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公众的声音:19世纪末20世纪初美国的市民社会与公共空间
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摘要
19世纪末20世纪初的这个世纪之交,是美国历史上的重要转捩点。随着工业化的迅猛发展,美国进入快速城市化时期,一系列城市社会问题亦随之产生。城市公共空间由于其公共性和开放性,是城市社会问题表现最为集中的地方,也是最能体现国家、市民社会和个体三者关系的领域。本文以19世纪末20世纪初美国的市民社会和城市公共空间及其关系为主题,聆听“公众的声音”,具体分析这一时期美国城市公共空间的整饬和改革这一中心议题,从而解读“城市与人”的主旨。
     以城市公共空间为视角,可以发现,在美国快速城市化时期,面对城市公共空间中存在的种种弊端,民众发出了抱怨和不满的声音;到19世纪末年,市民化的民众在中产阶级的引导下终于觉醒,他们共同发出了改革的呐喊;不过,伴随着国家主义的兴起,集体主义逐渐向个人主义渗透,个体追求自由的努力一直存在。从政治和文化意义来看,在世纪之交的这个文化周期里,个体的自由问题和以往一样是城市的重要主题。同时,这三种声音既反映了美国城市化发展的历史真实,也展示了在城市公共空间上不同群体之间的关系,以及国家、市民社会和个体三者之间的关系。
     19世纪末20世纪初,在纽约、芝加哥、克利夫兰、旧金山、洛杉矶、丹佛、圣路易斯等城市发生的公共空间的整饬和改革的历史,表明了这场世纪之交的社会运动的普遍性意义。这样的普遍性还表现在大西洋两岸的主要资本主义国家的城市所共享的普世价值和思想观念——表现为“工艺美术”风格、巴洛克样式、新古典主义和维多利亚时代的文化形态和价值观。当然,美国一贯的作为在于它能够将那些共享的思想或方法制造出独具特色的结果,在本文中这种结果表现为三种声音所表征的“公众”和市民社会的意义;以及城市公共空间的整饬和改革所反映出的独特的政治、文化模式和民主气息。
     围绕19世纪末20世纪初美国的城市公共空间的整饬和改革的历史叙事,探究这一时期美国的市民社会与公共空间的变迁和它们之间的关系,从而去发现复杂的社会关系是如何经历流变的,文化资本和政治资源是如何流动的,是本文试图有所创新的尝试。作为“文化转向”的城市史研究,本文提出“城市与人”的分析框架,以期丰富对相关问题的探讨和研究,同时为相关问题的探讨和研究提供一个分析的视角和路径。应该说,对于那些现今处于快速城市化时期的发展中国家而言,美国在上一个世纪之交的经验显然能够提供一些借鉴和启迪。
The very turn of the 20~(th) century is the important turning point in Americanhistory.Along with the swift and violent development of the industrialization,America has entered into the era of rapid urbanization,and series of social problemsin cities come forth subsequently.Because of the commonality and opening of theurban public spaces,they were the places which exhibited most amounts of urbanproblems and the spheres which embodied mostly the relations among the State,Civilsociety and Individual.With the subject of American civil society and urban publicspaces,this article reappears the“voices of the public”at the turn of the 20~(th) century,analyzing in detail the central topic of the cleanup and reform to the American urbanpublic spaces during this period,eventually unscrambling the major idea of“cities andcitizens”.
     From the view of the urban public spaces,we can discover the facts that themasses uttered the voices of complain and dissatisfaction when they encountered theawful institutions of the urban public spaces during American rapid urbanization stage.Since the last decade of nineteenth century,citizens---the masses who come throughcivilization---had eventually awakened under the direction of middle class,all of themthen uttered the voice of reform altogether.At the same time,with the rise ofnationalism or nationalization,individualism had gradually replaced by collectivism,so the pursuing to freedom had always been.In the meaning of politic and culture,thetheme of individual freedom was one of the important subject in the cities as before inthe cultural cycle at the turn of the 20~(th) century.What's more,these three voices notonly reflected the historical facts of American urbanization,but also revealed therelation among the different groups in the urban public spaces and the relationshipamong the State,Civil society and Individual.
     At the turn of the 20~(th) century,the history of the cleanup and reform to publicspaces in American cities such as New York,Chicago,Cleveland,San Francisco,LosAngels,Denver,and St.Louis have indicated that this social movement had universalmeaning.We also can find this universality from the general value andideology---such as Beaux Arts,Baroque style,Neoclassicism,and the concept of culture and value of Victorian era---in the cities of mostly capital countries.Indeed,such was the case with the United States that at all time it could produce characteristicoutcome by means of those ideas and techniques.In this article these outcomes arepresented as“the public”represented via three sorts of voices;and the unique politic,mode of culture and ethos of democracy demonstrated in the cleanup and reform tothe public spaces in the United States at the turn of the 20~(th) century.
     With the narratives on the cleanup and reform to American public spaces at theturn of the 20~(th) century,the intention of this article is to research into the evolution ofAmerican civil society and public spaces,and their relation,thereby to turn up thequestions that how the complicated social relationship has transformed,as well ashow the cultural capital and political resource has alternated.Thus the expatiation ofthis intention is an attempt that shows more or less originality.Actually,this article isbased on the analytic frame of“cities and citizens”by way of a paradigm of“culturalturn”in urban study,which is in order to enrich the relative discusses and studies ofthe correlative subjects,also to provide a analytic view and path to discuss and studythese correlative subjects.What's more,the experience and lessons as showed in thisarticle that the United States have obtained at the turn of the 20~(th) century,obviouslycan use for reference or elicitation for those countries especially developing countrieswhich now have come into the stage of rapid urbanization.
引文
①“固态”和“液态”的概念受到了英国社会学学者齐格蒙特·鲍曼(Zygmunt Bauman)所著《流动的现代性》的启发,参见:齐格蒙特·鲍曼:《流动的现代性》,欧阳景根译,上海:上海三联书店,2002年,第1-4页。
    ②Sun belt,该词最早见于美国新闻记者K.菲利普斯(Kevin Phillips)于1969年出版的《共和党多数的出现》(The Emerging Republican Majority),泛指二战后崛起的美国南部和西南部地区。参见:王旭:《美国城市发展模式:从城市化到大都市区化》,北京:清华大学出版社,2006年,第273页。
    ③中华人民共和国国家统计局:中华人民共和国2006年国民经济和社会发展统计公报,2007-02-28。
    ④“一切历史都是当代史”语出意大利历史学家克罗齐(Benedetto Croce,1866-1952),参见:《一切历史都是当代史》(Ogni storia e la storia contemporanea,Teoria e storia della storiografia,pp.3-54,Laterza,Roma-Bari,1976.),田时纲译文,载《世界哲学》,2002年第6期,第6-22页。
    ①李剑鸣教授曾经在其所著的《大转折的年代——美国进步主义运动研究》(天津:天津教育出版社,1992年)中指出,美国在19世纪末20世纪初陷入物质进步与社会整体改善的“二律背反”困境,第24页。
    ②约翰·拉普斯(John W.Reps),美国当代城市与区域研究专家,康奈尔大学荣誉教授。著有《城市美国的形成》(The Making of Urban America,1965)、《美国西部城市:边疆规划史》(Cities of the American West:A History of Frontier Urban Planning,1979)等。
    ③Urban Planning,1794-1918:Bibliography of Source Material in the Anthology,网址为:http://www.libr ary.cornell.edu/Reps/DOCS/homepage.htm,2007-11-27/2008-03-16.
    ④比如,建筑师John M.Carr(?)re、Arnold Brunner,景观设计师Walter Burley Griffin等。
    ①城市中的街道、广场、公园、立交桥、人行道、城墙和各种建筑物等都称为“城市元素”(urban element)。
    ②城市形态(urban form)作为一种过程,是人与自然互动的过程,是人改造自然的过程。作为一种结果,是人类活动的结果。其中包括国家和社会的活动。从人类社会活动的角度而言,城市形态是城市规划和布局的结果,不论一座城市是否有“规划”,城市形态在形成的过程中,必定包含了人们的设计理念和诉求。所不同的是,其中所包含的是“传统”还是“现代”的意涵。一般而言,城市形态可划分为有形形态和无形形态,前者指城市功能的空间分布、城市用地的几何形态、建筑结构形式等,后者指城市文化和社会的空间分布,包括文化、价值观、市民意识等。
    ③Arnold Brunner,Cleveland’s Group Plan,Proceedings of the Eighth National Conference on City Planning,Cleveland,June 5-7,1916.(New York,National Conference on City Planning,1916):pp.14-34.
    ④范式(paradigm),是由美国科学家托马斯·库恩(Thomas Kuhn)提出来的一个概念,指某些实际科学实践的公认范例——它们包括定律、理论、应用和仪器在一起——为特定的连贯的科学研究的传统提供模型。参见托马斯·库恩:《科学革命的结构》,金吾伦 等译,北京:北京大学出版社,2003年,第9页。
    ①The City in History:a Powerfully Incisive and Influential Look at the Development of the Urban Form through the Ages,中译本《城市发展史——起源、演变和前景》,宋俊岭、倪文彦译,北京:中国建筑工业出版社,2005年。
    ②The Death and Life of Great American Cities,中译本《美国大城市的死与生》,金衡山译,南京:译林出版社,2005年。
    ③即埃比尼泽·霍华德(Ebenezer Howard,1850-1928),英国城市规划师,著有《明日的田园城市》(Garden City of To-morrow.1902)
    ④中译本《非正当性的支配——城市的类型学》,康乐、简惠美译,桂林:广西师范大学出版社,2005年。
    ⑤“理想类型”(ideal type)是德国社会学家马克斯·韦伯(Max Weber,1864-1920)提出来的一种社会科学研究方法,指的是达到理想状态的类型或研究。因为任何科学系统都无法将现实中的所有个别现象都囊括进去,所以,韦伯致力于构建理想类型解决由此带来的困境。韦伯指出,理想类型“在所有情况下,合乎理性的也好,非理性的也好,它离开现实,并服务于认识现实,其形式是通过表明一种历史现象接近这些概念的一个或若干个的程度,可以对这种现象进行归纳。”参见:马克斯·韦伯:《经济与社会》(上卷),林荣远译,北京:商务印书馆,1997年,第52页。这里是指韦伯在《非正当的支配性——城市的类型学》一书中提供了一个关于城市的理论分析和解释模式。
    ⑥Georg Simmel,The Metropolis and Mental Life,载《城市社会学文选》,于海主编,上海:复旦大学出版社,2005年,第1-14页。带注释的完整版可见:http://condor.depaul.edu/~dweinste/intro/simmel_M&ML.htm.
    ⑦《蒙塔尤》是法国历史学家埃马钮埃尔·勒华拉杜里(Emmanuel Le Roy Ladruie)所著的关于1294-1324年奥克西坦尼的一个山村的一部历史人类学和心态史学著作。这里引用“蒙塔尤”意指心态史学或心理史学的研究方法。中译本,许明龙、马胜利译,北京:商务印书馆,1997年。
    ⑧Louis Wirth,Urbanism as a Way of Life,The American,Journal of Sociology,Vol.44,No.1(Jul.,1938),pp.1-24.在于海主编的《城市社会学文选》(上海:复旦大学出版社,2005年)一书中也有全文转载,第44-57页。
    ①Spaces of Hope,中译本《希望的空间》,胡大平译,南京:南京大学出版社,2006年。
    ②Urban Social Geography:an Introduction,中译本《城市社会地理学导论》,柴彦威、张景秋等译,北京:商务印书馆,2005年。
    ③The Interpretation of Cultures,中译本《文化的解释》,韩莉译,南京:译林出版社,1999年。
    ④Flesh and Stone:The Body and the City in Western Civilization,中译本《肉体与石头:西方文明中的身体与城市》,黄煜文译,上海:上海世纪出版集团,2006年。
    ⑤在市民社会与国家的关系、以及思想文化的框架中,对这些学者思想的了解参考了以下著作:马克·尼奥克里尔斯的《管理市民社会》(陈小文译,北京:商务印书馆,2008年),戴维·库尔珀的《纯粹现代性批判——黑格尔、海德格尔及其以后》(臧佩洪译,北京:商务印书馆,2004年版),马歇尔·伯曼的《一切坚固的东西都烟消云散了——现代性体验》徐大建、张辑译,北京:商务印书馆,2003年),海登·怀特的《元史学:十九世纪欧洲的历史想像》(陈新译,南京:译林出版社,2004年),陆扬的《大众文化理论》(上海:复旦大学出版社,2008年)。
    ①关于19世纪末20世纪初“人口流动”问题,可以参考:Stephan Thernstrom,Notes on the Historical Study of Social Mobility,Comparative Studies in Society and History,Vol.10,No.2 (Jan.,1968),pp.162-172;Jürgen KockaLe,The Study of Social Mobility and the Formation of the Working Class in the 19th Century,Mouvement social,No.111,Georges Haupt parmi nous (Apr.-Jun.,1980),pp.97-117.
