监狱心理咨询话语研究
|
摘要
1.研究背景
自20世纪80年代西方心理咨询理念被引入中国以来,心理咨询已经在中国近93%的监狱开展,拥有心理咨询师资格的民警和主动求询的罪犯数量都在显著增加。监狱心理咨询作为一种新型的罪犯矫治技术被认为对于促进罪犯改造、降低重新犯罪率以及帮助罪犯重返社会等都具有重要作用。部分监狱甚至要求咨询师“改造”和“改变”被评估为“顽固”和“危险”的罪犯,从而达到控制狱内犯罪、维护监狱安全稳定的目的。
学者们就监狱心理咨询的道德伦理、监狱心理咨询与重新犯罪之间的关系、监狱心理咨询效果的检验、心理咨询师对咨询工作的满意度以及如何将民警和咨询师的双重身份进行结合等问题进行了研究。这些研究以对监狱心理咨询的工作性质、流程、环境等进行探讨为主,而中国的监狱心理咨询研究更多的是官方或一线工作者成功经验的分享。在这些研究中,监狱心理咨询的直接参与者(民警咨询师和罪犯求询者)被边缘化,甚至失语。罪犯求询者被理所当然地认为是监狱心理咨询的受益者,而心理咨询师如何在监狱的特殊语境中运用心理咨询理论和技术与罪犯求询者进行沟通和互动的过程则几乎完全被忽略。
2.研究目的
监狱心理咨询不仅是中国改造和教育罪犯的手段之一,也是中国目前监狱运作现状的反映。遵循实证原则,通过对监狱语境中不同场所话语的比较研究,本文的
研究目的是：
(1)探析中国目前的监狱心理咨询实际上是如何进行和运作的,以促进监狱和民警对包括心理咨询在内的监狱矫正项目的反思；
(2)改进目前咨询中存在的偏误,寻求监狱心理咨询效益的最大化；
(3)通过监狱语境中真实对话语料的提供,改变西方学界对中国监狱简单,甚至是错误的认识。
3.研究方法
在本研究中,监狱心理咨询被认为是一种沟通互动、具有行动双向的言语实践活动,因而对双方所说话语并不做真假判断或探讨是否反映内心状态,而主要研究双方如何随着对话的展开解读、诠释和回应另一方的话语,以达成各自和共同的目标。本研究结合话语心理分析方法(话语行动模式)和文化话语分析方法(特别是文化和辩证的角度)对中国南方三所监狱9场监狱心理咨询语料(10余万字)进行分析和研究,提出通过话语证据揭示监狱矫正项目中互动双方之间的权力不平衡、判断项目运作实然与应然之间的差异、评估项目效果。本研究还从比较视角分析了10场干警罪犯个别谈话的特殊互动图景,以客观全面评价中国监狱心理咨询在教育改造方面的功用。
4.研究问题
根据研究目的和话语分析框架,本研究的问题是：X是如何做的以及为什么没有说Y。这两个研究问题可细分为：
(1)监狱心理咨询双方有何行动取向?
(2)双方采用了哪些话语手段来证明所说话语的真实性?
(3)双方如何在显示中立的同时归咎和推卸指责、协调切身相关利益?
(4)双方互动中有什么没有说、为什么没有说、我国的传统文化和监狱工作方针对双方的言语互动有哪些影响?
(5)通过与干警罪犯个别谈话的比较分析,如何辩证地评价监狱心理咨询?
5.研究结果
5.1.监狱心理咨询的过程
5.1.1开始阶段
在开始阶段,监狱心理咨询被构建成主动求询、保密、平等以及帮助罪犯求询者自助的过程,但民警咨询师对罪犯求询者平等权的过少陈述、保密权的过度保证、招呼语回复的控制以及犯罪史的询问凸显了民警咨询师作为咨询师被要求赋权与拥有警察身份进行控权之间的身份冲突。在此过程中,罪犯求询者除了积极响应确认主动求询的意愿外,话语量非常少,没有对民警咨询师心理咨询的介绍提出任何疑问或进行确认。原因可能是既然他们是主动求询,他们已经做好说什么、说到哪个程度以及可能被泄密的准备,因而并没有积极参与的必要。整个开始阶段就在民警咨询师快速宣布罪犯求询者的权利和罪犯求询者等待的过程中完成。
5.1.2问题讨论阶段
5.1.2.1问题陈述
罪犯求询者的问题涉及监狱处遇、健康问题、与同犯或监管干警的人际关系等,求询者通过角色归属、引用他人话语和极端个案表述等话语手段增加所述问题的真实性和可靠性,同时把与其相关的部分责任归咎于监狱、监管干警或受害人等外部因素。为了避免被民警咨询师评价为对监狱或监管干警不满,或是认罪、改造态度不好,罪犯求询者往往构建自己的受害者身份以强调问题的客观严重性,因而需要民警咨询师或来自监狱层面的干预。罪犯求询者陈述问题的结构是：“x是y,而解决y超过了我的能力范围”。一方面,参加咨询的正当性得到证明,另一方面把解决问题的责任转移给民警咨询师。
在罪犯求询者陈述问题的过程中,所有民警咨询师的话语量都较少,主要通过身份范畴化策略把自己定位为与罪犯求询者同一阵营、提出开放性问题进行确认或获取更多信息、打断时进行道歉、使用句尾词降低话语的权威性等话语手段把自己构建成故事的聆听者和信息的收集者。借此,罪犯求询者被定位为拥有知识的主体,而这些知识的分享程度完全取决于罪犯求询者。
5.1.2.2问题协商
在罪犯求询者的问题陈述暂告一段落后,民警咨询师首先表明自己是站在罪犯求询者的立场考虑问题并提供建议,所提建议的结构是“你应该改变自己,如果你不能改变自己,就改变看问题的角度”。在此过程中民警咨询师采用大量的句尾词缓和语气,但是双方的互动仍存在着较为明显的优势差异和等级关系。民警咨询师通过附加问话和假设性问题等较为含蓄的方式把罪犯求询者的问题归咎于他们自身,通过回避、延伸或限制转述、避嫌申明等话语手段降低问题的严重性或改变问题的性质,从而把对罪犯求询者问题的责任从监狱体系内的相关人员身上转移开去。置身于监狱语境中,罪犯很少会对干警的询问进行否定性的回复或质疑,民警咨询师通过附加问话“好不好”、“对不对”等预设偏好答案,而罪犯求询者往往也会如期提供“好”或“对”的答复,但是罪犯求询者也会通过含糊肯定、限制性肯定、沉默或转移话题等话语手段含蓄地对民警咨询师的建议或诊断进行抵抗。他们通过表达自己无法改变周围的人或环境的无助来强化自己的受害者身份,转移解决所述问题的责任。双方对于谁应负责的认识上无法达成一致。
值得注意的是,民警咨询师通过假设性问题试图激发罪犯求询者重新认识问题或解决问题的能力,但是却不涉及罪犯求询者在抱怨监管干警有贪污、同犯中有不平等处遇、所判刑期过长等问题时如何合法维护权益的相关知识。一方面假设性问题提供了培养罪犯求询者从不同角度认识问题能力的可能性,但是另一方面也强化了其只能接受而无力改变自身以外一切事物的罪犯身份。
5.1.3结束阶段
民警咨询师通过宣布时间有限、进行总结、布置作业、安排今后咨询等预告本场咨询即将结束,并且重申罪犯求询者应该做出改变。了解民警咨询师意图的罪犯求询者不会提出新的话题以配合民警咨询师对咨询进程的控制。但是在其中两场咨询中,罪犯求询者通过表述自己因为参加咨询而遭到嘲笑或处境太可怜以至于无法完成民警咨询师的作业打断咨询进程,同时会通过进一步强化自己的受害者身份把打断民警咨询师结束进程的责任在不危及自身利益的前提下转移到外部因素。
5.2干警罪犯个别谈话
干犯个别谈话对罪犯来说,一般都是被动的,这些谈话严格按照监管干警的安排、围绕着监管干警想要达到的目标高效率地进行。监管干警采取的话语手段主要是话题控制、附加问话和角色归属。(1)话题控制。干警找罪犯谈话的内容涉及调监、健康、劳动生产、同犯间和家庭纠纷等。谈话的开始与结束都简洁、明了,没有打招呼或闲聊,而是直奔主题。在问题讨论的过程中,即使有罪犯提及与其主题无关的话题,干警都采用回避的策略予以忽略,而罪犯也会非常配合地在接下来的谈话中不再提及这些话题；(2)附加问话。干警的建议或评论往往以附加问话结束,多数罪犯都给会以正面肯定的回复,表示已经理解并会按照干警的“指示”行事。只有极个别服刑人员通过模糊回答Em表示“弱肯定”：(3)角色归属。监管干警往往把所提建议构建成以罪犯的利益为重,而接受建议则是罪犯的应尽义务。他们被要求牢记罪犯身份,并负有达成监管干警期望的责任。虽然在谈话中没有提及如果谈话后罪犯未能按照干警所期待的表现会有什么后果,但是双方似乎都能理解并且照此互动。
