太阳爆发中的激波电子加速和辐射研究
摘要
太阳爆发活动是指太阳大气中剧烈的能量释放过程,主要包括日冕物质抛射(CME)和耀斑。CME是短时间内由太阳抛出的巨大磁化等离子体物质,是太阳系中尺度最大的爆发现象。耀斑是太阳色球日冕局部区域发生的多波段瞬间增亮现象。典型的CME和耀斑爆发期间所释放的能量约1031-1032尔格,同时会加速产生大量的高能粒子,伴随从射电到γ射线全波段的电磁辐射增强,能对地球的空间环境造成强烈的扰动。目前普遍认为爆发能量主要来自日冕磁场能量的释放,但粒子加速的物理机制仍是未完全解决的问题。太阳爆发活动可在日冕和行星际空间中驱动磁流体力学激波,而激波被认为是空间中粒子加速的有效场所。太阳爆发-日冕激波-粒子加速-电磁辐射是日地空间物理研究中一个重要的连锁物理过程。在本论文中,我们主要关注激波对电子的加速,以及高能电子激发的Ⅱ型射电暴和硬X射线-γ射线辐射。在第二章和第三章,我们研究了冕流对日冕激波的电子加速和日冕Ⅱ型射电暴的可能作用；在第四章和第五章,我们研究了耀斑辐射能谱高能区硬化现象和耀斑终止激波的电子加速。
我们发现、定义并解释了Ⅱ型射电暴“断谱”特征。对于发生在2011年3月27日的Ⅱ型暴事件,我们发现其射电动态频谱上具有两段完全不同频漂的谱形,即在正常缓慢漂移的Ⅱ型暴辐射后紧接有一段快漂射电谱。根据等离子体辐射机制,我们认为射电断谱的产生是由激波上的射电辐射源区从冕流内部穿出时跨越冕流边界的密度陡降区造成的。另外,根据激波传播速度、频率漂移大小和断点后射电辐射的持续时间,可以简单估算冕流密度边界的宽度和密度梯度的大小,得到冕流边界处的密度在约0.1R⊙的距离上下降约3倍。考虑到激波传播方向可能并非与冕流密度边界垂直,上述距离应视为产生密度下降的上限。尽管如此,所估算的密度梯度与以往观测数据的测量结果基本一致。将射电频谱特征(如断谱)与爆发成像观测进行物理关联为推断Ⅱ型暴射电辐射源区的性质提供了新的工作思路。
我们还研究了发生于2011年3月25日的日冕Ⅱ型暴事件,发现两事件具有一些共同的观测特征：(1)两事件对应的CME爆发于同一冕流结构底部的活动区,并且可以清楚地看到扰动亮沿逐步扫过冕流；(2)由成像观测数据得到的CME前沿高度与拟合Ⅱ型暴动态谱得到的射电源区高度基本一致；(3)在观测精度范围内,CME前沿(激波)扫过冕流尖点区域时,射电辐射截止。这些观测结果表明,两个Ⅱ型射电暴均是由发生于冕流内部的爆发所驱动的激波产生的。基于这一观测结论,我们猜测激波在向外传播时扫过冕流闭场的过程形成了可有效加速粒子的塌缩磁阱系统,对激发Ⅱ型暴的高能电子的加速可能有所贡献。
我们进一步构建了一个简单的激波-冕流模型,用试验粒子方法进行了电子加速的模拟。模拟结果表明,只有在冕流闭合磁场区注入的电子才能得到有效的加速。电子在运动的激波与冕流闭合磁力线形成的磁约束位形以及电子散射效应下,能够多次返回到激波面被反射和加速。因此,在本文模型中冕流大尺度闭合磁场对激波的电子加速起着重要的作用。我们还得到高能电子的位置分布(推测为射电辐射源区)位于靠近冕流对称轴的激波上游及紧邻区域(即闭合磁力线的顶部区域)、宽度约为0.1-0.2R⊙等。这些模拟结果需要未来能覆盖米波段(对应日冕太阳爆发过程)且具有高空间分辨能力的射电日像仪进一步验证。众所周知,大多数的太阳爆发活动起源于闭合磁场结构下方的活动区。因此,本文提出的日冕激波电子加速图景可能具有更为普遍的意义,可用来理解更多的日冕Ⅱ型暴事件的起源。另外,本工作为日冕Ⅱ型暴与行星际Ⅱ型暴之间的不连续性提供了一种可能的解释。
迄今为止,很多不同的卫星都观测到了耀斑的硬X射线和γ射线轫致辐射连续谱在几百keV以上的硬化现象,但目前对这一观测还没有让人信服的解释。我们通过浏览SMM/GRS仪器的耀斑辐射观测数据(300keV-10MeV),发现其中23个事件具有明显的高能硬化现象并分别对其进行了双幂律谱的拟合。然后我们对前人文献中的15个事件和新确定的23个事件进行了统计分析,发现断点前谱指数γ1分布在2.5-4.5(37/38),断点后谱指数γ2多数分布在1.5-2.5(31/34),并有7个事件的γ1-γ2≥2;断点前谱指数γ1与断点能量∈b和断点能量之上的光子数所占比例Fr均有很好的反相关性,但谱指数γ1和,γ2之间没有好的相关性。统计分析结果可以检验和约束各种理论解释,比如大于2的谱指数变化不能仅由对轫致辐射截面的相对论修正和电子-电子轫致辐射的贡献来解释(仅能使谱指数变硬～0.5)。