    ②何塞·奥尔特加-加塞特:《大众的反叛》,刘训练等译,长春:吉林人民出版社,2004年。
    ①古斯塔夫·勒庞:《乌合之众:大众心理学研究》,冯克利译,北京:中央编译出版社,2005年。
    ②约翰·凯里:《知识分子与大众:文学知识界的傲慢与偏见,1880-1939》,吴庆宏译,南京:译林出版社,2008年,第31页。
    ③约翰·凯里:《知识分子与大众:文学知识界的傲慢与偏见,1880-1939》,第106页。
    ④王迪:《街头文化:成都公共空间、下层民众与地方政治,1870-1930》,第18页。
    ⑤Popular culture in early modern Europe,中译本《欧洲近代早期的大众文化》,杨豫等译,上海:上海人民出版社,2005年。
    ⑥Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson,ed.,Rethinking Popular Culture:Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies,University of California Press,Berkeley and Los Angeles,California,1991.
    ①Table 10.Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places:1870,Source:U.S.Bureau of the Census,Intemet Release date:June 15,1998.
    ②Table 15.Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places:1920,Source:U.S.Bureau of the Census,Internet Release date:June 15,1998.
    ③Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,Cambridge:Harvard University Press,1992.
    ④Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,pp.3-7.
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:美国进步主义时期的美国人》,萧易译,上海:上海人民出版社,2008年,“致谢”,第3页。
    ②Robert H.Wiebe,The Search for Oder,1877-1920,(New York:Hill and Wang,1967),pp.42-43.转引自《民主的不满:美国在寻求一种公共哲学》,第237-238页。
    ③伍德罗·威尔逊在1912年竞选总统时说:“在我们这个时代,存在这样一种感觉,个人被淹没了。”
    ④迈克尔·桑德尔:《民主的不满:美国在寻求一种公共哲学》,曾纪茂译,南京:江苏人民出版社,2008年,第243页。
    ①理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,李继宏译,上海:上海译文出版社,2008年,第166-180页。
    ②理查德·桑内特:《肉体与石头:西方文明中的身体与城市》,第3页、第139页、第253页。
    ③约翰·凯里:《知识分子与大众:文学知识界的傲慢与偏见,1880-1939》,第1页。
    ①马克·吉罗德:《城市与人:一部社会与建筑的历史》,第三部分:迅速扩张的城市,第257页,郑炘译,北京:中国建筑工业出版社,2008年。
    ①陆伟芳:《中产阶级与近代英国城市郊区扩展》,《史学理论研究》,2007年第4期,第54页。
    ①19世纪末有许多城市老板就是爱尔兰人,比如纽约几乎成了爱尔兰人的天下,他们控制了该市的政治机器坦幕尼协会(Tammany Hall)和政治选举。参见王寅:《爱尔兰移民在美国社会的崛起与融合》,《世界民族》,2003年第4期,第38-48页。
    ①约翰·基恩:《市民社会:旧形象、新观察》,王令愉等译,上海:上海远东出版社,2006年,第20页。
    ①大卫·库尔珀:《纯粹现代性批判——黑格尔、海德格尔及其以后》,第51页。
    ②亚里士多德:《政治学》,吴寿彭译,北京:商务印书馆,1965年,第3页、第44-45页。
    ③Ferguson,Adam,An Essay on the History of Civil Society,北京:中国政法大学出版社,2003年英文影印版。
    ④有关黑格尔、马克思、葛兰西和福柯关于市民社会与国家的观点参考了:马克·尼奥克里尔斯:《管理市民社会》、约翰·基恩:《市民社会:旧形象,新观察》、邓正来、J.C.亚历山大:《国家与市民社会:一种社会理论的研究路径》(北京:中央编译出版社,2005年)。
    ⑤Mark Neocleous.From Civil Society to the Social.The British Journal of Sociology,vol.46,No.3(Sept.,1995),pp.395-408.
    ①约翰·基恩:《市民社会:旧形象,新观察》(Civil Society:Old Images,New Visions)。
    ②约翰·基恩:《市民社会:旧形象,新观察》,第3页。
    ③Krishan Kumar.Civil Society:an Inquiry into the Usefulness of an Historical Term.The British Journal of Sociology,Vol.44,No.3 (Sep.,1993),pp.375-395.
    ④Christopher G.A.Bryant.Social Self-organisation,Civility and Sociology:a Comment on Kumar's “Civil Society”,The British Journal of Sociology,vol.44,No 3(Sep.,1993),pp.397-401.
    ①Social Self-organisation,Civility and Sociology:a Comment on Kumar's “Civil Society”,p.399.
    ②Krishan Kumar.Civil Society Again:a Reply to Christopher Bryant's ‘Social self-organisation,Civility and Sociology’,The British Journal of Sociology,vol.45,No.1 (Mar.,1994),pp.127-131.
    ③Christopher G.A.Bryant.A Further Comment on Kumar's ‘Civil Society’.The British Journal of Sociology,vol45,No.3,September 1994:pp.497-499.
    ④关于“市民社会”概念的讨论还可以参见布莱恩特写的另一篇文章:Civil Society and Pluralism:A Conceptual Analysis.Sisyphus;1992,8,1,103-119.
    ⑤Thomas Carothers.Civil Society.Foreign Policy,(Winter 1999-2000),18-29,此文由薄燕译为中文,题目是《市民社会》,发表在《国外社会科学文摘》,2000年第7期,第32-35页。
    ①比如:Gary Alan Fine and Brooke Harrington.Tiny Publics:Small Groups and Civil Society.Sociological Theory,Vol.22,No.3 (Sep.,2004),pp.341-356;Gurpreet Mahajan.Civil Society,State and Democracy.Economic and Political Weekly,Vol.34,No.49 (Dee.4-10,1999),pp.3471-3472;Susanne Hoeber Rudolph.Civil Society and the Realm of Freedom.Economic and Political Weekly,Vol.35,No.20 (May 13-19,2000),pp.1762-1769;Richard Madsen.The Public Sphere,Civil Society and Moral Community:A Research Agenda for Contemporary.Modern China,Vol.19,No.2,Symposium:“Public Sphere”/“Civil Society” in China? Paradigmatic Issues in Chinese Studies,Ⅲ (Apr.,1993),pp.183-198;Andreas W.Daum.Science,Politics,and Religion:Humboldtian Thinking and the Transformations of Civil Society in Germany,1830-1870.Osiris,2nd Series,Vol.17,Science and Civil Society (2002),pp.107-140;Alice L.Conklin.Civil Society,Science,and Empire in Late Republican France:The Foundation of Paris's Museum of Man.Osiris,2nd Series,Vol.17,Science and Civil Society (2002),pp.255-290;James R.Wood and Jon P.Bloch.The Role of Church Assemblies in Building a Civil Society:The Case of the United Methodist General Conference's Debate on Homosexuality.Sociology of Religion,Vol.56,No.2 (Summer,1995),pp.121-136;Jude L.Fernando and Alan W.Heston.Introduction:NGOs between States,Markets,and Civil Society.Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.554,The Role of NGOs:Charity and Empowerment (Nov.,1997),pp.8-20;Catalina Romero.Globalization,Civil Society and Religion from a Latin American Standpoint,Sociology of Religion,Vol.62,No.4,Special Issue:Religion and Globalization at the Turn of the Millennium (Winter,2001),pp.475-490;Elisabeth Jay Friedman,Kathryn Hochstetler.Assessing the Third Transition in Latin American Democratization:Representational Regimes and Civil Society in Argentina and Brazil,Comparative Politics,Vol.35,No.1 (Oct.,2002),pp.21-42.
    ②邓正来、J.C.亚历山大:《国家与市民社会:一种社会理论的研究路径》,对此书的评论可参见:郁建兴:《中国市民社会研究的新进展——〈国家与市民社会〉(增订版)评介》,载《法制与社会发展》,2006年第3期,第156-160页。
    ③邓正来:《国家与社会:中国市民社会研究》,成都:四川人民出版社,1997年。
    ①托马斯·潘恩:《常识》,何实译,北京:华夏出版社,2004年,第2页。
    ②托马斯·潘恩:《常识》,第2页。
    ③Frank Hearn,Moral Order and Social Disorder:The American Search for Civil Society,New York:Aldine De Gruyter,1997.
    ①关于此书的内容,参考了约翰·休伊特的评论性文章,见:John P.Hewitt.[untitled],Reviewed work(s):Moral Order and Social Disorder:The American Search for Civil Society.by Frank Hearn,The American Journal of Sociology,Vol.104,No.4 (Jan.,1999),pp.1246-1248.另外还有一篇对比性的评论文章:Olivier Zunz.Review:Philanthropy as Creed:The Encounter between Past and Present.Reviewed work(s):American Creed:Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society,1700-1865 by Kathleen D.McCarthy,Reviews in American History,Vol.32,No.4 (Dec.,2004),pp.506-511.
    ②Kathleen D.McCarthy,American Creed:Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society,1700-1865,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2003.
    ③social equality,religious freedom,and the right to engage in civic activism.
    ④关于此书的评论可以参见:Amy S.Greenberg.[untitled],Reviewed work(s):American Creed:Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society,1700-1865 by Kathleen D.McCarthy.Journal of the Early Republic,Vol.23,No.4 (Winter,2003),pp.617-620;Johann N.Neem.[untitled],Reviewed work(s):American Creed:Philanthropy and the Rise of Civil Society,1700-1865 by Kathleen D.McCarthy,The New England Quarterly,Vol.77,No.2 (Jun.,2004),pp.323-325.
    ⑤此文收入杨生茂主编:《美国历史学家特纳及其学派》,北京:商务印书馆,1984年,第3-38页。英文版可见:Frederick Jackson Turner,The Frontier In American History,New York:Henry Holt And Company,1920.或者:Frederick Jackson Turner,The Frontier In American History,Created by Michael W.Kidd,Summer,1996,University of Virginia,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~Hyper/TURNER/.
    ⑥Daniel J.Elazar.Land Space and Civil Society in America.The Western Historical Quarterly,Vol.5,No.3 (Jul.,1974),pp.261-284.
    ①Daniel J.Elazar.Land and Liberty in American Civil Society.Publius,Vol.18,No.4,Land and Liberty in American Society:The Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787(Autumn,1988),pp.1-29.
    ②Jeffrey C.Alexander and Philip Smith.The Discourse of American Civil Society:A New Proposal for Cultural Studies.Theory and Society,Vol.22,No.2(Apr.,1993),pp.151-207.此文亦收入邓正来、亚历山大主编的《国家与市民社会——一种社会理论的研究路径》,第230-278页。本文参考了此书的译文。
    ③Marshall Battani,David R.Hall,Rosemary Powers.Cultures' Structures:Making Meaning in the Public Sphere.Theory and Society,Vol.26,No.6 (Dec.,1997),pp.781-812.
    ④Jeffrey C.Alexander and Philip Smith.Cultural Structures,Social Action,and the Discourses of American Civil Society:A Reply to Battani,Hall,and Powers.Theory and Society,Vol.28,No.3 (Jun.,1999),pp.455-461.
    ⑤The Discourse of American Civil Society:A New Proposal for Cultural Studies,p.166.也可参见:Cultural Structures,Social Action,and the Discourses of American Civil Society:A Reply to Battani,Hall,and Powers,p.458.
    ①余新忠的文章《中国的民间力量与公共领域——近年中美关于近世市民社会研究的回顾与思考》介绍了中美学者对中国近世市民社会研究的情况,载《学习与探索》,1999年第4期,第117-123页。
    ②朱世达:《美国市民社会研究》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2004年。
    ①Mary P.Ryan.Civil Society as Democratic Practice:North American Cities during the Nineteenth Century.Journal of Interdisciplinary History,Vol.29,No.4,Patterns of Social Capital:Stability and Change in Comparative Perspective:Part Ⅱ(Spring,1999),pp.559-584.
    ②Kristian Stokke and Giles Mohan.The Convergence around Local Civil Society and the Dangers of Localism.Social Scientist,Vol.29,No.11/12(Nov.-Dec.,2001),pp.3-24.
    ①Hannah Arendt,The Human Condition,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1998.关于阿伦特“公共领域”的思想也可参见台湾蔡英文博士所著《政治实践与公共空间》(北京:新星出版社,2006年),本书是华文世界中第一部全面阐释阿伦特政治思想的专著。另外,邹晓莉的硕士学位论文《公共领域与生活方式——阿伦特“公共领域”思想研究》(南京师范大学,2007年)则侧重于探讨阿伦特的“公共领域”思想。
    ①哈贝马斯的“公共领域”含义可见:哈贝马斯:《公共领域的结构转型》,曹卫东等译,上海:学林出版社,1999年,第32页;Jürgen Habermas,“The Public Sphere:An Encyclopedia Article,” New Ger man Critique No.3 (Aut.1974),49-55;Douglas Kellner.Habermas,the Public Sphere,and Democracy:A Critical Intervention.http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/papers/habermas.htm;Marshall Soules.Jürgen Habermas and the Public Sphere.http://records.viu.ca/~soules/media301/habermas.htm;Peter UweHohendahl.Critical Theory,Public Sphere and Culture:Jürgen Habermas and his Critics.http://www.m ao52115.tcu.edu.tw/handout/classic/extension/05 Hohendahl Critical%20Theory%20Public%20Sphere.pdf;Craig Calhoun,ed.,Habermas and the Public Sphere,The MIT Press (March 2,1993);以及付建明的文章《论哈贝马斯市民社会论域中的公共领域》,载《四川行政学院学报》,2007年第1期,第20-22页。
    ②理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,中文版序中的比喻。
    ③理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,中文版序,第2页。
    ④理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,第19页。
    ①理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,第20页。
    ②Anthony M.Orum and Xianming Chen,The World of Cities:Places in Comparative and Historical Perspective,Blackwell Publishing,2003.中文版《城市的世界:对地点的比较分析和历史分析》(曾茂娟等译,上海:世纪出版集团,上海人民出版社,2005年)。
    ①帕特里斯·费里奇:《现代信息交流史:公共空间和私人生活》,刘大明译北京:中国人民大学生出版社,2008年,第263-268页。
    ②扬·盖尔:《交往与空间》(何人可译,北京:中国建筑工业出版社,2002年),与拉尔斯·吉姆松合著:《公共空间·公共生活》(汤羽扬等译,北京:中国建筑工业出版社,2003年)、《新城市空间》(何人可等译,北京:中国建筑工业出版社,2003年)。
    ③日本学者芦原义信先生所著的《街道的美学》对城市中的街道提供了一种美学视角,也值得推介。中译本由尹培桐译出,天津:百花文艺出版社,2006年。
    ①Randall Amster.Street People and the Contested Realms of Public Space,LFB Scholarly Publishing LLC,2004.