干犯个别谈话被官方文本宣示为：监狱教育犯人的传统手段之一,其目的是掌握服刑人员的思想动态,通过谈话提高罪犯改造质量、维护监狱秩序。然而,事实上,本研究发现监管干警却是通过个别谈话隐晦地“警告”罪犯,罪犯在想什么以及怎么想都无关紧要,只需按照干警所说做到即可。
5.3监狱心理咨询与干犯个别谈话的比较
5.3.1具有中国文化属性的共同特征
监狱心理咨询和干犯个别谈话都是发生在中国监狱场域中身穿警察制服的民警和身穿囚服的罪犯之间的对话,因此两个话语活动都显现出具有中国文化属性的特征：(1)高度的目标性。监狱心理咨询就好象是一个容许盛装各种问题的容器,民警咨询师就是这个容器盖子的保管者,他们欢迎罪犯求询者提出任何问题,同时又确保这些问题的解决不会延伸出咨询室;而监管干警则负责给参加个别谈话的罪犯打疫苗,避免可能危及监狱利益行为的发生。两者都以对罪犯的控制和维护监狱的安全稳定为最高目标；(2)隐性规训制约。除了白纸黑字的法律法规之外,存在于监狱中的隐性规训影响着双方互动的方式,监狱心理咨询和干犯谈话都是在双方仔细衡量说什么和怎么说的过程中共同完成；(3)和谐导向。罪犯求询者和罪犯不论想达到什么目标,都会迎合干警,说他们想听的话,即使对所提建议有所保留,也不会公开表示。民警咨询师和干警也不希望谈话在双方公开的对峙中结束,以避免被视为不具有资格能力的人,因此不会对罪犯求询者和罪犯公开作出负面评价,并都在结束阶段表达欢迎下次谈话。借此,监狱心理咨询和个别谈话能够在和谐的氛围中结束。
5.3.2不同点
监狱心理咨询作为一种新型的教育、改造罪犯的方法有其自己的特点,而民警咨询师和罪犯求询者如何组织话语可以作为话语证据证明监狱心理咨询与干犯个别谈话的不同之处：(1)话题控制。在个别谈话中,干警控制着话题,如果罪犯提及与其主题无关的话题,这些话题会被忽略。而在监狱心理咨询中,民警咨询师采用各种话语手段鼓励罪犯求询者说出问题,尽量避免干涉或打断。即使结束咨询的进程被打断,民警咨询师也不会表现出不悦或不满,而是会就罪犯求询者所提话题展开讨论；(2)单方责任归咎或双方责任协商。在个别谈话中,罪犯只能单方面接受而无权归咎或推卸责任,监狱心理咨询则是在民警咨询师和罪犯求询者双方责任归咎、转移、减轻、推卸的协商过程中进行；(3)话语的间接性。通过话语以更为直接或间接地表述可以判断双方对对方的顾忌程度。一方面民警咨询师采用附加问话、句尾词、限制重述、延伸重述、假设性问题、身份范畴化、对比、极端个案陈述、避嫌声明等话语手段以建构监狱心理咨询不同于其它监狱机构内部的谈话、表明中立、归咎或推卸责任,而个别谈话中干警只采用了附加问话和句尾词两种话语手段降低话语的命令性；另一方面在个别谈话中,对于干警的附加问话,罪犯都是提供偏好答案,只有在个别情况下通过含糊回答间接表明他们的保留态度,而在监狱心理咨询中,罪犯求询者会采用改变话题和反问等相对更为直接的方式表达不满和对民警咨询师所提建议的质疑。
监狱心理咨询中的话题控制、责任协商、话语的间接性程度等话语证据表明参加监狱心理咨询的罪犯求询者比个别谈话中的罪犯被更多的赋权。
6.结论与启示
本研究采用话语心理分析方法探析原本属于心理学领域的主题。由于监狱心理咨询中民警咨询师和罪犯求询者如何说和为什么这么说深受中国传统文化和刑事政策的影响,通过与文化话语分析方法的结合可以弥补源于西方的话语心理分析方法解释和分析中国话语的缺陷和不足,同时也可以揭示照搬西方心理咨询理论和技术在中国监狱运用过程中出现的尴尬与困境,而话语证据的提出为今后监狱矫正项目运行和功用的评价提供新型的评估工具。该研究路径有助于缩小学术研究价值和实践指导意义之间的差距。
6.1监狱心理咨询：理想与现实
在当前普遍以成本-效益核算判断监狱矫正项目是否有用的背景下,中国的监狱心理咨询未能提供有效证据证明其与改变罪犯求询者和降低重新犯罪率之间的因果关联。根据对南方三所监狱心理咨询的开始、问题提出、问题协商和结束过程的细致话语分析,发现民警咨询师和罪犯求询者之间的互动主要存在以下三种冲突：(1)要求分享与保留之间的意图冲突；(2)要求赋权与控权之间的身份冲突；(3)要求负责与无责之间的归责冲突。本研究提出中国的监狱心理咨询应暂时把帮助罪犯理解并提高解决问题的能力和降低重新犯罪率的目标放在一边,可以先从更好的承担“投诉箱”和“新瓶装旧酒”的功能开始做出改变：(1)投诉箱。监狱心理咨询可以成为投诉箱,允许罪犯求询者发泄不满,而且在有法律法规保障和罪犯求询者许可的前提下,可以通过这个渠道报告并解决一些实际问题；(2)新瓶装旧酒。部分罪犯求询者并不需要他人提供建议或解决问题,监狱心理咨询通过提供愿意聆听故事的民警咨询师,允许罪犯求询者在无需顾忌是否会损害切身益或被道德评价的情况下叙述陈年往事,这或许也能帮助罪犯求询者重新认识自己的问题。
虽然民警咨询师同罪犯求询者自身和相互的角色冲突及地位不一致决定了中国监狱场域中发生的心理咨询与理想的心理咨询之间必然存在诸多悖谬之处,但是从辩证的角度看,监狱心理咨询为那些愿意改变、成长、改善生活的罪犯提供了分享并讨论经历与情感的场所。通过罪犯主动求询和监狱心理咨询承担投诉箱和新瓶装旧酒功能的监狱心理咨询可以改善罪犯的健康和监狱环境,并最终促使个人成长和改变。
6.2启示
6.2.1对监狱矫正项目研究的启示
监狱是人教育、改造人的场所,话语分析在立足于人文关注的基础上加大了对互动语料的收集,可以弥补传统刑事司法领域研究对人文以及语境关注不够的缺陷。本研究提出今后监狱矫正项目的研究应该：(1)具有文化敏感度：反省西方理论和技术在中国监狱引进和运用的本土化问题；(2)以参与者为中心：避免矫正项目的提供与接受者在研究中被边缘化、甚至失语；(3)以问题为导向：提高监狱民警开展矫正项目的专业化程度。
6.2.2对决策层的启示
鉴于监狱心理咨询已经在中国超过93%的监狱中开展以及大部分的心理咨询由民警咨询师承担的现状下,提出决策层可以首先解决以下两个问题：(1)谁是监狱心理咨询的客户；(2)如何处理和协调解决利益冲突。
6.2.3对监狱心理咨询的培训和实践的启示
虽然民警咨询师已经获得了相关咨询资格,学习了心理咨询理论和技术,掌握了诸如倾听、总结等沟通技巧,但是在知道如何做与实际怎么做之间还存在差距。根据对实际语境中发生的监狱心理咨询互动过程进行分析后获得的话语证据,可以发现民警咨询师在咨询过程中有意或无意忽略的一些细节：(1)问题的提出：心理咨询倡导开放式问题,但是监狱心理咨询中存在大量预设偏好答案的附加问话；(2)建议的提供：心理咨询中一般不建议咨询师给求询者提供建议,而民警咨询师所提建议不仅适用于所有的罪犯求询者,也适用于普通大众,因而也就失去了其指导意义；(3)道德评价：心理咨询应该是价值中立的,但是民警咨询师在三场心理咨询中在分析罪犯求询者的问题时追溯到他们的犯罪史,其背后的逻辑是罪犯求询者的问题与其犯罪史有关。民警咨询师应该反思为什么罪犯求询者的话语量会在他们提出附加问话、提供建议和进行道德评价时明显减少。
7.局限性