我们认为耀斑辐射高能硬化现象很可能直接反映了被加速的高能电子本身具有高能硬化的能谱特征。为此,我们提出了一个基于耀斑终止激波的扩散激波电子加速模型。我们假设电子扩散系数κ是由耀斑粒子加速区的等离子体湍动强度决定的,并且具有类似太阳风中的湍动功率谱形式。根据共振条件,低能量区间的电子只能与耗散区的湍动(如哨声波)发生共振相互作用,而高能量区间(几百keV以上)的电子可以与惯性区的湍动相互作用。由于不同波数区间湍动串级幂率谱的不同,通过数值求解一维时变的Parker粒子输运方程,得到了在高能区硬化的电子能谱。我们将耗散区的湍动幂律谱指数固定为∈d=2.7,并考虑三种情况,分别将惯性区谱指数取为∈i=5/3(Kolmogorov型)、1.5(Iroshnikov-Kr aichnan型)和1.0(Bohm diffusion型)。我们发现,不同情况下得到的电子能谱均可以很好的用双幂律谱进行拟合,并且拟合所得幂律谱指数和断点能量等参数与观测得到的耀斑辐射能谱的相应参数基本吻合。通过简单的定性分析,我们发现所提出的理论模型可以解释耀斑能谱硬化现象的一些观测分析结果。因此,本研究为耀斑辐射能谱的高能区硬化现象提供了一种更为直接的和合理的解释,这对认识耀斑中的电子加速机理具有重要意义。
Solar eruptions are intense energy release activities in the solar atmosphere. Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and flares are the most important ones. CMEs are large amount of magnetized plasma ejected from the Sun, representing the largest-scale eruptive phenomenon in the solar system. Flares are sudden and intense brightening in the chromosphere and the corona. When a CME or flare occurs, energy up to1031-1032erg is released rapidly and transformed to the acceleration of particles, heating of the plasma, and radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It can also have serious impacts on the Earth's s-pace environment. It is widely believed that the released energy is magnetic energy accumulated in the corona. However, the physical mechanism of particle acceleration remains unclear. Magnetohydrodynamic shocks are driven by solar eruptions both in the coronal and interplanetary space, known to be efficient accelerators in the space. Solar eruptions-coronal shocks-particle acceleration-electromagnetic radiation are the most important physical processes in solar-terrestrial studies. In this thesis, we focus on electron acceleration at coronal shocks, and type Ⅱ radio bursts and hard X-ray and γ-ray emissions produced by energetic electrons. In chapters2and3, we explore the roles of streamers in electron acceleration by shocks and excitation of type Ⅱ bursts; in chapters4and5, we study the spectral hardening at high energies observed in flare continuum emissions and electron acceleration at flare termination shock.