    ②Setha Low,Dana Taplin,and Suzanne Scheld.Rethinking Urban Parks:Public Space and Cultural Diversity.University of Texas Press,2005.
    ③或许是出于对这一现象的追问,许多学者从种族、性别、文化的角度讨论了公共空间或公共领域的问题,比如,Marshall Battani,David R.Hall,Rosemary Powers.Cultures' Structures:Making Meaning in the Public Sphere.Theory and Society,Vol.26,No.6 (Dec.,1997),pp.781-812;Gail Lee Dubrow.Claiming Public Space for Women's History in Boston:A Proposal for Preservation,Public Art,and Public Historical Interpretation.Frontiers:A Journal of Women Studies,Vol.13,No.1 (1992),pp.111-148;Margaret Crawford.Contesting the Public Realm:Struggles over Public Space in Los Angeles.Journal of Architectural Education (1984-),Vol.49,No.1 (Sep.,1995),pp.4-9;Jane H.Hill.Language,Race,and White Public Space.American Anthropologist,New Series,Vol.100,No.3 (Sep.,1998),pp.680-689;John Brigham and Diana R.Gordon.Law in Politics:Struggles over Property and Public Space on New York City's Lower East Side.Law & Social Inquiry,Vol.21,No.2 (Spring,1996),pp.265-283;Alex Wall.Movement and Public Space:Equipping the City for a Mobile Culture.Journal of Architectural Education (1984-),Vol.49,No.1 (Sep.,1995),pp.22-28;Thomas Nagel.Personal Rights and Public Space.Philosophy and Public Affairs,Vol.24,No.2 (Spring,1995),pp.83-107;H.D.Lewis.Private and Public Space.Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society,New Series,Vol.53 (1952-1953),pp.79-94;Jaquelin Robertson.Private Space in the Public Realm.Design Quarterly,No.129,Skyways (1985),pp.4-7;Kate Winter,Denise Scott Brown,Ron Shiffman,Alan Plattus,Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk,Fred Koetter,Stephen Kieran.Public and Private Space.Perspecta,Vol.30,Settlement Patterns (1999),pp.92-97;Vito Acconci.Public Space in a Private Time.Critical Inquiry,Vol.16,No.4 (Summer,1990),pp.900-918;Abigail A.van Slyck.The Lady and the Library Loafer:Gender and Public Space in Victorian America.Winterthur Portfolio,Vol.31,No.4,Gendered Spaces and Aesthetics (Winter,1996),pp.221-242;Peter G.Goheen.The Assertion of Middle-class Claims to Public Space in Late Victorian Toronto.Journal of Historical Geography,29,1 (2003) 73±92;David Scobey.Nymphs and Satyrs:Sex and the Bourgeois Public Sphere in Victorian New York.Winterthur Portfolio,Vol.37,No.1 (Spring,2002),pp.43-66.
    ④王笛:《街头文化:成都公共空间、下层民众与地方政治,1870-1930》,李德英等译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2006年;同样的讨论见于他早些时候发表的一篇论文:Di Wang.Street Culture:Public space and Urban Commoners in Late-Qing Chengdu.Modern China,Vol.24,No.1 (Jan.,1998),pp.34-72.
    ⑤Elissa Rosenberg.Public Works and Public Space:Rethinking the Urban Park.Journal of Architectural Education (1984-),Vol.50,No.2 (Nov.,1996),pp.89-103.
    ①Don Mitchell.The End of Public Space? People's Park,Definitions of the Public,and Democracy.Annals of the Association of American Geographers,Vol.85,No.1 (Mar.,1995),pp.108-133.
    ②Ray Rosenzweig,The Rise of the Saloon,in Rethink Popular Culture,ed.by Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson,Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1991,pp.121-156.
    ③Lawrence W.Levine,William Shakespeare and the American People:A Study in Cultural Transformation,in Rethink Popular Culture,ed.by Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson,Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1991.
    ④Galen Cranz.The Sociology of Public Space.Design Quarterly,No.129,Skyways (1985),pp.22-24.
    ⑤比如,Joseph M.Siry.Chicago's Auditorium Building:Opera or Anarchism.The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,Vol.57,No.2 (Jun.,1998),pp.128-159;James Hull Miller.Initial Factors in Theatre Planning.Educational Theatre Journal,Vol.8,No.2 (May,1956),pp.89-96;Loren Kruger.Our Theater? Stages in an American Cultural History.American Literary History,Vol.8,No.4 (Winter,1996),pp.699-714;George Beiswanger.Theatre Today:Symptoms and Surmises.The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism,Vol.3,No.9/10,Art in a Post War World (1944),pp.19-29;Bruce A.MeConaehie.Towards a Postpositivist Theatre History.Theatre Journal,Vol.37,No.4 (Dee.,1985),pp.465-486;Lucile Gafford.Transcendentalist Attitudes toward Drama and the Theatre.The New England Quarterly,Vol.13,No.3 (Sep.,1940),pp.442-466.另外,通过两篇书评也可以透视剧场、剧院的发展演变的历史:Vincent L.Angotti.Review:[untitled].Reviewed work(s):Documents of American Theater History:Famous American Playhouses,1716-1971 by William C.Young.Educational Theatre Journal,Vol.28,No.3 (Oct.,1976),pp.430-432;Henry Hope Reed.Review:[untitled].Reviewed work(s):The City and the Theatre:New York Playhouses from Bowling Green to Times Square by Mary C.Henderson.The American Historical Review,Vol.80,No.2 (Apr.,1975),pp.476-477.
    ①Henri Lefebvre,The Production of Space,Wiley-Blackwell,1992.根据列斐伏尔于1970-1973年间在世界各地的几所大学所做演讲整理的《空间与政治》一书对于了解社会阶级与空间的关系和城市政治也有启迪意义。亨利·列斐伏尔:《空间与政治》,李春译,上海:上海人民出版社,2008年。
    ②Garden City of To-morrow,中译本《明日的田园城市》,金纪元译,北京:商务印书馆,2000年。
    ①福克讷:《美国经济史》(下卷),王锟译,北京:商务印书馆,1989年,第37页。
    ②福克讷援引迈克·马尔霍尔(Michael George Mulhall)的著作,指出:(1894年时)“美国生产了等于英国两倍,等于所有欧洲各国的一半的产品。”参见《美国经济史》(下卷),第38页。马尔霍尔的著作《工业与国民财富》对美国和其它国家的工农业产值进行了比较分析。详见:Michael George Muihall,Industries and Wealth of Nations,London:Longmans,1896.
    ③杨生茂、陆镜生:《美国史新编》,北京:中国人民大学出版社,1990年,第229页。
    ①关于“异化劳动”或人的异化,可参见马克思:《1844年经济学哲学手稿》,刘丕坤译,北京:人民出版社,1979年,第42-57页。
    ①哈罗德·福克讷:《美国经济史》,上卷,第373页。
    ②1860年代,美国内战造成的结局是北方自由资本主义对南方奴役性种植园制度的胜利,它使南方社会关系极大地松动,南北方之间的文化差异开始缩小。在城市化的意义上,黑人的解放为城市发展提供了自由劳动力,在人口流动上,南方黑人逐渐向北方城市尤其是芝加哥、底特律等北方工业城市迁移。与之相伴的则是,城市的异质性特征大为增强,人际关系更趋复杂。
    ③Table 4.Region and Country or Area of Birth of the Foreign-Born Population,With Geographic Detail Shown in Decennial Census Publications of 1930 or Earlier:1850 to 1930 and 1960 to 1990,Source:U.S.Bureau of the Census,Internet Release date:March 9,1999.
    ④Table 18.Nativity of the Population by Urban-Rural Residence and Size of Place:1870 to 1940 and 1960 to 1990,Source:U.S.Bureau of the Census,Internet Release date:March 9,1999,Washington,D.C.20233-8800.
    ①Historical Census Browser,University of Virginia Library,http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/his tcensus/.
    ①有轨马车成本较高,因此在1873年左右有的城市使用蒸汽作为动力,产生,用蒸汽作动力的机车在美国使用并不多,主要是英联邦成员国的一些城市使用广泛,被称为“有轨机车”(tram engine)。
    ①对于美国19世纪末的城市高架桥的认识来自于:Collins French,History of the Cleveland Viaduct,1878,The Cleveland Digital Library (http://web.ulib.csuohio.edu/SpecColl/cdl/),1999-05-06/2005-12-01.
    ②塞缪尔·莫里森:《美利坚共和国的成长》下册,南开大学历史系美国史研究室译,天津:天津人民出版社,1980年,第28页。
    ①Frederick Jackson Turner,The Frontier In American History,1920,p.3.
    ①王旭:《美国城市发展模式:从城市化到大都市区化》, 第102页。
    ②美国学者理查德·韦德即以“城市边疆”为题讨论了1790-1830年间的美国西部的崛起。参见:Richard C.Wade,The Urban Frontier:The Rise of Western Cities,1790-1830,University of Illinois Press,1996.
    ③Carl Abbott,The Metropolitan Frontier:Cities in the Modern American West,The University of Arizona Press,1993,p.xvii.
    ④王旭:《美国城市发展模式:从城市化到大都市区化》,第104页。
    ①Arthur Chandler,Comparing Frontiers:A Scout Report,http://charon.sfsu.edu/FRONTIERS/ComparingFrontiers.html,2007-11-20.
    ②Jack D.Forbes,“Frontier in American History and the Role of the Frontier Historian”,Ethnohistory,Vol.15,No.2(Spring,1968),p.204.
    ①Frederick Engels,The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844,Translated by Florence Kelley Wischnewetzky,Gutenberg etext (www.gutenberg.net),Internet Archive(www.archive.org).
    ②The Legend of 1900 (1998).
    ③“山巅之城”(City upon a Hill)出自北美殖民地时代的清教领袖、思想家约翰·温思罗普(John Winthrop,1587-1649)于1630年所做的布道演讲“基督博爱的典范”(AModel of Christian Charity),该文可见于:http://history.hanover.edu/texts/winthmod.html,1996-08/2009-04-12.
    ④H.G.韦尔斯:《基普斯》,第240页,转引自约翰·凯里:《知识分子与大众:文学知识界的傲慢与偏见,1880-1939》,第3页。
    ①Jose Ortega y Gassett.The Revolt of the Masses.PDF.
    ②Volume 3:Report on Crime,Pauperism,and Benevolence in the United States,Census of Population and Housing,1890 Census,Washington D.C.:Govrnment Printing Office,1896.
    ③“异质性”(heterogeneity)与“同质性”(homogeneity),前者更多地用以表示城市生活的复杂性,比如,一个社区的居民在族裔上包括白人、黑人、亚洲人,而在社会经济地位上又包括上层、中层和底层各个阶级的群体,这是典型的异质性特征。与之相反,某一社区若只有上层或中产阶级白人居住则表现为同质性特征。与城市生活相对,基于血缘关系的村落生活或以初级纽带为主的农村生活表现为同质性特征。路易斯·沃思将“异质性”作为城市特性的三个指标之一,参见:Louis Wirth,Urbanism as a Way of Life The American,Journal of Sociology,Vol.44,No.1 (Jul.,1938),pp.1-24.
    ①德莱塞:《美国悲剧》,第二卷第五章。
    ①Jacob A.Riis.How The Other Half Lives.New York:Charles Harles Scribner's Sons,1890,p.123.
    ②“价格欺骗”(pricegouging)是一个贬义词,指的是卖方的定价非常高,有失合理和公平。
    ③Jacob A.Riis.How The Other Half Lives.New York:Charles HARLES Scribner's Sons,1890,p.21.
    ①Paupers in Almshouses,Volume 3:Report on Crime,Pauperism,and Benevolence in the United States,Part 2:Tables,Census of Population and Housing,1890 Census,Washington D.C.:Govrnment Printing Office,1896,p.267.
    ②西奥多·德莱塞的小说《金融家》里的主人公。
    ③德莱塞:《美国悲剧》,第二卷第五章。
    ①Wilfred Henry Alburn,This Cleveland of Ours,P.930.
    ②Lincoln Steffens.The Shame of the Cities.Hill and Wang,Inc.,1957,p.9.