本研究存在以下方面的局限：(1)由于研究者在研究过程中身穿警服,在征求同意录音的过程中,所有服刑人员虽都无一例外地表示同意,但这些同意的获得似有强取之嫌；(2)本研究没有能够对心理咨询过程中双方的面部表情、眼神交流、坐姿、身体活动等非语言现象进行研究；(3)本研究的分析样本虽为随机抽取,但样本范围不甚宽广,故其结论的推论力尚有待进一步检验。
This dissertation investigates into how counseling is done in the context of China's prisons in which security is the priority and reforming inmates into law-abiding citizens is the overall goal of inmate correction and rehabilitation. A principal concern is how participants organize their speech to validate their accounts and attribute responsibilities. The individual talk between custodial officials and inmates, a more traditional method to educate and reform inmates in China's prisons, is provided to offer a comparative study. The present study is intended to help police counselors and prison administrators reflect on the counseling claimed to be and counseling done to be and to evaluate prison counseling from a more dialectic viewpoint. The ultimate goal of this study is to enhance our understanding of what is going on in China's prisons.
This dissertation combines the theoretical and methodological principles of discursive psychology and Shi-xu's cultural approach to discourse. The concept of discourse evidence is proposed for the evaluation of the operation and outcome of offender treatment programs including prison counseling. The discourse data consist of9counseling sessions and10individual talks obtained from three prisons in southern China. It is argued in this study that both police counselors and inmate clients employ different discursive devices to attribute responsibilities for inmate clients" problems and solution to these problems while at the same time managing the stakes or interests that they are personally involved in. The findings of the comparative study between prison counseling and individual talk indicate that from a dialectic viewpoint, prison counseling provides a new communication channel through which inmates share their experiences and feelings. Implications from this dissertation could be applied to the training of frontline police counselors, professional development and future prison studies in China.
自20世纪80年代西方心理咨询理念被引入中国以来,心理咨询已经在中国近93%的监狱开展,拥有心理咨询师资格的民警和主动求询的罪犯数量都在显著增加。监狱心理咨询作为一种新型的罪犯矫治技术被认为对于促进罪犯改造、降低重新犯罪率以及帮助罪犯重返社会等都具有重要作用。部分监狱甚至要求咨询师“改造”和“改变”被评估为“顽固”和“危险”的罪犯,从而达到控制狱内犯罪、维护监狱安全稳定的目的。
学者们就监狱心理咨询的道德伦理、监狱心理咨询与重新犯罪之间的关系、监狱心理咨询效果的检验、心理咨询师对咨询工作的满意度以及如何将民警和咨询师的双重身份进行结合等问题进行了研究。这些研究以对监狱心理咨询的工作性质、流程、环境等进行探讨为主,而中国的监狱心理咨询研究更多的是官方或一线工作者成功经验的分享。在这些研究中,监狱心理咨询的直接参与者(民警咨询师和罪犯求询者)被边缘化,甚至失语。罪犯求询者被理所当然地认为是监狱心理咨询的受益者,而心理咨询师如何在监狱的特殊语境中运用心理咨询理论和技术与罪犯求询者进行沟通和互动的过程则几乎完全被忽略。
2.研究目的
监狱心理咨询不仅是中国改造和教育罪犯的手段之一,也是中国目前监狱运作现状的反映。遵循实证原则,通过对监狱语境中不同场所话语的比较研究,本文的
研究目的是：
(1)探析中国目前的监狱心理咨询实际上是如何进行和运作的,以促进监狱和民警对包括心理咨询在内的监狱矫正项目的反思；
(2)改进目前咨询中存在的偏误,寻求监狱心理咨询效益的最大化；
(3)通过监狱语境中真实对话语料的提供,改变西方学界对中国监狱简单,甚至是错误的认识。
3.研究方法
在本研究中,监狱心理咨询被认为是一种沟通互动、具有行动双向的言语实践活动,因而对双方所说话语并不做真假判断或探讨是否反映内心状态,而主要研究双方如何随着对话的展开解读、诠释和回应另一方的话语,以达成各自和共同的目标。本研究结合话语心理分析方法(话语行动模式)和文化话语分析方法(特别是文化和辩证的角度)对中国南方三所监狱9场监狱心理咨询语料(10余万字)进行分析和研究,提出通过话语证据揭示监狱矫正项目中互动双方之间的权力不平衡、判断项目运作实然与应然之间的差异、评估项目效果。本研究还从比较视角分析了10场干警罪犯个别谈话的特殊互动图景,以客观全面评价中国监狱心理咨询在教育改造方面的功用。
4.研究问题
根据研究目的和话语分析框架,本研究的问题是：X是如何做的以及为什么没有说Y。这两个研究问题可细分为：
(1)监狱心理咨询双方有何行动取向?