We report an intriguing type Ⅱ radio burst that occurred on2011March27. Its dynamic spectrum was featured by a sudden spectral break on the well-observed harmonic branch. Based on plasma emission mechanism, we suggest that the slow-drift period before the break was generated inside the streamer by a coronal eruption driven shock, and the spectral break is a consequence of the radio source region at the shock front crossing the streamer boundary where density drops abruptly. Using the measurements of the shock speed, the radio frequency drift and the temporal duration of the radio emission after the break, one can estimate the thickness and the electron density gradient at the streamer boundary. We find that the density drops from～5×106cm-3to～2×106cm-3at a distance of～0.1RQ(?)。Considering the shock may not propagate perpendicularly across the streamer boundary, this distance should be considered as an upper limit of the above density drop. In spite of this, it is comparable to the electron density measurements in previous observations. We suggest that it is a promising approach to diagnose the properties of the radio emission region by combining specific morphological features of type Ⅱs with imaging observations of solar eruptions.
We also examine the other coronal type Ⅱ event occurring on2011March25. Some common observational features of the two events are summarized as follows:(1) Both CMEs erupted from the same active region beneath a well-observed helmet streamer, and the sweeping process of the CME front through the streamer structure can be observed clearly;(2) the heights of CME front obtained from coronagraph imaging observations are consistent with that deduced from the type Ⅱ spectral fitting using a reasonable density model;(3) type Ⅱ radio emission ended when CME/shock fronts passed the streamer cusp region, subject to observational uncertainty. These observational results indicate that both type Ⅱ bursts were possibly related to the shock-streamer interaction. Based on this observational deduction, we suggest that an effective particle acceleration system is established when the shock propagating outward and sweeping through the closed field of the streamer, which may contribute to the acceleration of energetic electrons accounting for type Ⅱ bursts.
We further develop a simplified shock-streamer model and carry out a test-particle simulation to study the energization of electrons. Simulation results show that only those electrons that are injected within the closed field region-s can be accelerated efficiently. The shock-streamer trapping effect allows the trapped electrons to return to the shock front multiple times and be repetitive-ly accelerated. Therefore, the shock-streamer configuration plays an important role in our study. Our simulation also shows that electrons which are energetic enough to excite radio bursts, mainly concentrate in the shock upstream within its immediate neighborhood, and around the tip of relevant closed field lines. The locations of energetic electrons can serve as a proxy of the type II radio bursts. This prediction needs to be further verified by future high-spatial resolution ra-dioheliographs at the appropriate metric wavelength. Considering the fact that most solar eruptions originate from closed field regions, electron acceleration by a shock propagating in a closed field structure may be important to the generation of metric type Ⅱs in a general manner. This scenario also provides an alternative explanation to the long-standing issue of the disconnection between metric and interplanetary type Ⅱ bursts.
The observed hard X-ray and γ-ray continuum in solar flares are interpreted as bremsstrahlung emissions of accelerated non-thermal electrons. It has been noted for a long time that in many flares the energy spectra show a hardening at energies around or above300keV. We perform a systematic examination of185flares from the SMM/GRS γ-ray detector and identify23electron-dominated events whose energy spectra show clear double power-laws. We then conduct a statistical study of these events and15spectral hardening events that were studied in previous literature. For38events that have γ1, all but one are in the range of2.5to4.5. For34events that have γ2,31of them are in the range of1.5to2.5. In7events we have γ1—γ2>2. It is also found that the spectral index below the break (γ1) anti-correlates with the break energy (εb). Furthermore, γ1also anti-correlates with Fr, the fraction of photons above the break to the total non-thermal photons. The statistical results provide a stringent constraint on the underlying electron acceleration mechanism. Spectral breaks as large as2are hard to explain by merely including electron-electron bremsstrahlung or relativistic correction of the electron-nucleon cross section.