    ①詹姆斯·布赖斯:《美利坚合众国》,海口:海南出版社,2001年英文影印版,第429页。
    ②Melvin G.Holli,“Urban Reform in the Progressive Era”,in E.L.Gould,ed.,The Progressive Era (1974),p.135.
    ③The Lexow Commission on Criminal and Political Corruption in New York City,1895,in Howard Chudcoff,ed.,Major Problems in American Urban History,D.C.Heath and Company,Lexington,Massachusetts,Toronto,1994,pp.194-198.
    ④德莱塞小说《金融家》中的人物之一。
    ①“特别法令”(special act)与“一般法令”(general act)相对,是美国地方政府体制的一种独特的历史产物。一系列的“特别法令”构成了美国地方政府的“特别立法”(special legislation),也称为“地方立法”(local legislation),具体指的是美国州政府的一系列主要用于规制自治市(municipality)的法令。关于19世纪末美国州政府与自治市的法律关系,可参见:詹姆斯·布赖斯于1888年所著的《美利坚共和国》(James Bryce,The American Commonwealth,with an Introduction by Gary L.McDowell,2 vols,Indianapolis:Liberty Fund,1995.)的第45、47、51章的相关内容。
    ②Samuel Peter Orth:A History of Cleveland,Ohio,vol.1,1910,pp.245-248.
    ③Lincoln Steffens,The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens.2 vols.New York:Harcourt,Brace & Co.,1931.林肯·斯蒂芬斯的《自传》的中文译本名为《美国黑幕揭发报道先驱林肯·斯蒂芬斯自述》,收录于《新闻与揭丑》(Ⅱ),展江、万胜译,海口:海南出版社,2000年。
    ④20世纪初担任克利夫兰市市长的汤姆·约翰逊在其自传中指出:“特权就是由法律授予的、排斥其他竞争者的权力。”在他上任后,他在克利夫兰市推行反特权运动,他将此称为“人民的反特权运动”。参见:Tom L.Johnson,My Story,edited by Elizabeth J.Hauser,p.xxxv.
    ①Kenneth T.Jackson,Crabgrass Frontier:The Suburbanization of the United States,p.13.
    ②需要区分的是,这种在工业城市因工业化而形成的工作和生活郊区不同于上层富裕家庭及中产阶级家庭向郊区“主动”迁移所形成的居住模式。像芝加哥的卫星城、工厂郊区普尔曼(Pullman)与加利福尼亚州的里弗赛德(Riverside)就分别代表这前后两种不同的郊区模式。
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第145页。
    ②关于美国的新旧中产阶级,本文第三章将详细叙述。
    ③Samuel P.Hays,The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era,Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (October 1964),pp.157-169.
    ④Samuel P.Hays,“The Politics of Municipal Reform”,in Michael Perman,ed.,Perspectives on the American Past:Readings and Commentary on Issues in American History,vol.Ⅱ:1865 to the Present,Glenview:Scott,Foresman and Co.,1989,p.162.
    ①Frances Milton Trollope,Domestic Manners of the Americans,2 vols,London:Printed for Whittaker,Treacher,& Co.;New York:R & Printed for the Booksellers,1832.
    ①Jane Jacobs,The Death and Life of Great American Cities,New York:T he Modern Library,1993,p.37.
    ②芦原义信:《街道的美学》,第30页。
    ③John Dos Passos,1919,New York:Harcourt,Brace & Co.,1932,pp.105-106.
    ①比如,克利夫兰商会所编著的一本小册子中包含的图片(Cleveland,Ohio.Chamber of Commerce.Manufacturers and Wholesale Merchants Board.Cleveland,1919);或者詹姆斯·肯尼迪于1896年所著的《克利夫兰市建立、崛起和进步的历史(1796-1896)》一书中的插图(James Harrison Kennedy,A History of the City of Cleveland:Its Settlement,Rise and Progress,1796-1896,Cleveland:Imperial Press,1896),等等。
    ②德莱塞:《珍妮姑娘》,第十二章。
    ①Central Park,http://www.aviewoncities.com/nyc/centralpark.htm.
    ②Setha Low,Rethinking Urban Parks:Public Space and Cultural Diversity.University of Texas Press,2005,p.23.
    ③在19世纪最后三四十年里,城市改革派和有志之士逐渐在美国许多大城市中掀起了“公园运动”(Park Movement)。
    ①Allen C.Guelzo,Abraham Lincoln:Redeemer President,Wim.B.Eerdmans Pulishing Co.,1999,p.315.
    ①Mal(?)na (2001).
    ②Lawrence W.Levine,William Shakespeare and the American People:A Study in Cultural Transformation,in Rethink Popular Culture,ed.by Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson,Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1991.
    ③Cinema Paradiso(1988).
    ①在天堂电影院里,抽烟、叫骂、大声喧哗、衣衫不整无不表现着大众文化的形态,甚至还有一对男女在一片嘈杂声中明目张胆地做爱。
    ②李德华:《城市规划原理》,第512页。
    ①Arnold Brunner,Cleveland's Group Plan.
    ②即通过人际关系增加或降低政府运作的成本,对于19世纪末的美国许多大城市来说,“关系成本”表现为市政与利益集团之间的交易、城市政治机器通过“城市老板”对新移民施以小恩小惠而获取选票所形成的关系。“关系成本”的存在打破了市场竞争的规则,扰乱了市政秩序,不可能公平、公正、公开地提供市政服务。
    ③Allen C.Guelzo,Abraham Lincoln:Redeemer President,p.328.
    ①Saloon,源自法语“salon”(沙龙),也有沙龙的意思,表示“雅致的大会客厅”。
    ②Ray Rosenzweig,The Rise of the Saloon,in Rethink Popular Culture,ed.by Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson,Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press,1991,p.122.
    ③这一点在桃乐茜·理查森的日记中可以看到,参见:Dorothy Richardson,The long day:the story of a New York working girl,as told by herself,New York:The Century Co.,1911.
    ①Nelson J.Callahan and William F.Hickey,Irish Americans and their Communities of Cleveland,1978,p.91.
    ②托马斯·诺埃尔对1859-1910年间丹佛市的社会机构进行了统计,酒馆的数量从1859年的仅31个,增加到1910年的410个,不仅在增长率上高于其它社会机构,而且在数量上远远多于该市的其它社会机构。参见:Thomas J.Noel,The City and the Sloon:Denver,1858-1916,University of Nebraska Press,1982,p.116.转引自:刘丽华:《酒馆文化与美国男性工人的业余生活,1870-1920》,载《辽宁大学学报(哲学社会科学版)》,2005年第3期,第114页。
    ①约翰·多斯·帕索斯:《北纬四十二度》,董衡巽、朱世达译,上海:上海译文出版社,1988年,第15页。
    ①Pauline Maier[et al.],Inventing America:A History of the United States,vol.2,New York:W.W.Norton & Company,Inc.,2003,p.605.
    ②加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,刘德斌等译,北京:北京大学出版社,2008年,第549页。
    ①Alexandera Bergson,威拉·凯瑟的小说《哦!拓荒者》(O Pioneers!,1913)中的女主人公。
    ②加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第572页。
    ①弗兰克·诺里斯:《章鱼》,第二章。
    ②弗兰克·诺里斯:《章鱼》,第二章。
    ③斯·贝尔曼(S.Behrman),小说《章鱼》中的人物。
    ①任东来、孙庆:《20世纪美国反托拉斯垄断的第一枪》,智识学术网,2005-05-10/2008-12-15.
    ②霍夫斯塔特:《美国政治传统及其缔造者》,崔永禄等译,北京:商务印书馆,1994年,第184-185页。
    ①Melvin G.Holli,“Urban Reform in the Progressive Era”,in E.L.Gould,ed.,The Progressive Era (1974),p.133.
    ②人民党的英文为“populist”,也有学者将其译作平民党。
    ③杰拉尔德·冈德森:《美国经济史新编》,杨宇光 等译,北京:商务印书馆,1994年,第535页。
    ④多诺·怀特(Dana White)对进步主义者作了区分,他将20世纪之交出现在许多城市中的新一代进步主义者称为“城市主义者”(Urbanist),他们主要关注城市问题,与早期的共和党独立派旨在维护道德相区别。Blake McKelvey,American Urbanization:A Comparative History,Scott,Foresman and Company,Glenview,Illinois,1973.p.80.
    ①杰克·伦敦:《叛逆》,载《杰克·伦敦作品精粹》,雨宁选编,石家庄:河北教育出版社,1993年,第28页。
    ②《叛逆》的主人公。
    ①W.I.托马斯、F.兹纳涅茨基:《身处欧美的波兰农民》,南京:译林出版社,2000年,第64页。
    ②W.I.托马斯、F.兹纳涅茨基:《身处欧美的波兰农民》,第69页。
    ③有关19世纪末美国社会财富占有情况,可参见李剑鸣所撰《大转折的年代——美国进步主义运动研究》第28-31页的相关内容。根据美国国情普查局1893年的统计,当时美国9%的家庭占有全国71%的财富。参见:霍夫斯塔特:《改革时代——美国的新崛起》,俞敏洪等译,石家庄:河北人民出版社,1989年,第113页。
    ①菲利普·方纳:《美国工人运动史》第1卷,黄雨石译,北京:三联书店,1956年,第118-119页。
    ②菲利普·方纳:《美国工人运动史》第1卷,第119页。
    ①菲利普·方纳:《美国工人运动史》第1卷,第334页。
    ②菲利普·方纳:《美国工人运动史》第1卷,第336页。
    ③菲利普·方纳:《美国工人运动史》第2卷,第117-118页。
    ④实际上,直到1938年“罗斯福新政时期”,美国政府颁布《公平劳动标准法》(Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938),才在全国范围内实现八小时工作制。
    ⑤Eight Hours,http://www.contemplator.com/america/eighthour.html.
    ⑥关于“文化表征”详见本文第七章。
    ①陈依范:《美国华人史》,韩有毅等译,北京:世界知识出版社,1987年,第165页。
    ②菲利普·方纳:《美国工人运动史》第2卷,第448页。
    ①Ohio History Central:May Day Strike of 1886,http://ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=515&nm=May-Day-Strike-of-1886.
    ①德莱塞:《嘉莉妹妹》,第四十三章。
    ①也有人译作“赫斯伍德”。
    ②Pinkerton,美国俚语,意思是私人侦探。名称来源于苏格兰裔的美国侦探阿伦·平克顿(Allan Pinkerton,1819-1884),因其破坏工人罢工和工人统一而臭名昭著。
    ③Cheri Goldner,The Homestead Strike,1892,http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/camegie/strike.html.
    ④莎士比亚戏剧《威尼斯商人》中的吝啬鬼。
    ⑤在1896年大选中,资本与政治的结合表现得淋漓尽致。
    ⑥马克思、恩格斯:《共产党宣言》,北京:人民出版社,1997年,第40页。
    ①Table 20—Percentage of women engaged in gainful occupations,by divisions and states:1880-1920,Joseph A.Hill,Women in Gainful Occupations,1870 to 1920,a study of the trend of recent changes in the numbers,occupational,distribution,and family relationship of women reported in the census as following a gainful occupation,Washington:Government Printing Office,1929,p.30.
    ②Table 50—Numbet and Percentage of Married Women in the Total Number of Women Engaged in Nonagricultural Pursuits:1890-1920,Joseph A.Hill,Women in Gainful Occupations,1870 to 1920,a study of the trend of recent changes in the numbers,occupational,distribution,and family relationship of women reported in the census as following a gainful occupation,Washington:Government Printing Office,1929,p.77.
    ③Table 1—Number and proportion of persons gainfully occupied,by sex,for the United States:1880-1920,Chapter Ⅱ—Number and Sex of Occupied Persons,Department of Commerce,Fourteenth Census of the United States taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅳ,Population 1920,Occupations,Washington:Government Printing Office,1923,p.33.
    ④加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第597页。
    ⑤James West Davidson,Nation of Nations:a Narrative History of the American Republic,New York:McGraw-Hill,c2005,p.633.
    ①根据弗吉尼亚大学图书馆fisher数据库中的数据整理,见Historical Census Browser,http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collecions/stats/histcensus/。
    ②加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第598页。
    ①James West Davidson,Nation of Nations:a Narrative History of the American Republic,p.633.
    ②全称“Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions”。
    ①亨利·皮雷纳:《中世纪的城市》,陈国樑译,北京:商务印书馆,1985年,第122页。
    ②哈莉特·塔布曼(Harriet Tubman,1820-1913),美国废奴主义者,“地下铁路”的重要人物。
    ③弗雷德里克·道格拉斯(Frederick Douglass,1818-1895),起先得到好心的女主人的帮助,得以读书识字,后来成为美国废奴主义运动中的重要人物,美国历史上第一位担任外交使节的黑人。留有自传《一个美国黑奴的生活自述》(Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass,an American Slave,1845)。④哈莉特·斯通(Harriet Beecher Stowe,1811-1896),废奴主义者,“地下铁路”工作者,1852年写作《汤姆叔叔的小屋》(Uncle Tom's Cabin),戏剧性地描述了黑人在南方的遭遇,激发起北方的同情。林肯总统在白宫接见了她,称她为“little woman who made the big war”。
    ①Alain Locke,“The New Negro”,in Alain Locke,ed.,The New Negro,New York:Atheneum,1968,p.6,转引自王恩铭:《美国黑人领袖及其政治思想研究》,上海:上海外语教育出版社,2006年,第150页。
    ①August Meier所著“Negro Thought in America,1880-1915:Racial Ideologies in the Age of Booker T.Washington”(Ann Arbor,1963)和Wilson J.Moses所著的“The Golden Age of Black Nationalism, 1850-1925”(Hamden,Conn.,1978)两本书则为我们提供了关于杜波依斯和布克·华盛顿(Booker T.Washington)两者在黑人问题上的不同观点。
    ②关于布克·T.华盛顿和杜波伊斯的活动除了参见August Meier和Wilson J.Moses的著作外,还可以参见王恩铭的《美国黑人领袖及其政治思想研究》,第二章和第三章,第45-145页。
    ③James West Davidson,Nation of Nations:a Narrative History of the American Republic,p.633.