(2)双方采用了哪些话语手段来证明所说话语的真实性?
(3)双方如何在显示中立的同时归咎和推卸指责、协调切身相关利益?
(4)双方互动中有什么没有说、为什么没有说、我国的传统文化和监狱工作方针对双方的言语互动有哪些影响?
(5)通过与干警罪犯个别谈话的比较分析,如何辩证地评价监狱心理咨询?
5.研究结果
5.1.监狱心理咨询的过程
5.1.1开始阶段
在开始阶段,监狱心理咨询被构建成主动求询、保密、平等以及帮助罪犯求询者自助的过程,但民警咨询师对罪犯求询者平等权的过少陈述、保密权的过度保证、招呼语回复的控制以及犯罪史的询问凸显了民警咨询师作为咨询师被要求赋权与拥有警察身份进行控权之间的身份冲突。在此过程中,罪犯求询者除了积极响应确认主动求询的意愿外,话语量非常少,没有对民警咨询师心理咨询的介绍提出任何疑问或进行确认。原因可能是既然他们是主动求询,他们已经做好说什么、说到哪个程度以及可能被泄密的准备,因而并没有积极参与的必要。整个开始阶段就在民警咨询师快速宣布罪犯求询者的权利和罪犯求询者等待的过程中完成。
5.1.2问题讨论阶段
5.1.2.1问题陈述
罪犯求询者的问题涉及监狱处遇、健康问题、与同犯或监管干警的人际关系等,求询者通过角色归属、引用他人话语和极端个案表述等话语手段增加所述问题的真实性和可靠性,同时把与其相关的部分责任归咎于监狱、监管干警或受害人等外部因素。为了避免被民警咨询师评价为对监狱或监管干警不满,或是认罪、改造态度不好,罪犯求询者往往构建自己的受害者身份以强调问题的客观严重性,因而需要民警咨询师或来自监狱层面的干预。罪犯求询者陈述问题的结构是：“x是y,而解决y超过了我的能力范围”。一方面,参加咨询的正当性得到证明,另一方面把解决问题的责任转移给民警咨询师。
在罪犯求询者陈述问题的过程中,所有民警咨询师的话语量都较少,主要通过身份范畴化策略把自己定位为与罪犯求询者同一阵营、提出开放性问题进行确认或获取更多信息、打断时进行道歉、使用句尾词降低话语的权威性等话语手段把自己构建成故事的聆听者和信息的收集者。借此,罪犯求询者被定位为拥有知识的主体,而这些知识的分享程度完全取决于罪犯求询者。
5.1.2.2问题协商
在罪犯求询者的问题陈述暂告一段落后,民警咨询师首先表明自己是站在罪犯求询者的立场考虑问题并提供建议,所提建议的结构是“你应该改变自己,如果你不能改变自己,就改变看问题的角度”。在此过程中民警咨询师采用大量的句尾词缓和语气,但是双方的互动仍存在着较为明显的优势差异和等级关系。民警咨询师通过附加问话和假设性问题等较为含蓄的方式把罪犯求询者的问题归咎于他们自身,通过回避、延伸或限制转述、避嫌申明等话语手段降低问题的严重性或改变问题的性质,从而把对罪犯求询者问题的责任从监狱体系内的相关人员身上转移开去。置身于监狱语境中,罪犯很少会对干警的询问进行否定性的回复或质疑,民警咨询师通过附加问话“好不好”、“对不对”等预设偏好答案,而罪犯求询者往往也会如期提供“好”或“对”的答复,但是罪犯求询者也会通过含糊肯定、限制性肯定、沉默或转移话题等话语手段含蓄地对民警咨询师的建议或诊断进行抵抗。他们通过表达自己无法改变周围的人或环境的无助来强化自己的受害者身份,转移解决所述问题的责任。双方对于谁应负责的认识上无法达成一致。
值得注意的是,民警咨询师通过假设性问题试图激发罪犯求询者重新认识问题或解决问题的能力,但是却不涉及罪犯求询者在抱怨监管干警有贪污、同犯中有不平等处遇、所判刑期过长等问题时如何合法维护权益的相关知识。一方面假设性问题提供了培养罪犯求询者从不同角度认识问题能力的可能性,但是另一方面也强化了其只能接受而无力改变自身以外一切事物的罪犯身份。
5.1.3结束阶段
民警咨询师通过宣布时间有限、进行总结、布置作业、安排今后咨询等预告本场咨询即将结束,并且重申罪犯求询者应该做出改变。了解民警咨询师意图的罪犯求询者不会提出新的话题以配合民警咨询师对咨询进程的控制。但是在其中两场咨询中,罪犯求询者通过表述自己因为参加咨询而遭到嘲笑或处境太可怜以至于无法完成民警咨询师的作业打断咨询进程,同时会通过进一步强化自己的受害者身份把打断民警咨询师结束进程的责任在不危及自身利益的前提下转移到外部因素。
5.2干警罪犯个别谈话
干犯个别谈话对罪犯来说,一般都是被动的,这些谈话严格按照监管干警的安排、围绕着监管干警想要达到的目标高效率地进行。监管干警采取的话语手段主要是话题控制、附加问话和角色归属。(1)话题控制。干警找罪犯谈话的内容涉及调监、健康、劳动生产、同犯间和家庭纠纷等。谈话的开始与结束都简洁、明了,没有打招呼或闲聊,而是直奔主题。在问题讨论的过程中,即使有罪犯提及与其主题无关的话题,干警都采用回避的策略予以忽略,而罪犯也会非常配合地在接下来的谈话中不再提及这些话题；(2)附加问话。干警的建议或评论往往以附加问话结束,多数罪犯都给会以正面肯定的回复,表示已经理解并会按照干警的“指示”行事。只有极个别服刑人员通过模糊回答Em表示“弱肯定”：(3)角色归属。监管干警往往把所提建议构建成以罪犯的利益为重,而接受建议则是罪犯的应尽义务。他们被要求牢记罪犯身份,并负有达成监管干警期望的责任。虽然在谈话中没有提及如果谈话后罪犯未能按照干警所期待的表现会有什么后果,但是双方似乎都能理解并且照此互动。
干犯个别谈话被官方文本宣示为：监狱教育犯人的传统手段之一,其目的是掌握服刑人员的思想动态,通过谈话提高罪犯改造质量、维护监狱秩序。然而,事实上,本研究发现监管干警却是通过个别谈话隐晦地“警告”罪犯,罪犯在想什么以及怎么想都无关紧要,只需按照干警所说做到即可。
5.3监狱心理咨询与干犯个别谈话的比较
5.3.1具有中国文化属性的共同特征
监狱心理咨询和干犯个别谈话都是发生在中国监狱场域中身穿警察制服的民警和身穿囚服的罪犯之间的对话,因此两个话语活动都显现出具有中国文化属性的特征：(1)高度的目标性。监狱心理咨询就好象是一个容许盛装各种问题的容器,民警咨询师就是这个容器盖子的保管者,他们欢迎罪犯求询者提出任何问题,同时又确保这些问题的解决不会延伸出咨询室;而监管干警则负责给参加个别谈话的罪犯打疫苗,避免可能危及监狱利益行为的发生。两者都以对罪犯的控制和维护监狱的安全稳定为最高目标；(2)隐性规训制约。除了白纸黑字的法律法规之外,存在于监狱中的隐性规训影响着双方互动的方式,监狱心理咨询和干犯谈话都是在双方仔细衡量说什么和怎么说的过程中共同完成；(3)和谐导向。罪犯求询者和罪犯不论想达到什么目标,都会迎合干警,说他们想听的话,即使对所提建议有所保留,也不会公开表示。民警咨询师和干警也不希望谈话在双方公开的对峙中结束,以避免被视为不具有资格能力的人,因此不会对罪犯求询者和罪犯公开作出负面评价,并都在结束阶段表达欢迎下次谈话。借此,监狱心理咨询和个别谈话能够在和谐的氛围中结束。
5.3.2不同点
监狱心理咨询作为一种新型的教育、改造罪犯的方法有其自己的特点,而民警咨询师和罪犯求询者如何组织话语可以作为话语证据证明监狱心理咨询与干犯个别谈话的不同之处：(1)话题控制。在个别谈话中,干警控制着话题,如果罪犯提及与其主题无关的话题,这些话题会被忽略。而在监狱心理咨询中,民警咨询师采用各种话语手段鼓励罪犯求询者说出问题,尽量避免干涉或打断。即使结束咨询的进程被打断,民警咨询师也不会表现出不悦或不满,而是会就罪犯求询者所提话题展开讨论；(2)单方责任归咎或双方责任协商。在个别谈话中,罪犯只能单方面接受而无权归咎或推卸责任,监狱心理咨询则是在民警咨询师和罪犯求询者双方责任归咎、转移、减轻、推卸的协商过程中进行；(3)话语的间接性。通过话语以更为直接或间接地表述可以判断双方对对方的顾忌程度。一方面民警咨询师采用附加问话、句尾词、限制重述、延伸重述、假设性问题、身份范畴化、对比、极端个案陈述、避嫌声明等话语手段以建构监狱心理咨询不同于其它监狱机构内部的谈话、表明中立、归咎或推卸责任,而个别谈话中干警只采用了附加问话和句尾词两种话语手段降低话语的命令性；另一方面在个别谈话中,对于干警的附加问话,罪犯都是提供偏好答案,只有在个别情况下通过含糊回答间接表明他们的保留态度,而在监狱心理咨询中,罪犯求询者会采用改变话题和反问等相对更为直接的方式表达不满和对民警咨询师所提建议的质疑。
监狱心理咨询中的话题控制、责任协商、话语的间接性程度等话语证据表明参加监狱心理咨询的罪犯求询者比个别谈话中的罪犯被更多的赋权。
6.结论与启示