We suggest that the hardening in photon spectrum reflects an intrinsic hard-ening in the source electron spectrum. Then we propose an electron acceleration model based on diffusive shock acceleration mechanism at a finite-width flare ter-mination shock. The intensity of the turbulence I(k) determines the magnitude of the diffusion coefficient k, which in turn controls whether a spectral hard-ening will occur. At low energies electrons resonate with the dissipation range turbulence, while at high energies electrons resonate with the inertial range tur-bulence. As a result of the difference of the turbulence spectral indices between the dissipation range and inertial range, we obtain a broken electron spectrum with hardening at high energies by numerically solving the1-D time-dependent Parker's particle transport equation. We assume the turbulence spectral index in the inertial range εd=2.7, and consider three cases for the dissipation range∈i.5/3,1.5and1.0. We find that in these three cases, the obtained electron spectra can be well fit by a double-power-law, and the fitted parameters are consistent with those observed in flare emission spectra. We also find that the proposed scenario can explain some of the observational results. Therefore we offer a direct and promising explanation for the observed spectral hardening in solar flares.
我们发现、定义并解释了Ⅱ型射电暴“断谱”特征。对于发生在2011年3月27日的Ⅱ型暴事件,我们发现其射电动态频谱上具有两段完全不同频漂的谱形,即在正常缓慢漂移的Ⅱ型暴辐射后紧接有一段快漂射电谱。根据等离子体辐射机制,我们认为射电断谱的产生是由激波上的射电辐射源区从冕流内部穿出时跨越冕流边界的密度陡降区造成的。另外,根据激波传播速度、频率漂移大小和断点后射电辐射的持续时间,可以简单估算冕流密度边界的宽度和密度梯度的大小,得到冕流边界处的密度在约0.1R⊙的距离上下降约3倍。考虑到激波传播方向可能并非与冕流密度边界垂直,上述距离应视为产生密度下降的上限。尽管如此,所估算的密度梯度与以往观测数据的测量结果基本一致。将射电频谱特征(如断谱)与爆发成像观测进行物理关联为推断Ⅱ型暴射电辐射源区的性质提供了新的工作思路。
我们还研究了发生于2011年3月25日的日冕Ⅱ型暴事件,发现两事件具有一些共同的观测特征：(1)两事件对应的CME爆发于同一冕流结构底部的活动区,并且可以清楚地看到扰动亮沿逐步扫过冕流；(2)由成像观测数据得到的CME前沿高度与拟合Ⅱ型暴动态谱得到的射电源区高度基本一致；(3)在观测精度范围内,CME前沿(激波)扫过冕流尖点区域时,射电辐射截止。这些观测结果表明,两个Ⅱ型射电暴均是由发生于冕流内部的爆发所驱动的激波产生的。基于这一观测结论,我们猜测激波在向外传播时扫过冕流闭场的过程形成了可有效加速粒子的塌缩磁阱系统,对激发Ⅱ型暴的高能电子的加速可能有所贡献。
我们进一步构建了一个简单的激波-冕流模型,用试验粒子方法进行了电子加速的模拟。模拟结果表明,只有在冕流闭合磁场区注入的电子才能得到有效的加速。电子在运动的激波与冕流闭合磁力线形成的磁约束位形以及电子散射效应下,能够多次返回到激波面被反射和加速。因此,在本文模型中冕流大尺度闭合磁场对激波的电子加速起着重要的作用。我们还得到高能电子的位置分布(推测为射电辐射源区)位于靠近冕流对称轴的激波上游及紧邻区域(即闭合磁力线的顶部区域)、宽度约为0.1-0.2R⊙等。这些模拟结果需要未来能覆盖米波段(对应日冕太阳爆发过程)且具有高空间分辨能力的射电日像仪进一步验证。众所周知,大多数的太阳爆发活动起源于闭合磁场结构下方的活动区。因此,本文提出的日冕激波电子加速图景可能具有更为普遍的意义,可用来理解更多的日冕Ⅱ型暴事件的起源。另外,本工作为日冕Ⅱ型暴与行星际Ⅱ型暴之间的不连续性提供了一种可能的解释。
迄今为止,很多不同的卫星都观测到了耀斑的硬X射线和γ射线轫致辐射连续谱在几百keV以上的硬化现象,但目前对这一观测还没有让人信服的解释。我们通过浏览SMM/GRS仪器的耀斑辐射观测数据(300keV-10MeV),发现其中23个事件具有明显的高能硬化现象并分别对其进行了双幂律谱的拟合。然后我们对前人文献中的15个事件和新确定的23个事件进行了统计分析,发现断点前谱指数γ1分布在2.5-4.5(37/38),断点后谱指数γ2多数分布在1.5-2.5(31/34),并有7个事件的γ1-γ2≥2;断点前谱指数γ1与断点能量∈b和断点能量之上的光子数所占比例Fr均有很好的反相关性,但谱指数γ1和,γ2之间没有好的相关性。统计分析结果可以检验和约束各种理论解释,比如大于2的谱指数变化不能仅由对轫致辐射截面的相对论修正和电子-电子轫致辐射的贡献来解释(仅能使谱指数变硬～0.5)。
我们认为耀斑辐射高能硬化现象很可能直接反映了被加速的高能电子本身具有高能硬化的能谱特征。为此,我们提出了一个基于耀斑终止激波的扩散激波电子加速模型。我们假设电子扩散系数κ是由耀斑粒子加速区的等离子体湍动强度决定的,并且具有类似太阳风中的湍动功率谱形式。根据共振条件,低能量区间的电子只能与耗散区的湍动(如哨声波)发生共振相互作用,而高能量区间(几百keV以上)的电子可以与惯性区的湍动相互作用。由于不同波数区间湍动串级幂率谱的不同,通过数值求解一维时变的Parker粒子输运方程,得到了在高能区硬化的电子能谱。我们将耗散区的湍动幂律谱指数固定为∈d=2.7,并考虑三种情况,分别将惯性区谱指数取为∈i=5/3(Kolmogorov型)、1.5(Iroshnikov-Kr aichnan型)和1.0(Bohm diffusion型)。我们发现,不同情况下得到的电子能谱均可以很好的用双幂律谱进行拟合,并且拟合所得幂律谱指数和断点能量等参数与观测得到的耀斑辐射能谱的相应参数基本吻合。通过简单的定性分析,我们发现所提出的理论模型可以解释耀斑能谱硬化现象的一些观测分析结果。因此,本研究为耀斑辐射能谱的高能区硬化现象提供了一种更为直接的和合理的解释,这对认识耀斑中的电子加速机理具有重要意义。