    ④加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第591页。
    ①Langston Hughes,Merry-Go-Round,American Poems,http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/Langston-Hu ghes/2389.
    ②Lincoln Steffens,The Shame of the Cities,p.10.
    ①茱迪·史珂拉:《美国公民权:寻求接纳》,刘满贵译,上海:上海世纪出版集团,2006年,第44-45页。
    ②韦·休·奥登:《亨利·詹姆斯其人其文》,载亨利·詹姆斯:《美国景象》,容新芳等译,海口:海南出版社,2002年,第467-468页。
    ①亨利·詹姆斯:《美国景象》,第124页。
    ②鄺治中:《新唐人街》,香港:中华书局,1987年,第3页。
    ③林广:《移民与纽约城市发展研究》,上海:华东师范大学出版社,2008年,第192页。同时,也参见鄺治中在《新唐人街》一书中对华人组织的介绍,第82-186页中的相关叙述。
    ④Nelson J.Callahan and William F.Hickey,Irish Americans and their Communities of Cleveland,1978,pp.241-242.
    ①彼得森:《杰斐逊集》,刘祚昌、邓红风译,北京:三联书店,1993年,第1029页。
    ②Alfred Kazin,Fear of the City 1783 to 1983,in Fred Siegel,Jan Rosenberg,ed.,Urban Society,Guilford,Conn.:Dushkin/McGraw-Hill,2001,p.9.
    ①Karl Marx,Friedrich Engels,Samuel Moore,Manifesto of the Communist party,New York:New York Labor News,1908,p.9.
    ②Manifesto of the Communist party,p.10.
    ③Manifesto of the Communist party,p.17.
    ①Manifesto of the Communist party,p.9.
    ②Manifesto of the Communist party,p.21.
    ③Aristotle,Politica,Ⅲ,Electronic Text Center,University of Virginia Library,http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/AriPoli.html.吴寿彭译本《政治学》(商务印书馆,1965年)直接将“in a middle condi tion”其译为“中产阶级”,第184页;颜一、秦典华译本(中国人民大学出版社,2003年)则译为“有人则居于中游”,第119页。根据上下文,直译为“中产阶级”也未尝不可,此处为了行文方便,采用不同译法,以示区别。
    ④Aristotle,Politica,Ⅺ,Electronic Text Center,University of Virginia Library,http://etext.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/AriPoli.html.吴寿彭译本仍译“中产阶级”,第208页;颜一、秦典华译本将其译为“中间阶层”,第137页,接着,他们的译本最终使用的是“中产阶层”,第138-140页。
    ⑤亚里士多德:《政治学》,吴寿彭译,北京:商务印书馆,1965年,第209页。
    ①The Encyclopedia Americana,(International Edition),Volume 19,Grolier Incorporated,1991,p.70.
    ②Jurgen Kocka,The Middle Classes in Europe,The Journal of Modern History,Vol.67,No.4 (Dec.,1995),p.784.
    ①于尔根·科卡:《19世纪的资产阶级——欧洲模式与德国实例》,引自于尔根·科卡《社会史:理论与实践》,景德祥译,上海:上海人民出版社,2006年,第109页。
    ②参见:K.G.Davies,The Mess of the Middle Class,Past and Present,No.22(Jul.,1962),pp.77-83.
    ③雷蒙德·威廉斯:《关键词:文化与社会的词汇》,第25页。
    ①雷蒙德·威廉斯:《关键词:文化与社会的词汇》,第29页。
    ②“布尔乔亚”这个译词在中国的意思包含资产阶级和中产阶级。也容易让人想起张爱玲小说中的“小资”,“小资”即“小资产阶级”、“小布尔乔亚”,指那些向往西方思想生活,追求内心体验、物质和精神享受的人。
    ①Andrew M.Scott,The Progressive Era in Perspective,The Journal of Politics,Vol.21,No.4 (Nov.1959),p.698.
    ②豪威尔斯的小说《塞拉斯·拉帕姆的发迹》(The Rise of Silas Lapham,1885)中的主人公,一个做矿漆生意发迹的商人,依靠自己的勤勤恳恳、兢兢业业而成为百万富翁。在19世纪末的严峻的竞争中,他不幸破产,但他仍然保持着乐观主义的精神,实现了道德和精神上的“发迹”。
    ①玛格丽特·米切尔:《飘》,第一章。
    ②玛格丽特·米切尔:《飘》,第一章。
    ①玛格丽特·米切尔:《飘》,第一章。
    ①霍夫斯塔特:《改革时代:美国的新崛起》,第112页。
    ②米尔斯:《白领:美国的中产阶级》,第3页。
    ①根据1860年统计数据计算所得,详见:1860,Historical Census Browser,University of Virginia Library,http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/,2009-4-21.
    ①Talbe 11-Number of Farms,with per cent distribution,by size,by divisions and states:1880-1920,Chapter Ⅱ-Size and Farms,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅴ,Agriculture,General Report and Analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.77.
    ②“自备毡囊者”(Carpetbagger),代表北方工业资产阶级的利益。关于这一概念可参见:丁则民:《美国内战与镀金时代,1861-19世纪末》,北京:人民出版社,2002年,第55页。
    ①威廉·怀特:《自传》,第482-483页,转引自霍夫斯塔特:《改革时代:美国的新崛起》,第109页。
    ②“莫里-钱德勒-霍夫斯塔特”这一派基本上认同“改革是由旧中产阶级因为其地位受到威胁而发动的”。参见:Samuel P.Hays,The Politics of Reform in Municipal Government in the Progressive Era,Pacific Northwest Quarterly 55 (October 1964),pp.157-169.
    ③Samuel P.Hays,The Politics of Municipal Reform,Perspectives on the American Past:Readings and Commentary on Issues in American History,vol.Ⅱ:1865 to the Present(eds.by Michael Perman,Glenview:Scott,Foresman and Co.,1989),pp.158-173.
    ①Wilfred Henry Alburn,This Cleveland of Ours,p.921.
    ②加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第595页。
    ③加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第595页。
    ①参见史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》一书中的相关内容。
    ②米尔斯:《白领:美国的中产阶级》,第26页。
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,引言,第3页。
    ②米尔斯:《白领:美国的中产阶级》,第26页。
    ①Table XXXII-Number of Persons in each of thirty Principal Cities Engaged in Each Selected Occupation and Class of Occupations,with Distinctions of Age,Sex,and Nativity,Ninth Census-Volume I,Table 31:Persons in Each Class of Occupations,with Age and Sex,and Selected Nationalities,in Fifty Principal Cities,The Statistics of Population of the United States:the Tables of Race,Nationality,Sex,Selected Ages,and Occupations,by Francis A.Walker,Washington:Government Printing Office,1872,pp.775-804.
    ②Special census report on the occupations of the populations of the United States at the eleventh census:1890,Bureau of the census library,Washington,D.C.:Government Printing Office,1896,pp.11-13.
    ①Department of Commerce,Table 2-Total persons 10 years age and over engaged in gainful occupations,distributed by sex and general divisions of occupations,for the United States:1920 and 1910,Chapter Ⅱ-Number and Sex of Occupied Persons,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅳ,Population 1920,Occupations,Washington:Government Printing Office,1923,p.34.
    ①德莱塞:《堡垒》,第二十七章。
    ②德莱塞:《堡垒》,第二十二章。
    ①查尔斯·泰勒:《市民社会的模式》(Charles Taylor,Modes of Civil Society,Pablic Culture,3(1990):pp.95-118.),邓正来、J.C.亚历山大:《国家与市民社会:一种理论的研究路径》,第6-7页。
    ①托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,董果良译,北京:商务印书馆,1988年,第635页。
    ①托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第64l页。
    ②托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第641页。
    ③托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第642页。
    ④S.N.D.North,The Newspaper and Periodical Press,Washington:Government printing office,1884,p.59.
    ①S.N.D.North,The Newspaper and Periodical Press,p.74.
    ②康马杰:《美国精神》,第105页。
    ③康马杰:《美国精神》,第110页。
    ①杰克·伦敦:《马丁·伊登》,第二十一章。
    ①W.E.B.Du Bois,“Of the Sons of Master and Man”,in The American Intellectual Tradition:A Sourcebook,Volume Ⅱ:1865 to the Present,by David A.Hollinger;Charles Capper,New York:Oxford University Press,1989,pp.149-150.
    ②Table 1-Number and per cent illiterate in population 10 years of age and over,by sex,for population classes,for the United States:1870-1920,Chapter Ⅻ:School attendance,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅱ:Population 1920,General report and analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.1150.
    ③Tablel-School attendance,by sex,for principal population classes,for the United States:1850-1920,Chapter Ⅺ:School attendance,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅱ:Population 1920,General report and analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.1043.
    ④Tablel-School attendance,by sex,for principal population classes,for the United States:1850-1920,Chapter Ⅺ:School attendance,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅱ:Population 1920,General report and analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.1043.
    ①Table 19-School Attendance of the Urban and Rural Population 7 to 20 years of age,and 7 to 13 years of age,by divisions and states:1920 and 1910,Chapter Ⅺ:School attendance,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅱ:Population 1920,General report and analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.1137.
    ②Table 19-School Attendance of the Urban and Rural Population 7 to 20 years of age,and 7 to 13 years of age,by divisions and states:1920 and 1910,Chapter Ⅺ:School attendance,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅱ:Population 1920,General report and analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.1137.
    ①Table 16-Per cent illiterate in population 10 years of age and over,by sex and principal population classes,for cities having,in 1920,100,000 inhabitants or more:1920,1910 and 1900,Chapter Ⅻ:School attendance,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅱ:Population 1920,General report and analytical tables,Washington:Government Printing Office,1922,p.1150.
    ②Daniel T.Rodgers,Atlantic Crossings:Social Politics in a Progressive Age,p.78.
    ③Daniel T.Rodgers,Atlantic Crossings:Social Politics in a Progressive Age,p.86.
    ①Lincoln Steffens:The Shame of the Cities,p.9.
    ②Lincoln Steffens:The Shame of the Cities,p.9.
    ③即后来的大克利夫兰公民联盟(Citizens League of Greater Cleveland)。
    ①Frederic C.Howe,The City:The Hope for Democracy,p.9.
    ②Frederic C.Howe,The City:The Hope for Democracy,p.22.
    ③Frederic C.Howe,The British city:The Beginnings of Democracy,New York:C.Scribner's sons,1907,pp.xii-xiii.
    ④“经济动机”(Economic motive),参见:Frederic C.Howe,The British city:The Beginnings of Democracy,p.xvi.
    ①关于亚当斯在赫尔会所的活动可参见:Jane Addams,Twenty Years at Hull-House,with autobiographical notes,New York:The Macmillan Co.,1910.
    ①Frederick Law Olmsted,Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England,New York:George P.Putnam,155 Broadway,1852.
    ②Arnold Brunner,Cleveland's Group Plan.
    ①Edward Bellamy,Looking backward,2000-1887,Boston:Ticknor and Company,1888,p.434.译文参考中译本《回顾》,林天斗等译,北京:商务印书馆,1963年,第220页。
    ②Edward Bellamy,Looking backward,2000-1887,p.433.林天斗译本《回顾》,第220页。
    ③Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,p.162.
    ①比如,Robert H.Bremner,The Civic Revival in Ohio,American Journal of Economics and Sociology,Vol.8,No.1 (Oct.,1948),pp.61-68;Robert H.Bremner,The Civic Revival in Ohio:The City,Hope of Democracy,American Journal of Economics and Sociology,Vol.12,No.3 (Apr.,1953),pp.305-310.
    ②Wilfred Henry Alburn,This Cleveland of Ours,Chicago-Cleveland-Indianapolis:The S.J.Clarke Publishing Company,1933,p.936.
    ③弗雷德里克·特纳:《拓荒者理想和州立大学》,杨生茂:《美国历史学家特纳及其学派》,第80-81页。
    ④“安全阀”,safety valve。弗雷德里克·特纳写道:“摆在我们面前的是,国家发展的一个崭新时期,过去那个资源充足的安全阀已经不复存在了。”参见:Frederick Jackson Turner,The Frontier In American History,P.280.
    ⑤著有:《工人和雇主》(Working People and their Employers,1876),针对工业化产生的问题,从劳资关系的角度提出了自己的解决之道。
    ⑥Melvin G.Holli,“Urban Reform in the Progressive Era”,in E.L.Gould,ed.,The Progressive Era (1974),p.133.