本研究采用话语心理分析方法探析原本属于心理学领域的主题。由于监狱心理咨询中民警咨询师和罪犯求询者如何说和为什么这么说深受中国传统文化和刑事政策的影响,通过与文化话语分析方法的结合可以弥补源于西方的话语心理分析方法解释和分析中国话语的缺陷和不足,同时也可以揭示照搬西方心理咨询理论和技术在中国监狱运用过程中出现的尴尬与困境,而话语证据的提出为今后监狱矫正项目运行和功用的评价提供新型的评估工具。该研究路径有助于缩小学术研究价值和实践指导意义之间的差距。
6.1监狱心理咨询：理想与现实
在当前普遍以成本-效益核算判断监狱矫正项目是否有用的背景下,中国的监狱心理咨询未能提供有效证据证明其与改变罪犯求询者和降低重新犯罪率之间的因果关联。根据对南方三所监狱心理咨询的开始、问题提出、问题协商和结束过程的细致话语分析,发现民警咨询师和罪犯求询者之间的互动主要存在以下三种冲突：(1)要求分享与保留之间的意图冲突；(2)要求赋权与控权之间的身份冲突；(3)要求负责与无责之间的归责冲突。本研究提出中国的监狱心理咨询应暂时把帮助罪犯理解并提高解决问题的能力和降低重新犯罪率的目标放在一边,可以先从更好的承担“投诉箱”和“新瓶装旧酒”的功能开始做出改变：(1)投诉箱。监狱心理咨询可以成为投诉箱,允许罪犯求询者发泄不满,而且在有法律法规保障和罪犯求询者许可的前提下,可以通过这个渠道报告并解决一些实际问题；(2)新瓶装旧酒。部分罪犯求询者并不需要他人提供建议或解决问题,监狱心理咨询通过提供愿意聆听故事的民警咨询师,允许罪犯求询者在无需顾忌是否会损害切身益或被道德评价的情况下叙述陈年往事,这或许也能帮助罪犯求询者重新认识自己的问题。
虽然民警咨询师同罪犯求询者自身和相互的角色冲突及地位不一致决定了中国监狱场域中发生的心理咨询与理想的心理咨询之间必然存在诸多悖谬之处,但是从辩证的角度看,监狱心理咨询为那些愿意改变、成长、改善生活的罪犯提供了分享并讨论经历与情感的场所。通过罪犯主动求询和监狱心理咨询承担投诉箱和新瓶装旧酒功能的监狱心理咨询可以改善罪犯的健康和监狱环境,并最终促使个人成长和改变。
6.2启示
6.2.1对监狱矫正项目研究的启示
监狱是人教育、改造人的场所,话语分析在立足于人文关注的基础上加大了对互动语料的收集,可以弥补传统刑事司法领域研究对人文以及语境关注不够的缺陷。本研究提出今后监狱矫正项目的研究应该：(1)具有文化敏感度：反省西方理论和技术在中国监狱引进和运用的本土化问题；(2)以参与者为中心：避免矫正项目的提供与接受者在研究中被边缘化、甚至失语；(3)以问题为导向：提高监狱民警开展矫正项目的专业化程度。
6.2.2对决策层的启示
鉴于监狱心理咨询已经在中国超过93%的监狱中开展以及大部分的心理咨询由民警咨询师承担的现状下,提出决策层可以首先解决以下两个问题：(1)谁是监狱心理咨询的客户；(2)如何处理和协调解决利益冲突。
6.2.3对监狱心理咨询的培训和实践的启示
虽然民警咨询师已经获得了相关咨询资格,学习了心理咨询理论和技术,掌握了诸如倾听、总结等沟通技巧,但是在知道如何做与实际怎么做之间还存在差距。根据对实际语境中发生的监狱心理咨询互动过程进行分析后获得的话语证据,可以发现民警咨询师在咨询过程中有意或无意忽略的一些细节：(1)问题的提出：心理咨询倡导开放式问题,但是监狱心理咨询中存在大量预设偏好答案的附加问话；(2)建议的提供：心理咨询中一般不建议咨询师给求询者提供建议,而民警咨询师所提建议不仅适用于所有的罪犯求询者,也适用于普通大众,因而也就失去了其指导意义；(3)道德评价：心理咨询应该是价值中立的,但是民警咨询师在三场心理咨询中在分析罪犯求询者的问题时追溯到他们的犯罪史,其背后的逻辑是罪犯求询者的问题与其犯罪史有关。民警咨询师应该反思为什么罪犯求询者的话语量会在他们提出附加问话、提供建议和进行道德评价时明显减少。
7.局限性
本研究存在以下方面的局限：(1)由于研究者在研究过程中身穿警服,在征求同意录音的过程中,所有服刑人员虽都无一例外地表示同意,但这些同意的获得似有强取之嫌；(2)本研究没有能够对心理咨询过程中双方的面部表情、眼神交流、坐姿、身体活动等非语言现象进行研究；(3)本研究的分析样本虽为随机抽取,但样本范围不甚宽广,故其结论的推论力尚有待进一步检验。
This dissertation investigates into how counseling is done in the context of China's prisons in which security is the priority and reforming inmates into law-abiding citizens is the overall goal of inmate correction and rehabilitation. A principal concern is how participants organize their speech to validate their accounts and attribute responsibilities. The individual talk between custodial officials and inmates, a more traditional method to educate and reform inmates in China's prisons, is provided to offer a comparative study. The present study is intended to help police counselors and prison administrators reflect on the counseling claimed to be and counseling done to be and to evaluate prison counseling from a more dialectic viewpoint. The ultimate goal of this study is to enhance our understanding of what is going on in China's prisons.
This dissertation combines the theoretical and methodological principles of discursive psychology and Shi-xu's cultural approach to discourse. The concept of discourse evidence is proposed for the evaluation of the operation and outcome of offender treatment programs including prison counseling. The discourse data consist of9counseling sessions and10individual talks obtained from three prisons in southern China. It is argued in this study that both police counselors and inmate clients employ different discursive devices to attribute responsibilities for inmate clients" problems and solution to these problems while at the same time managing the stakes or interests that they are personally involved in. The findings of the comparative study between prison counseling and individual talk indicate that from a dialectic viewpoint, prison counseling provides a new communication channel through which inmates share their experiences and feelings. Implications from this dissertation could be applied to the training of frontline police counselors, professional development and future prison studies in China.
