subsurface. The PSZ and silicon nitride had relatively small grains, low hardness and high fracture toughness, so the surfaces of PSZ and nitride silicon were generated by the combined removal modes of brittle and ductile, and the lateral cracking were generated occasionally in the subsurface of PSZ. Under the same grinding conditions, the value of surface roughness of the ground alumina (R_a about 0.9μm) was the highest among the three ceramics, and the surface roughness values of PSZ and silicon nitride were very close (R_a about 0.7μm).
In order to understand the removal mechanism of engineering ceramics under HSDG, an analytical grinding force model of the HSDG ceramic was developed. The model results were in good agreement with the experimental results. Experiment and numerical results indicated that the material mechanical properties, removal modes and grinding conditions significantly influenced the grinding force of the ceramics. The increase in microhardness of ceramics resulted in a greater grinding force when the ductile removal was dominant. When the brittle fracture was dominant, the increase in fracture toughness of ceramics and the decrease in micro hardness of ceramics resulted in greater grinding forces. The experiment also showed that the special energy of PSZ or silicon nitride was higher than that of alumina.
The measurement of grinding temperature involved in the HSDG processes indicated that 93 percent of the grinding energy was expended on the attrition and ploughing between the wheel and the workpiece, which was then generated into grinding heat. A small portion of the grinding heat was transferred into the workpiece, but the majority of the heat was removed from the grinding zone by the coolant and the removal of chips, and was transferred into the grinding wheel. Under the normal HSDG conditions, the temperature was in the range of 100～300℃. There existed quite linear relationships between the heat flux and temperature of grinding zone for the three ceramics. Under some extreme conditions, the temperature could rapidly rise to about 600 to 1100℃, close to the temperature of dry grinding. The experiment and theoretical investigations indicated that the film boiling of coolant in grinding zone might be responsible for this rapid temperature rise.
引文
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