    ①关于市民意识的传承演变,本文利用了笔者的硕士学位论文《市民意识与美国19世纪末20世纪初的城市改革——以克利夫兰市为例》(厦门大学,2006年)的研究成果,这里进行了一些修正和补充。
    ②James Harrison Kennedy,A History of the City of Cleveland:Its Settlement,Rise and Progress,1796-1896,pp.457-458.
    ③Clinton Rogers Woodruff,Municipal Progress,1904-1905,Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.27,(Jan.1906),pp.195-196.
    ①托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第332页。
    ②托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第354页。
    ③Arnold Brunner,Cleveland's Group Plan.
    ①彼得森:《杰斐逊集》,第1029页。
    ②彼得森:《杰斐逊集》,第1238页。
    ③托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第322页。
    ④Alfred Kazin,Fear of the City 1783 to 1983,p.9.
    ⑤Alfred Kazin,Fear of the City 1783 to 1983,p.9.
    ①Alfred Kazin,Fear of the City 1783 to 1983,p.11.
    ②Alfred Kazin,Fear of the City 1783 to 1983,pp.10-11.
    ③Thomas R.Shannon,Nancy Kleniewski,William M.Cross,Urban Problems in Sociological Perspective.Waveland Pres,Inc.Illinois,1997,pp.76-77.
    ④梅里亚姆:《美国政治思想》,朱曾汶译,北京:商务印书馆,1984年,第147页。
    ⑤Thomas R.Shannon,Nancy Kleniewski,William M.Cross,Urban Problems in Sociological Perspective,Waveland Pres,Inc.Illinois,1997,pp.77-79.
    ①John Patrick Diggins,Republicanism and Progressivism,American Quarterly,Vol.37,No.4,Republicanism in the History and Historiography of the United States (Autumn,1985),pp.593-594.
    ①托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第625页。
    ②罗伯特·N.贝拉:《心灵的习性》,翟宏彪等译,北京:三联书店,1991年,第218页。
    ①梅里亚姆:《美国政治思想》,第138页。
    ①迈克尔·桑德尔:《民主的不满:美国在寻求一种公共哲学》,第237页。
    ②迈克尔·桑德尔:《民主的不满:美国在寻求一种公共哲学》,第235页。
    ③Edward Shils,The Virtue of Civil Society,Government and Opposition,vol.26,No.1,Winter,1991,pp.3-20.转引自:《国家与市民社会:一种社会理论的研究路径》,第41页。
    ④Edward Shils,The Virtue of Civil Society,转引自:《国家与市民社会:一种社会理论的研究路径》,第41页。
    ①霍夫斯塔特:《美国政治传统及其缔造者》,第50页。
    ②简·亚当斯在其所著的《在赫尔会所的二十年》(Twenty Years at Hull House)一书中,就认为城市老板并没有实质性地帮助移民,只是为了换取选票而象征性援助他们。
    ③Alan Stone,A Spectre Is Haunting America:An Interpretation of Progressivism,http://mises.org/journal s/ils/3_3/3_3_1.pdf.
    ①赫伯特·克罗利:《美国生活的希望》,王军英等译,南京:江苏人民出版社,2006年,第90页。
    ②茱迪·史珂拉指出:“在19世纪,‘生意人’一直是名副其实的社会耻辱,即便在今天,‘生意人’在英国仍然很难让人羡慕。”参见:《美国公民权:寻求接纳》,第46页。
    ③J.Joseph Huthmacher,Urban Liberalism and the Age of Reform,The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,Vol.49,No.2 (Sep.,1962),p.231.
    ①Tom L.Johnson,My Story,edited by Elizabeth J.Hauser,p.115.
    ②Clinton Rogers Woodruff,Municipal Progress,1904-1905,Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,Vol.27,(Jan.1906),pp.195-196.
    ③Clinton Rogers Woodruff,Municipal Progress,1904-1905,p.196.
    ④Wilfred Henry Alburn,This Cleveland of Ours,p.987.
    ①康马杰:《美国精神》,第63页。
    ②“迷惘的一代”(Lost Generation),这一术语出现于美国作家海明威(Ernest Hemingway,1899-1961)发表的第一部小说《太阳照常升起》(The Sun Also Rises,1926),一般指那些侨居巴黎和欧洲其它国家、并参加过一战的美国作家的群体。包括海明威、庞德(Ezra Pound,1885-1972)、约翰·帕索斯(John Dos Passos,1896-1970)、菲茨杰拉德(F.Scott Fitzgerald,1896-1940)、约翰·斯坦贝克(John Steinbeck,1902-1968)等美国著名的作家和诗人。这些人的共同点是出生于19、20世纪之交,并具有相似的创作倾向和特点。本文使用这个词语泛指生活于19、20世纪之交的那一代美国人。
    ①赫伯特·克罗利:《美国生活的希望》,第117-118页。
    ②William G.Angerson,Progressivism:An Historiographical Essay,The History Teacher,Vol.6,No.3(May.1973),pp.427-452;Also see James J.Connolly,Progressivism (H-SHGAPE,January 31,1997),http://www.h-net.org/~shgape/bibs/prog.html.
    ①关于克利夫兰市和辛辛那提市的情况参见:Lincoln Steffens,The Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens,pp.470-488.中文译本可参见:《美国黑幕揭发报道先驱林肯·斯蒂芬斯自述》,第393-414页。
    ②余志森:《美国通史:崛起和扩张的年代1898-1929》,北京:人民出版社,2001,第283页。
    ③Kenneth Quinnell,Urban Reformers in the Progressive Era.
    ①Kenneth Quinnell,Urban Reformers in the Progressive Era.
    ①Cultural hegemony或者Hegemony,可译为“文化霸权”或者“文化领导权”。雷蒙德·威廉斯在《关键词:文化与社会的词汇》一书中指出,Hegemony这个词最早来自于希腊文,通常指的是支配他国的leader(领袖)或ruler(统治者)。而到了葛兰西那里,这个词语有了新的含义,“政治支配”的观念从国家之间的关系延伸到了社会阶级的关系,比如“中产阶级的霸权”(bourgeois hegemony)。Hegemony的文化涵义在于一种崭新的、优势的实践和意识。参见:《关键词:文化与社会的词汇》,刘建基译,北京:三联书店,2005年,第201-203页。“领导权”这一术语本身源出于俄国社会主义运动,普列汉诺夫和阿克雪里罗德在对俄国革命由工人阶级来担任未来领导这点进行战略性讨论时,首先使用了这一术语。(参见:佩里·安德森:《西方马克思主义探讨》,高铦等译,人民出版社,1981年,第101页)。有关葛兰西的“文化霸权”理论参见安东尼奥·葛兰西所著的《狱中札记》(the Prison Notebooks)一书中的相关内容(中译本:《狱中札记》,曹雷雨 等译,中国社会科学出版社,2000年。),或者Perry Anderson,The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci,New Left Review,No.100(1976),pp.7-78.本文使用“文化霸权”及其理论,意在说明“中产阶级的文化霸权”的形成,即在19世纪末20世纪初的美国,中产阶级所形成的对其它阶级的优势,尤其是进步主义者所代表的那种崭新的意识形态。
    ②理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,第18页。
    ①理查德·桑内特:《公共人的衰落》,第19页。
    ②托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第270页。
    ③托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第271页。
    ①托克维尔:《论美国的民主》,第674页。
    ①1866年重印时的题目是《公民的不服从》(Civil Disobedience),现在为人熟知的题目是《论公民的不服从》(On the Duty of Civil Disobedience)。
    ②加里·纳什:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》上卷,第505页。
    ③称为“纽约1863年市民骚动”(The New York City Draft Riots of 1863)。
    ①服务性职业,1870年、1880年分为专业性服务和私人服务,统计时合为一类;1890年、1900年的统计将专业性服务职业数据单独列出,增加家政服务,与私人服务合为一类。
    ②Bureau of the Budget,后改为“美国管理与预算总署”(Office of Management and Budget,简称“OMB”)。
    ③王旭:《美国城市史》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000年,第175页。
    ①孙群郎:《美国城市郊区化研究》,北京:商务印书馆,2005年,第98-99页。
    ②罗伯特·福格尔森:《布尔乔亚的恶梦:1870—1930年的美国城市郊区》,朱歌姝译,上海:上海人民出版社,2007年,第33页。
    ①Richard Sennett,Families against the City:Middle Class Homes of Industrial Chicago,1872-1890,Cambridge,Mass.:Harvard University Press,1970.
    ②F.Rice Junior,Urbanizing Rural New England,New England Magazine,janvier 1906,cit(?) par J.Moyer,op.cit.,p.364.转引自帕特里斯·费里奇:《现代信息交流史:公共空间和私人生活》,第153页。
    ③Kenneth T.Jackson,Crabgrass Frontier,p.111.
    ④帕特里斯·费里奇:《现代信息交流史:公共空间和私人生活》,第155页。
    ⑤俗称Tin Lizzie或Flivver。
    ①理查德·桑内特:《肉体与石头:西方文明中的身体与城市》,第325页。
    ②Nancy J.Tomes,American Attitudes toward the Germ Theory of Disease:Phyllis Allen Richmond Revisited,Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences,1997;52:p.24.
    ③Phyllis Allen Richmond,American Attitudes toward the Germ Theory of Disease (1860-1880),Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences,1954;Ⅸ:p.447.
    ①Phyllis Allen Richmond,American Attitudes toward the Germ Theory of Disease (1860-1880),p.449.
    ②关于这一时期,美国大众报刊杂志对于医学卫生知识的宣传可参见菲利斯·里士满的论文《美国人对细菌致病理论的态度(1860-1880)》(Phyllis Allen Richmond,American Attitudes Toward the Germ Theory of Disease(1860-1880),Journal of the history of medicine and allied sciences,1954;Ⅸ:pp.428-454.)中的有关内容,第450-452页。
    ③《肉类检查法》(Meat Inspection Act)、《纯净食品和药品法》(Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906),并成立了食品和药品管理署(Food and Drug Administration)。
    ①在1880年代,美国的许多酒吧、酒馆或酒栈都有免费的午餐提供。参见:Madelon Powers,Women and Public Drinking,1890-1920,History Today,Vol.45,(Feb.) 1995,p.48.
    ②Dorothy Richardson,The Long Day:the Story of a New York Working Girl,as told by herself,New York:The Century Co.,1911,pp.257-258.
    ①Madelon Powers,Women and Public Drinking,1890-1920,p.46.
    ②Madelon Powers,Women and Public Drinking,1890-1920,p.47.
    ①Ohio History Central,Anti-Saloon League of America,http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=845.
    ②统称为“地方选择权”(local option)。
    ③其中包括美国石油大王约翰·洛克菲勒(John D.Rockefeller)。
    ④相关介绍参见:俄亥俄历史中心(Ohio History Central),网址为:http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/,“美国反酒馆联盟”(Anti-Saloon League of America);或者韦斯特维尔公共图书馆网站(Westerville Public Library)上的“反酒馆联盟”中心主页(网址为:http://www.wpl.lib.oh.us/AntiSaloon/) 以及戒酒和禁酒网(Temerance & Prohibition)上的“反酒馆联盟”词条(网址为:http://prohibition.osu.edu/asl/default.cfm)。
    ①Raymond Calkins,Substitutes for the Saloon,Boston and New York:Houghton,Mifflin and Company,1919,p.25.
    ②John Marshall Barker,The Saloon Problem and Social Reform,Boston:Everett Press,1905,p.1.
    ③英国利物浦市建立的咖啡屋在当时是非常著名的尝试,伦敦则建有工人阶级的俱乐部、模范公寓(model tenement)和服务态度良好的客栈。参见:Raymond Calkins,Substitutes for the Saloon,pp.35-36.
    ④John Marshall Barker,The Saloon Problem and Social Reform,p.189.
    ①当时称为“Motion Picture”。
    ②正如前文提到的,正统基督教认为电影是一种堕落的行为,只有异教徒才会去看电影。
    ③加里·纳什等:《美国人民:创建一个国家和一种社会》下卷,第679页。
    ①Constance D'Arcy Mackay,The little theatre in the United States,New York:H.Holt and Company,1917,p.103.
    ②Dorothy Chansky,Composing Ourselves:The Little Theatre Movement and the American Audience,Carbondale,Illinois:Southern Illinois University Press,2004,p.107.
    ①Kat Long,Prostitution in the Gilded Age:“Fallen” Women and the Social Evil in New York City,1870s-1890s,http://americanhistory.suite101.com/article.cfm/prostitution_in_the_gilded_age,2008.01.27/2009.03.04.
    ②parlor house,或译为“酒店雅座”,是小酒店或小旅馆里提供的具有一定的隐秘性的小雅间或客厅。
    ③furnished room,指供应家具出租的房间。
    ④Howard Brown Woolston,Prostitution in the United States:Prior to the entrance of the United States into the World War,volume 1,New York:The Century co.,1921,pp.316-329.
    ①brothel,也就是“妓院”,为与那些向下层阶级提供性服务的妓院相区别,故意为“妓馆”。
    ②bawdy house,也可以称为“淫窟”。
    ③维基百科,Prostitution in the United States,http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prostitution_in_the_United_States.