引文
Abell, Jackie & Stokoe, Elizabeth H. (1999). "I Take Full Responsibility, I Take Some Responsibility, Ⅰ'Ⅱ Take Half of It But No More Than That":Princess Diana and the Negotiation of Blame in the'Panorama'Interview. Discourse Studies 1(3): 297-319.
Alba-Juez, Laura (2009). Perspectives on Discourse Analysis:Theory and Practice. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Andrew, M. (2006). Ethical Dilemmas Faced by Correctional Psychologists in Canada, CriminalJustice and Behavior 33:93-109.
Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J.,& Hoge, R. D. (1990). Classification for Effective Rehabilitation:Rediscovering Psychology, Criminal Justice and Behavior 17(3): 19-52.
Antonowicz, D. H.,& Ross, R. R. (1994). Essential Components of Successful Rehabilitation Programs for Offenders, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 38:97-104.
Atkinson, J. Maxwell & Heritage, John (1984). Structures of Social Action:Studies in Conversation Analysis. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Auburn, Timothy (2005). Narrative Reflexivity as a Repair Device for Discounting 'Cognitive Distortions' in Sex Offender Treatment. Discourse Society 16(5): 697-718.
Austin. J. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford:Clarendon.
Avdi, Evrinomy (2008). Analysing Talk in the Talking Cure:Conversation, Discourse, and Narrative Analysis of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy. European Psychotherapy 8(1):69-87.
Avdi, Evrinomy & Georgaca. Eugenie (2007). Discourse Analysis and Psychotherapy:A Critical Review. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counseling 9(2):157-176.
Bakhtin. M. M. (1973). Questions of Literature and Aesthetics. Russian:Progress Moscow.
Billig, Michael (1996). Arguing and Thinking:A Rhetorical Approach to Social Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Billig. Michael (1997). The Dialogic Unconscious:Psycho-analysis. Discursive Psychology and the Nature of Repression. British Journal of Social Psychology 36: 139-159.
Boothby, Jennifer L.& Clements, Carl B. (2000). A National Survey of Correctional Psychologists, Criminal Justice and Behavior 27(6):716-732.
Boothby, Jennifer L.& Clements, Carl B. (2002). Job Satisfaction of Correctional Psychologists:Implications for Recruitment and Retention. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 33(3):310-315.
Brodsky. S. L. (1980). Ethical issues for psychologists in corrections. In J. Monahan (Ed.), Who is the client? The ethics of psychological intervention in the criminal justice system (pp.63-92). Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.
Burger, Warren E. (1991). Factories with Fences, In Haas, Kenneth C./Alpert. Geoffrey. The Dilemmas of Corrections (pp.349-356). Illionois:Waveland Press, Inc.
Cameron. D. (2001). Working With Spoken Discourse. London:Sage.
Camic, Paul M., Rhodes. Jean E.,& Yardley, Lucy (2003). Naming the Stars:Integrating Qualitative Methods into Psychological Research, In Camic. Paul M. Rhodes, Jean E. and Yardley, Lucy (eds.) Qualitative Research in Psychology:Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design (pp.3-15). Washington:American Psychological Association.
Candlin. C. N. (1997). General Editor's Preface. In Gunnarsson. B. L., Linell and Nordberg, B. (eds). The Construction of Professional Discourse (pp. ix-xiv). London: Longman.
Cao. S. Q. (2008). The Discourse of Chinese Literary Theory and the Dialogue between Western and Chinese Literary Theories, Journal of Multicultural Discourses 3(1): 1-15.