Solar eruptions are intense energy release activities in the solar atmosphere. Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and flares are the most important ones. CMEs are large amount of magnetized plasma ejected from the Sun, representing the largest-scale eruptive phenomenon in the solar system. Flares are sudden and intense brightening in the chromosphere and the corona. When a CME or flare occurs, energy up to1031-1032erg is released rapidly and transformed to the acceleration of particles, heating of the plasma, and radiation across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It can also have serious impacts on the Earth's s-pace environment. It is widely believed that the released energy is magnetic energy accumulated in the corona. However, the physical mechanism of particle acceleration remains unclear. Magnetohydrodynamic shocks are driven by solar eruptions both in the coronal and interplanetary space, known to be efficient accelerators in the space. Solar eruptions-coronal shocks-particle acceleration-electromagnetic radiation are the most important physical processes in solar-terrestrial studies. In this thesis, we focus on electron acceleration at coronal shocks, and type Ⅱ radio bursts and hard X-ray and γ-ray emissions produced by energetic electrons. In chapters2and3, we explore the roles of streamers in electron acceleration by shocks and excitation of type Ⅱ bursts; in chapters4and5, we study the spectral hardening at high energies observed in flare continuum emissions and electron acceleration at flare termination shock.
We report an intriguing type Ⅱ radio burst that occurred on2011March27. Its dynamic spectrum was featured by a sudden spectral break on the well-observed harmonic branch. Based on plasma emission mechanism, we suggest that the slow-drift period before the break was generated inside the streamer by a coronal eruption driven shock, and the spectral break is a consequence of the radio source region at the shock front crossing the streamer boundary where density drops abruptly. Using the measurements of the shock speed, the radio frequency drift and the temporal duration of the radio emission after the break, one can estimate the thickness and the electron density gradient at the streamer boundary. We find that the density drops from～5×106cm-3to～2×106cm-3at a distance of～0.1RQ(?)。Considering the shock may not propagate perpendicularly across the streamer boundary, this distance should be considered as an upper limit of the above density drop. In spite of this, it is comparable to the electron density measurements in previous observations. We suggest that it is a promising approach to diagnose the properties of the radio emission region by combining specific morphological features of type Ⅱs with imaging observations of solar eruptions.