    ④关于美国早期的公共卫生运动,可参见:Richard H.Shryock,The Early American Public Health Movement, Am J Public Health Nations Health.1937 October;27(10):pp.965-971.
    ⑤承诺年龄(Age of consent),即对何时开始性行为的承诺。这个年龄一般跟社会态度有关。在西方国家,19世纪中叶,这个年龄一般是10-13岁;在20世纪末,一般是15-18岁。
    ⑥Linda Gordon,The Moral Property of Women:A History of Birth Control Politics in America.University of Illinois Press,2002,pp.72-73.
    ①Hiroyuki Matsubara,The 1910s Anti-Prostitution Movement and the Transformation of American Political Culture,The Japanese Journal of American Studies,No.17 (2006),pp.54.
    ②霍华德·沃尔斯顿在他的书中提供了妇女堕落的10大原因,包括家庭、生活状态、邻里关系、人际关系、教育、娱乐方式、经济状况、性观念、婚姻状况和公共态度。参见:Howard Brown Woolston,Prostitution in the United States:Prior to the entrance of the United States into the World War,volume 1,pp.300-301.
    ③Mary Linehan,Vice Commissions,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1303.html.
    ④1935年,BOI变为联邦调查局,简称FBI。
    ①David J.Langum,Crossing Over the Line:Legislating Morality and the Mann Act,1994,转引自:Prostitution ProCon.org,Historical Timeline,http://prostitution.procon.org/.
    ②“Freiberg's Dance Hall”,参见:Lewis A.Erenberg,Dance Halls,The Encyclopedia of Chicago,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/361.html.
    ③“Vice Districts”,罪恶区域,参见:Peter C.Baldwin,Vice Districts,The Encyclopedia of Chicago,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1304.html.
    ④“社会罪恶”(social evil)是19世纪末20世纪初美国城市社会的一个关键词,通过芝加哥反堕落委员会的一个研究报告,可以了解到有关“社会罪恶”的情况,并且能够发现这一时期酒馆、警察与“社会罪恶”之间的关系。参见:Chicago Vice Commission,The Social Evil in Chicago:A Study of Existing Conditions,with Recommendations by the Vice Commission of Chicago,Chicago:Gunthorp-Warren Printing Company,1911.
    ①Lewis A.Erenberg,Dance Halls.
    ②Chicago Vice Commission,The Social Evil in Chicago:A Study of Existing Conditions,p.261.
    ③Herbert Asbury,The Barbary Coast----An Informal History of the San Francisco Underworld,New York:Alfred A.Knopf,Inc.,1933,Chapter 12,http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sf/history/hbtbcidx.htm,2009-03-04.
    ①Henry Blake Fuller,With the Procession,New York:Harper & Brothers Puibishers,1895,p.87.
    ②或称为“The Chicago World's Fair”。
    ①World's Columbian Exposition,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1386.html.
    ①Mark Jefferson,How American Cities Grow,Bulletin of the American Geographical Society,Vol.47,No.1(1915),pp.19-37.
    ②Cleveland:History,http://www.city-data.com/us-cities/The-Midwest/Cleveland-History.html.Lincoln Steffens,The Struggle for Self-government:Being an Attempt to Trace American Political Corruption to its Sources in Six States of the United States,New York:McClure,Phillips & Co.,1906.
    ③本文对“城市美化”(City Beautiful)作宽泛意义上的理解,像克利夫兰市早期的城市改进,也是对城市的主要公共空间进行“美化”(beautification)。虽然类似这样的城市美化行动早于作为一场社会运动的“城市美化”,但它和后来的美化运动一样,其中所包含的“美化城市”的目标和理念基本一样。本文对city beautiful和beautification两个概念也区别理解,前者更多用于指称1890-1920年间的“城市美化运动”(City Beautiful Movement),侧重于其社会意义;后者泛指在19世纪末20世纪初,美国各大城市利用工业主义技术进行“美化”的行动,侧重于技术意义。
    ①STREETS,The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History,http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=S23.
    ②1894年改名为“克利夫兰电气照明公司”(Cleveland Electric Illuminating Co.,简称CEI)
    ③STREET LIGHTING,The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History,http://ech.case.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=SL1.
    ④肯尼思·科尔森:《大规划——城市设计的魅惑和荒诞》,第56页。
    ⑤Samuel Peter Orth,A History of Cleveland,Ohio,vol.1,pp.129-132.
    ①Report of the Park Commission.Edited by Charles Moore,Washington:Government Printing Office,1902,pp.17-31.
    ①U.S.Senate Committee on the District of Columbia,Report on the Improvement of the Park System of the District of Columbia.Senate Report No.166,57th Congress,1st Session.Washington:Government Printing Office,1902.
    ②关于朗方1791年的规划参见:Francis Fukuyama,L'Enfant's Washing ton.http://www.the-american-intere st.com/article.cfm?piece=282;The L'Enfant and McMillian Plans,http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/wash/lenfant.htm;Pierre Charles L'Enfant,Wikipedia.
    ①关于“建筑群规划”(Group Plan),见本节“综合区规划”。
    ②Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,pp.271-272.
    ①“big plans”,大规划。肯尼思·科尔森以“大规划”为题写了一本书叫《大规划——城市设计的魅惑和荒诞》(Kenneth Kolson,Big Plans:The Allure and Folly of Urban Design,Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2001.),作者选取了一些城市个案,勾勒了北美洲的城市化进程,介绍了关于城市规划和设计的理念和幻想。中文译本:肯尼思·科尔森:《大规划——城市设计的魅惑和荒诞》,游宏滔等译,中国建筑工业出版社,2006年。
    ②A View on Cities,Chicago History,http://www.aviewoncities.com/chicago/chicagohistory.htm.
    ①现在芝加哥的卢普区(Loop)即因此而得名。
    ②Daniel Hudson Burnham[et al.],Plan of Chicago.Prepared Under the Direction of the Commercial Club,Chicago:The Commercial Club,1909,p.123.
    ①Thomas J.Noel,The City Beautiful,in Mile High City,http://www.denvergov.org/aboutdenver/history_n arrative_6.asp.
    ②Chuck Holmgren,San Francisco,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma03/holmgren/ppie/sf.html.
    ③Gray Brechin.Imperial San Francisco:Urban Power,Earthly Ruin,Berkeley,CA:U of C Press,1999,p.95,转引自:Chuck Holmgren,San Francisco,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma03/holmgren/ppie/sf.html.
    ④“大地震”(Great Earthquake),1906年4月18日早上发生的大地震。
    ①San Francisco,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~ma03/holmgren/ppie/sf.html.
    ②所谓“跳跃式”发展是指美国西部城市超越了农业开发阶段,城镇成为西部开发的先导,西部越过农业社会进入城市社会。参见:王旭:《美国城市史》,第87页。
    ①Daniel H.Burnham[et al.],The Group Plan of the Public Buildings of the City of Cleveland,New York:Cheltenham Press,1903,P.1.转引自;肯尼思·科尔森:《大规划——城市设计的魅惑和荒诞》,第57页。
    ②参见委员会提交给约翰逊政府的报告:The 1903 Report of the Group Plan Commission,Cleveland,August 1st,1903,http://groupplan.dhellison.com/articles.php?article=articleHonorable TomL.inc.
    ③联邦大厦是在1903年综合区规划方案提出之前就已经规划建设的一个建筑物。
    ④Mall,http://ech.cwru.edu/ech-cgi/article.pl?id=M;也可参见:Thomas S.Hines,The Paradox of“Progressive” Architecture:Urban Planning and Public Building in Tom Johnson's Cleveland,American Quarterly,Vol.25,No.4 (Oct.,1973),pp.426-448.
    ①肯尼思·科尔森:《大规划——城市设计的魅惑和荒诞》,第59页。
    ②Arnold Brunner,Cleveland's Group Plan.
    ①Russell Merritt,Dixon,Griffith,and the Southern Legend,Cinema Journal,Vol.12,No.1 (Autumn,1972),pp.26-45.
    ②哈贝马斯:《公共领域的结构转型》,第170页。
    ①“大转折的年代”是我国美国史学者李剑鸣教授所著《大转折的年代——美国进步主义运动研究》一书的标题。
    ②“改革时代”是美国二战后出现的“和谐学派”(Consensus School)历史学家霍夫斯塔特所著《改革时代——从布赖恩到富兰克林·罗斯福》一书的标题。
    ①“更美好的城市”(bettercity),参见:Dana Webster Bartlett,The Better City:a Sociological Study of a Modern City,Los Angeles:The Neuner Co.Press,1907.
    ①杰克·伦敦:《马丁·伊登》,第十三章。
    ②Clean living movement,在杰克逊时代,第二次大觉醒激发了美国社会的意识,伴随着宗教热忱的勃兴和反酒类运动的兴起,作为对酗酒和霍乱的反应,人们的卫生、健康意识被焕发起来。有意识地对自己生活的环境进行清理,其目的在于维护传统道德,建立大众意识,消除卫生问题,“清理”整个社会。美国19世纪末的反酒馆运动、反堕落运动和社会纯净运动都包含了“清理”社会的含义。
    ①亚里士多德:《政治学》,吴寿彭译,北京:商务印书馆,1965年,第3页。
    ①Robert E.Park,Community Organization and the Romantic Temper,Journal of Social Forces,Vol.3,No.4 (May,1925),p.674.
    ②David Ward,The Progressives and the Urban Question:British and American Responses to the Inner City Slums 1880-1920,Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers,New Series,Vol.9,No.3 (1984),p.299.
    ③哈维:《希望的空间》,第196页。
    ①亨利·詹姆斯:《美国景象》,第307-308页。
    ①Perry R.Duis,Saloons,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1110.html.
    ②赫伯特·克罗利:《美国生活的希望》,第224页。
    ①哈贝马斯:《公共领域的结构转型》,第32页。
    ②个体包括中产阶级个体、底层阶级个体和上层个体,对于中产阶级个体来说,他们缺乏必要的政治、经济资源和文化资本进行社会改良;对于底层阶级来说,他们既缺乏资源也没有足够的意识;而对于上层来讲,他们是既定利益的获得者,除非公德心促使,很难采取行动。
    ③第十六条修正案,规定国会有权对任何来源的收入规定和征收所得税,无须在各州按比例进行分配,也无须考虑任何人口普查或人口统计。从而在联邦确立了征收个人所得税和遗产税的法定条例,实际上也确立了个人与国家间的经济关系。
    ①梅里亚姆:《美国政治思想》,第138页。
    ②Woodrow Wilson,The New Freedom:A Call for the Emancipation of the Generous Energies of a People,New York:Doubleday,Page & Company,1919,pp.3-4.
    ①Michael Bentley,The Climax of Liberal Politics,British Liberalism in Theory and Practice,1868-1918,London:Edward Arnold,1987,p.114.转引自:王章辉:《英国文化与现代化》,沈阳:辽海出版社,1999年,第238-239页。
    ②关于这三大市政体制的介绍可以参见我国美国城市史学者王旭教授的论文《美国三大市政体制的历史成因与内在运行机制》,《陕西师范大学学报》,2007年第4期,第94-99页。
    ③史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第194页。
    ④也就是本文所谈的“中产阶级和上层的联盟”。
    ①杰克·伦敦:《马丁·伊登》,第十五章。
    ②1791年,乔治·华盛顿在哥伦比亚特区建立了公园护卫(Park watchmen),用于保护哥伦比亚特区的财产。
    ①南希·韦丝在其著作中表达的观点(Nancy Joan Weiss,Charles Francis Murphy,1858-1924:Respectability and Responsibility in Tommany Politics,Northampton,Massachusetts,1968.),转引自:David R.Colburn,George E.Pozzetta,Bosses and Machines:Changing Interpretations in American History,The History Teacher,Vol.9,No.3 (May,1976),p.454.
    ②Robin Einhom,Political Culture,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/987.html.
    ③Christopher Thale,Police,http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/983.html.
    ①Wilfred Henry Alburn,This Cleveland of Ours,p.931
    ②Wilfred Henry Alburn,This Cleveland of Ours,p.932.
    ③Department of Commerce,Table 4-Total persons 10 years of age and over engaged in each special occupation,classified by sex,for the United States:1920 and 1910,Fourteen Census of the United States taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅳ,Population 1920 occupation,Washington:Government Office Printing,pp.41-42.
    ①关于“放射-向心性-轴线性相结合模式”可参见斯皮罗·科斯托夫:《城市的形成——历史进程中的城市模式和城市意义》,单皓译,北京:中国建筑工业出版社,2005年,第184-189页。
    ②Julie K.Rose,City Beautiful:The 1901 Plan for Washington D.C.,Spring 1996,A project of American Studies@Uva,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/CITYBEAUTIFUL/dchome.html.
    ③即前文所谈的“城市中心”。就国家和城市政府层面而言,“civic center”可理解为“市政中心”;相反,如果从文化教育和娱乐休闲的角度来看,则可理解为“市民中心”;以“城市中心”来概括则兼而有之。
    ④刘易斯·芒福德:《城市发展史——起源、演变和前景》,第384页。
    ①阿尔贝蒂:《建筑论》,iv.5,转引自斯皮罗·科斯托夫:《城市的形成——历史进程中的城市模式和城市意义》,第69页。
    ②刘易斯·芒福德:《城市发展史——起源、演变和前景》,第407页。
    ③刘易斯·芒福德:《城市发展史——起源、演变和前景》,第382页。
    ①凯文·林奇:《城市形态》,林庆怡 等译,北京:华夏出版社,2003年,第145页。
    ①Louis Wirth,Urbanism as a Way of Life The American,Journal of Sociology,Vol.44,No.1 (Jul.,1938),pp.1-24.