Carrabine, Eamonn (2004). Power, Discourse and Resistance:A Genealogy of the Strangeways Prison Riot. Aldershot:Ashgate.
Carter, R.& McCarthy, M. (1997). Exploring Spoken English. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Chan, David W. (2003). Multicultural Considerations in Counseling Chinese Clients: Introducing the Narrative Alternative, Asian Journal of Counselling 1 (2):169-192.
Chen. P. H., Tsai, S. L.,& Lai, N. H. (2001). The Construction of a Process-Change Model of Unmet Expectations Based on the Satir Model, Asian Journal of Counselling 8(1):5-34.
Cooke, Cheryl L. (2002). (Re)Presenting African-American Men:Analyzing Discourses on Manhood, Prison, and Relationships. Ph.D. Dissertation. Washington:University of Washington.
Cornforth, Sue (2006). Controversies in Counselling:Re-thinking. Ph.D. Dissertation. Wellington:Victoria University of Wellington.
Correia, K.M., (2009). A handbook for correctional psychologists:Guidance for the prison practitioner (2nd.). Springfield, Illinois:Charles C. Thomas Publisher Ltd.
Corsini, R.,& Wedding, D. (1995). Current Psychotherapies (5ed.). Itasca Illinois:F.E. Peacock Publishers Inc.
Cullen, F. T. (2005). The Twelve people who Saved Rehabilitation:How the Science of Criminology Made a Difference, The American Society of Criminology 2004 Presidential Address, Criminology 43:1-42.
Diamond, Pamela M., Magaletta, Philip R., Harzke, Amy Jo & Baxter, John (2008). Who Requests Psychological Services upon Admission to Prison? Psychological Services 5(2):97-107.
Duan. Changming (2001). Counseling Process and Outcome:A Critical Area of Inquiry in Counseling Research, Asian Journal of Counselling 8(1):61-68.
Durcan, Graham (2008). From the inside:Experiences of prison mental health care. London:Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health.
Dutton. Michael Robert (1992). Policing and Punishment in China:Frm Patriacrchy to 'the People'. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Edwards. D.& Potter,J. (1992). Discursive Psychology. London:Sage.
Edwards, Derek (2004). Discursive Psychology. In K. L. Fitch & R. E. Sanders (eds.). Handbook of Language and Social Interaction (pp.257-273). New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Inc., Publishers.
Edwards, Derek (2006). Facts, Norms and Dispositions:Practical Uses of the Modal Verb Would in Police Interrogations. Discourse Studies 8(4):475-501.
Egan, Gerard (Ed.). (1990). The Skilled Helper:A Systematic Approach to Effective Helping. Pacific Grove. CA:Brooks/Cole.
Egan, Gerard (2010). The Skilled Helper:A Problem-Management and Opportunity-development Approach to Helping. Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.
Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and Punish:The Birth of the Prison. New York:Vintage.
Fox, Vernon (1954). The Effect of Counseling on Adjustment in Prison. Social Forces 32(3):285-289.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs. N.J., Prentice-Hall.
Goldfried, M. R.,& Wolfe, B. E. (1996). Psychotherapy Practice and Research:Repairing a Strained Alliance, American Psychologist 51 (10):1007-1016.
Greer, C. (2006). Delivering death:capital punishment, botched executions, and the American news media. In:P. Mason (Ed.). Captured by the media:Prison discourse in popular culture (pp.84-102). Devon. U.K.:Willan Publishing.
Guo, Jing-ying (2012). One or Two-Way Communication:A Case Study on Offender Counseling. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 51:331-350.
Guo, Jing-ying (2013 forthcoming). For the Sake of Whom:Conversation Analysis of Advice Giving in Offender Counseling, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.
Gutierrez, L. M. (1990). Working with Women of Color:An Empowerment Perspective. Social Work35(2):149-154.
Haag, A. M. (2006). Ethical dilemma faced by correctional psychologists in Canada. Criminal Justice and Behavior 33:93-109.
Hepburn, A. (2004). Crying:Notes on Description, Transcription And Interaction. Research on Language and Social Interaction 37:251-90.
Hepburn, A.& Wiggins, S. (2005). Developments in Discursive Psychology. Discourse and Society 16 (5):595-601.
Hepburn, A.& Wiggins, S. (2007). Discursive Research:Themes and Debates. In Hepburn. A.& Wiggins, S. (Eds.). Discursive Research in Practice:New Approaches to Psychology and Interaction (pp.1-28). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Higgins, Louise T. Davey, Gareth. Gao, Xiang. Zheng, Richang, Ni, Zijun & Lang, Lijun (2008). Counseling in China:Past, Present and Future, Psychology Developing Societies 20(1):99-109.
Horton Ⅱ, Kerry F. (1997). Images of Penality:Prison Films and the Construction of Discourse Degrading Punishment and Obligation. MA Dissertation. Michigan: Eastern Michigan University.
Jefferson, A. M. (2003). Therapeutic Discipline? Reflections on the Penetration of Sites of Control by Therapeutic Discourse, Outlines 1:55-73.
Jenkins, T.N. (2002). Chinese Traditional Thought and Practice:Lessons for an Ecological Economics Worldview, Ecological Economics 40 (1):39-52.
Jorgensen, Marianne W.& Phillips, Louise J. (2002). Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. London:Sage.
Kadish, T.E., Glaser, B.A., Calhoun, G. B.,& Risler, E. A. (1999). Counseling juvenile offenders:A program evaluation, Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling 19: 88-94.
Knapp, S.,& VandeCreek, L. (2001). Ethical issues in personality assessment in forensic psychology, Journal of Personality Assessment 77:242-254.
Kratcoski, Peter C. (2004). Introduction:The Scope and Purposes of Correctional Treatment. In Kratcoski, Peter C (eds). Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.1-8). lllionois:Waveland Press, Inc.
Kurri. K.& Wahlstrom, J. (2005). Placement of Responsibility and Moral Reasoning in Couple, Therapy. Journal of Family Therapy 27:352-369.
Leung, P. W. L.,& Lee, P. W. H. (1996). Psychotherapy with the Chinese. In M. H. Bond (Ed.). The Handbook of Chinese Psychology (pp.441-456). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Lin, Y. N. (2001). The Effects of Counseling Styles and Stages on Perceived Counselor Effectiveness from Taiwanese Female University Clients, Asian Journal of Counselling 8(1):35-60.
Lipton, D., Martinson, R.,& Wilks, J. (1975). The effectiveness of correctional treatment: A survey of treatment evaluation studies. New York:Praeger.
MacMartin, C. (2003). (Un)reasonable Doubt? The Invocation of Children's Consent in Sexual Abuse Trail Judgments, Discourse & Society 13(1):9-40.
Marecek, Jeanne (2003). Dancing through Minefields:Toward a Qualitative Stance in Psychology. In Camic, paul M., Rhodes, Jean E.& Yardley, Lucy (eds). Qualitative Research in Psychology (pp.49-69). Washington:American Psychological Association.