We also examine the other coronal type Ⅱ event occurring on2011March25. Some common observational features of the two events are summarized as follows:(1) Both CMEs erupted from the same active region beneath a well-observed helmet streamer, and the sweeping process of the CME front through the streamer structure can be observed clearly;(2) the heights of CME front obtained from coronagraph imaging observations are consistent with that deduced from the type Ⅱ spectral fitting using a reasonable density model;(3) type Ⅱ radio emission ended when CME/shock fronts passed the streamer cusp region, subject to observational uncertainty. These observational results indicate that both type Ⅱ bursts were possibly related to the shock-streamer interaction. Based on this observational deduction, we suggest that an effective particle acceleration system is established when the shock propagating outward and sweeping through the closed field of the streamer, which may contribute to the acceleration of energetic electrons accounting for type Ⅱ bursts.
We further develop a simplified shock-streamer model and carry out a test-particle simulation to study the energization of electrons. Simulation results show that only those electrons that are injected within the closed field region-s can be accelerated efficiently. The shock-streamer trapping effect allows the trapped electrons to return to the shock front multiple times and be repetitive-ly accelerated. Therefore, the shock-streamer configuration plays an important role in our study. Our simulation also shows that electrons which are energetic enough to excite radio bursts, mainly concentrate in the shock upstream within its immediate neighborhood, and around the tip of relevant closed field lines. The locations of energetic electrons can serve as a proxy of the type II radio bursts. This prediction needs to be further verified by future high-spatial resolution ra-dioheliographs at the appropriate metric wavelength. Considering the fact that most solar eruptions originate from closed field regions, electron acceleration by a shock propagating in a closed field structure may be important to the generation of metric type Ⅱs in a general manner. This scenario also provides an alternative explanation to the long-standing issue of the disconnection between metric and interplanetary type Ⅱ bursts.
The observed hard X-ray and γ-ray continuum in solar flares are interpreted as bremsstrahlung emissions of accelerated non-thermal electrons. It has been noted for a long time that in many flares the energy spectra show a hardening at energies around or above300keV. We perform a systematic examination of185flares from the SMM/GRS γ-ray detector and identify23electron-dominated events whose energy spectra show clear double power-laws. We then conduct a statistical study of these events and15spectral hardening events that were studied in previous literature. For38events that have γ1, all but one are in the range of2.5to4.5. For34events that have γ2,31of them are in the range of1.5to2.5. In7events we have γ1—γ2>2. It is also found that the spectral index below the break (γ1) anti-correlates with the break energy (εb). Furthermore, γ1also anti-correlates with Fr, the fraction of photons above the break to the total non-thermal photons. The statistical results provide a stringent constraint on the underlying electron acceleration mechanism. Spectral breaks as large as2are hard to explain by merely including electron-electron bremsstrahlung or relativistic correction of the electron-nucleon cross section.
We suggest that the hardening in photon spectrum reflects an intrinsic hard-ening in the source electron spectrum. Then we propose an electron acceleration model based on diffusive shock acceleration mechanism at a finite-width flare ter-mination shock. The intensity of the turbulence I(k) determines the magnitude of the diffusion coefficient k, which in turn controls whether a spectral hard-ening will occur. At low energies electrons resonate with the dissipation range turbulence, while at high energies electrons resonate with the inertial range tur-bulence. As a result of the difference of the turbulence spectral indices between the dissipation range and inertial range, we obtain a broken electron spectrum with hardening at high energies by numerically solving the1-D time-dependent Parker's particle transport equation. We assume the turbulence spectral index in the inertial range εd=2.7, and consider three cases for the dissipation range∈i.5/3,1.5and1.0. We find that in these three cases, the obtained electron spectra can be well fit by a double-power-law, and the fitted parameters are consistent with those observed in flare emission spectra. We also find that the proposed scenario can explain some of the observational results. Therefore we offer a direct and promising explanation for the observed spectral hardening in solar flares.
引文
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章振大,日冕物理,科学出版社,2000.
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