    ②托克维尔笔下的“民情”(Moeurs)指的是:“其含义与其拉丁文原字mores一样,它不仅指通常所说的心理习惯方面的东西,而且包括人们拥有的各种见解和社会上流行的不同观点,以及人们的生活习惯所遵循的全部思想。”在另一处,托克维尔又说:“我把这个词理解为人在一定的社会情况下拥有的理智资质和道德资质的总和”,见《论美国的民主》,第332页、354页。
    ①Edward Shils,The Virtue of Civil Society,转引自《国家与市民社会:一种社会理论的研究路径》,第46-47页。
    ①布林顿:《西方近代思想史》,王德昭译,上海:华东师范大学出版社,2005年,第198-199页。
    ②Series Y 27-78:Voter Participation in Presidential Elections,by State:1824-1968,Historical Statistics of the United States,Colonial Times to 1970,Part 2,Bicentennial Edition,U.S.Bureau of Census,Washington,D.C.,1975,pp.1071-1072.
    ③根据美国人口统计署的统计,其它州包括:艾奥瓦州(1857)、伊利诺伊州(1870)、密歇根州(1894)、明尼苏达州(1896)、北达科他州(1898-1902)、科罗拉多州(1902)、威斯康星州(1908)、内布拉斯加州(1910)、俄勒岗州(1914)、南达科他州(1918)、印第安纳州(1921)。参见:Government:Elections and Politics,Historical Statistics of the United States,Colonial Times to 1970,Part 2,Bicentennial Edition,U.S.Bureau of Census,Washington,D.C.,1975,p.1068.
    ①关于城市美化运动并没有解决贫民窟问题的分析参见:Julie K.Rose,The 1901 Plan for Washington D.C.,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/CITYBEAUTIFUL/plan.html,2008-09-25.
    ①1916年,总统签署同意伊利诺伊州妇女拥有选举权,但国会未同意。参见:Historical Statistics of the United States,Colonial Times to 1970,Part 2,Bicentennial Edition,U.S.Bureau of Census,Washington,D.C.,1975,p.1068.
    ①汉娜·阿伦特:《论革命》,陈周旺译,南京:译林出版社,2007年,第87页。
    ①Department of Commerce,Table 4-Total Persons 10 Years of Age and Over Engaged in Each Specified Occupation,Classified by Sex,for the United States:1920 and 1910,Chapter Ⅱ:Number and Sex of Occupied Persons,Fourteenth Census of the United States,taken in the year 1920,Volume Ⅳ,Population 1920,Occupations,Washington:Government Printing Office,1923,p.43.
    ②Roy Rosenzweig,The Rice of the Saloon,p.142.
    ①约翰·利维:《现代城市规划》,张景秋 等译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2003年,第40-41页。
    ①Daniel Hudson Burnham[et al.],Plan of Chicago,p.12.
    ②参见布赖恩·贝利:《比较城市化——20世纪的不同道路》中的相关介绍,第20-22页。
    ③[Anon],American Designs Splendid New Capital for Australia,The New York Times,Sunday,June 2,1912.
    ①Ellie Marcus Marx,Citizenship,history and civics for Americanization,Richmond,Va.,Johnson publishing company,1922.
    ②关于“美国化运动”的时间,有说1890-1920年的,见:The Americanization Movement,http://www.historycorner.net/standards_us/2_3.pdf;有具体指出是1895-1924年,见:Culturist John,The Americanization Movement,http://culturismnews.blogspot.com/2008/04/americanization-movement.html;The Americanization Movement,http://www.historycomer.net/standards_us/2_3.pdf;也有学者认为是1880-1920年,见 Frederick Hoxie,A Final Promise:The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians,1880-1920,Lincoln:University of Nebraska Press,1984.基本上可以定为19世纪80年代随着移民潮的形成到20世纪20年代进步主义运动渐渐消寂。
    ③James R.Barrett,Americanization from the Bottom Up:Immigration and the Remaking of the Working Class in the United States,1880-1930,The Journal of American History,Vol.79,No.3,Discovering America:A Special Issue (Dec.,1992),p.997.
    ④塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?——美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第110页。
    ⑤塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?——美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第36页。
    ①Jane Addams,Twenty Years at Hull-House,with autobiographical notes,New York:The Macmillan Co.,1910,p.429.
    ②W.I.托马斯、F.兹纳涅茨基:《身处欧美的波兰农民》,第51页。
    ③James R.Barrett,Americanization from the Bottom Up:Immigration and the Remaking of the Working Class in the United States,1880-1930,p.998.
    ①W.I.托马斯、F.兹纳涅茨基:《身处欧美的波兰农民》,第58页。
    ②Julie K.Rose,City Beautiful:The 1901 Plan for Washington D.C.,Spring 1996,A project of American Studies@Uva,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/CITYBEAUTIFUL/dchome.html.
    ③转引自:塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《我们是谁?——美国国家特性面临的挑战》,第101页。
    ①辛克莱·刘易斯:《大街》,第二十二章。
    ②德莱塞:《珍妮姑娘》,第三十四章。
    ①Thomas S.Hines,The Paradox of “Progressive” Architecture:Urban Planning and Public Building in Tom Johnson's Cleveland,p.428.
    ①布赖恩·贝利:《比较城市化——20世纪的不同道路》,第20-21页。
    ②Richard Hofstadter,The Age of Reform:From Bryan to F.D.R.引文参考:俞敏洪译:《改革时代——美国的新崛起》,第147页。
    ③Richard Slotkin,Nostalgia and Progress:Theodore Roosevelt's Myth of the Frontier,American Quarterly,Vol.33,No.5,Special Issue:American Culture and the American Frontier (Winter,1981),pp.608-637.
    ④比如,Theodore Roosevelt:the Conservative as Progressive,pp.265-306;Woodrow Wilson:the Conservative as Liberal,pp.307-366,Richard Hofstadter.The American political tradition and the men who made it,New York:A.A.Knopf,1948.
    ①肯尼思·O.摩根:《牛津英国通史》,北京:商务印书馆,1993年,第499页。
    ①辛克莱·刘易斯:《巴比特》,第十五章。
    ②Pierre Bourdieu,The forms of capital(1986),In J.Richardson (Ed.),Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education,New York,Greenwood,pp.241-258.
    ③保罗·诺克斯、史蒂文·平奇:《城市社会地理学导论》,柴彦威等译,北京:商务印书馆,2005年,第369页。
    ①约翰·费斯克;《理解大众文化》,王晓珏等译,北京:中央编译出版社,2001年,第73页。
    ②艾伦·布卢姆:《美国精神的封闭》,战旭英译,南京:译林出版社,2007年,第113页。
    ①德莱塞:《美国悲剧》,第二卷第六章。
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第67页。
    ②Ray Rosenzweig,The Rise of the Saloon,p.145.
    ③史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第67页。
    ④史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第67页。
    ①约翰·凯里:《知识分子与大众:文学知识界的傲慢与偏见,1880-1939》,第23页。
    ②史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第67页。
    ③这一点可以参见:邓洛普:《镀金城市》,第四章“透视阶层”,第141-189页。
    ④Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,p.viii.
    ①辛克莱·刘易斯:《大街》,第二十二章。
    ①尼尔·哈里斯:《美国礼节》,载卢瑟·路德克:《构建美国——美国的社会与文化》,第144页。
    ②尼尔·哈里斯:《美国礼节》,载卢瑟·路德克:《构建美国——美国的社会与文化》,第145页。
    ③迈克尔·桑德尔:《民主的不满:美国在寻求一种公共哲学》,第239页。
    ①William Allen White,The Old Order Changeth:a View of American Democracy,New York:Macmillan,1910,pp.252-253.
    ②迈克尔·桑德尔:《民主的不满:美国在寻求一种公共哲学》,第245页;Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,p.243.
    ③Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,p.258.
    ④St.Louis Pageant Drama Association,Pageant and Masque of Saint Louis,1914,Reports of the Chairmen of Committees,Saint Louis,1916,pp.14-15,85.转引自:Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,p.259.
    ⑤Paul Boyer,Urban Masses and Moral Order in America,1820-1920,p.258.
    ①约翰·凯里:《知识分子与大众:文学知识界的傲慢与偏见,1880-1939》,第11页。
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第246页。
    ①诺贝特·埃利亚斯:《个体的社会》,第9-10页。
    ②Julie K.Rose,Washington D.C.and Beyond,Spring 1996,A project of American Studies @ Uva,http://xroads.virginia.edu/~cap/CITYBEAUTIFUL/dc.html.
    ①Julie K.Rose,Washington D.C.and Beyond.
    ②雷蒙德·盖斯迪尔:《美国的文化区域》(Cultural Regions of the United States),载卢瑟·路德克:《构建美国:美国的社会与文化》,第121-134页。
    ①雷蒙德·盖斯迪尔,《美国的文化区域》,第124页。
    ②露丝·本尼迪克特:《文化模式》,王炜译,北京:三联书店,1988年,第48页。
    ①Blake,McKelvey,American Urbanization:a Comparative History,p.88.
    ②可参见:德尼兹·加亚尔:《欧洲史》,蔡鸿滨译,海口:海南出版社,2002年,第481-514页的相关内容;Thomas R.Shannon,Nancy Kleniewski,William M.Cross,Urban Problems in Sociological Perspective,Waveland Pres,Inc.Illinois,1997,pp.267-304.
    ③比如:[Anon],“American Designs Splendid New Capital for Australia”.The New York Times,Sunday,June 2,1912;Griffin,Walter Burley.“Commonwealth of Australia Design for the Lay-Out of the Federal Capital City”.Commonwealth of Australia,Report from the Senate Select Committee appointed to Inquire and Report upon the Development of Canberra.September,1955,Appendix B,“Copy of FederalCapital Design No.29 by W.B.Griffin.Original Report”,1912.
    ④参见卡尔·休斯克:《世纪末的维也纳》,李锋译,南京:凤凰出版传媒集团,江苏人民出版社,2007年,第73-111页中的相关内容。
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第118页。
    ②史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第120页。
    ③史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第120页。
    ①史蒂文·迪纳:《非常时代:进步主义时期的美国人》,第70页。
    ①Henry James,The American Scene,Bloomington:Indiana University Press,p.116.
    ①从字面意义上看,“group plan”与“individual plan”相对,“group”表示“集体”的意思,表明城市中心的设计者追求一种“集体表述”,而非个体性的表达。从规划形式和建筑物布局来看,综合区规划表现为“大规模集中”,而非个别性分散,属于“大规划”。参见:Julie K.Rose,City Beautiful:The 1901 Plan for Washington D.C.,Spring 1996,A project of American Studies@Uva,http://xroads.virgin ia.edu/~cap/CITYBEAUTIFUL/dchome.html.
    ②例如,克利夫兰市的情况。在约翰逊成为市长之前,克利夫兰市还没有自己的市政大厅,市政府是在一套租来的房子里办公的,这不仅成为市政府的一项长期支出负担,也影响市政府办事效率及城市形象,相应地,各项市政服务就显得非常落后和不足。直到1916年克利夫兰市才建立了自己独立的市政大厅。参见:Theodore Hall,The Sesquicentennial Story of Cleveland,1796-1946,1946,pp.8-11.
    ③亨利·詹姆斯:《美国景象》,第110-112页。
    ①参见雷蒙·威廉斯:《关键词:文化与社会的词汇》,第355-356页,以及“Common”词条,第70-72页。
    ②Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson,Popular Culture,Annual Review of Sociology,Vol.12 (1986),p.48.
    ③普契尼是意大利歌剧作曲家,出于1858年,卒于1924年。代表作品有:《波希米亚人》(La boh(?)me)、《托斯卡》(Tosca)、《蝴蝶夫人》(Madama Butterfly)等。
    ①George Santayana,“The Genteel Tradition in American Philosophy”,presented to the Philosophical Union of the University of California,1911.关于桑塔亚纳的介绍可参见:George Santayana,http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/santayana/,2006-02-23/2009-05-02.
    ①利兰·罗斯:《新旧之间的美国建筑》,载卢瑟·路德克:《构建美国:美国的社会与文化》,第170-171页。
    ①帕特里斯·费里奇引用理查德·桑内特的话说:“有大量的上流社会人士在咖啡馆休息、饮酒和读书等等,但是他们被看不见的隔阂所分开。”(Richard Sennett,Les Tyrannies de l’intimit(?) Le Seuil,Paris,1979,p.167.),参见:《现代信息交流史:公共空间和私人生活》,第264页。
    ②塞缪尔·亨廷顿:《变化社会中的政治秩序》,王冠华 等译,上海:上海人民出版社,2008年,第307-308页。
    ①Raymond Williams,Culture and Society 1780-1950,London,1958,p.334,转引自:特瑞·伊格尔顿:《文化的观念》,方杰译,南京:南京大学出版社,2003年,第98页。
    ①汉娜·阿伦特:《论革命》,第107页。
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