Martinson, R. (1979). What works:Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest 35:22-54.
Mason, Paul (2006). Captured by The Media:Prison Discourse in Popular Culture. Devon, U.K.:Willan Publishing.
Masters, Ruth E. (2004). Counseling Criminal Justice Offenders. London:Sage publications.
Mayr. Andrea (2003). Prison Discourse:Language as a Means of Control and Resistance. Palgrave Macmillan.
McGee, D. (2005). An Interactional Model of Questions as Therapeutic Interventions, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 31 (4):371-384.
McGuire. J. (1997). Ethical dilemmas in forensic clinical psychology. Legal and Criminological Psychology 2:177-192.
McKendy, J. P. (2006). "I'm Very Careful about That". Narrative and Agency of Men in Prison, Discourse & Society 17:473-502.
Miller, Gale & Silverman, David (1995). Troubles Talk and Counseling Discourse:A Comparative study, The Sociological Quarterly 36 (4):725-747.
Muhlhahn, Klaus (2009). Criminal Justice in China:A History. Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.
National Center for Alcohol Education (2004). Counseling Alcoholic Clients:A Microcounseling Approach to Basic Communication Skills. In Kratcoski, Peter C (ed). Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.459-495). Illionois:Waveland Press, Inc.
O'Connar, Partricia E. (2000). Speaking of Crime:Narratives of Prisoners. Lincoln and London:Univesity of Nebraska Press.
Perakyla, A. (1995). AIDS Counselling:Institutional Interaction and Clinical Practice. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Perakyla, A. (1997). Reliability and Validity in Research Based on Transcripts. In David Silverman (ed.). Qualitative Research. Theory, Method and Practice (pp.201-220). London:Sage.
Perakyla, A. (2004). Reliability and Validity in Research Based on Naturally Occurring Social Interaction. In Silverman, D. (ed.). Qualitative Research (pp.283-304). London:Sage.
Phillips. N. and Hardy, C. (2002). Discourse Analysis:Investigating processes of social construction. London:Sage.
Policy and Procedures of the state of North State of North Carolina Department of correction Division of Prisons. (2010). http://www.doc.state.nc.us/dop/policy_procedure_manual/c1400.pdf (accessed 01/004/2012).
Pomerantz, A. M. (1986). Extreme Case Formulations:a New Way of Legitimating Claims, Human Studies 9:219-30.
Potter, Jonathan (1996). Representing Reality:Discourse, Rhetoric and Social Construction. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications.
Potter, Jonathan (2005). Making Psychology Relevant, Discourse & Society 16 (5): 739-747.
Potter, J. and Hepburn, A. (2003)."I" a Bit Concerned"-Call Openings on a Child Protection Helpline, Research on Language and Social Interaction 36:197-240.
Potter. J.& Hepburn, A. (2007). Discursive Psychology:Mind and Reality in Practice. In Weatherall, A. Watson, B. M.& Gallois, C. (eds). Language, discourse and social psychology (pp.160-181). New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Potter, J. and Wiggins, S. (2007). Discursive Psychology. In:Willig, Carla & Stainton-Rogers, Wendy (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research in Psychology (pp. 73-90). London:Sage.
Potter, J.,& Wetherell, M. (1987). Discourse and Social Psychology:Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour. London:Sage.
Psychological Services Manuel issued by the U.S. Ministry of Justice (1993). http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/dchcs/docs/mental%20health%20program%20guide.pdf (accessed 01/004/2012).
Ryan. M. (2006). Red tops, populists and the irresistible rise of the public voice(s). In Mason, P (ed). Captured by the media:Prison discourse in popular culture (pp. 31-47). Devon, U.K.:Willan Publishing.
Sacks, H. (1992). Lectures on Conversation vol 1. Edited by G. Jefferson and with an introduction by E A Schegloff. Cambridge:Blackwells.
Sacks, Stanley & Pearson, Frank S. (2004). Co-occurring Substance Use and Mental Disorders in Offenders:Approaches, Findings and Recommendations. In Kratcoski, Peter C (eds.). Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.527-542). Illionois: Waveland Press, Inc.
Samenow, S. (1984). Inside the Criminal Mind. New York:Times Books.
Saxton, G. H. (1986). Confidentiality dilemmas for psychologists and psychiatrists in the criminal justice system. American Journal of Forensic Psychology 4(2):25-32.
Schegloff, E.A. (1968). Sequencing in Conversational Openings, American Anthropologist 70(6):1075-1095.
Schegloff, E. A. (1986). The Routine as Achievement, Human Studies 9:111-151.
Schegloff, E. A.,& Sacks. H. [1973] (1984). Opening up Closings. In J. Baugh,& J. Sherzer (eds.). Language in use:Readings in sociolinguistics (pp.69-99). Englewood Cliffs NJ:Prentice Hall.
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to Discourse. Oxford:Blackwell.
Schuck, Andreas R. T.& Ward, Janelle (2008). Dealing with the Inevitable:Strategies of Self-presentation and Meaning Construction in the Final Statements of Inmates on Texas Death Row, Discourse & Society 19:43-62.
Schwaebe Ⅱ, Charles F. (2003). Playing the Game:A Qualitative Study of Sex Offenders in Prison-based Treatment Program. Ph.D. Dissertation. Cincinnati:The Union Institute and University.
Searl, J R. (1969). Speech Acts:an Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
See, E. (2004). Student Study Guide, for Criminological Theories:Introduction, Evaluation, and Application (4th Edition). Los Angeles, California:Roxbury Publishing Company.
Seymour, James D.& Anderson, Richard (1998). New Ghosts, Old Ghosts:Prisons and Labor Reform Camps in China. New York:M. E. Sharpe, Inc.
Sherman, L. W., Gottfredson, D. C.; MacKenzie, D. L., Eck, J., Reuter, P.,& Bushway, S. D. (1998). Preventing Crime:What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising:A Report to the United States Congress. Washington, DC:National Institute of Justice.
Shi Nai'an & Luo Guan (2006) The Outlaws of the Marsh. Silk Pagoda.trans. http://www.silkpagoda.com (accessed 02/26/2012).
Shi-xu (2005). A Cultural Approach to Discourse. New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Shi-xu (2006). A Muticulturalist Approach to Discourse Theory, Semiotica:383-400.
Shi-xu (2009). Reconstructing Eastern Paradigms of Discourse Studies, Journal of Multicultural Discourses 4(1):29-48.
Shi-xu (2010). The Chinese Discourse of Human Rights and Globalization. In:Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.) The Handbook of Language and Globalization (pp.426-446). Wiley-blackwell:A John Wiley & Sons. Ltd., Publication.
Shi-xu (2011). Understanding the Chinese Discourse of Human Rights as Cultural Response, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 21(2):196-212.
Silverman, D. (1997). Discourses of Counseling:HIV Counseling as Social Interaction. London:Sage.
Sloop, John M. (1996). The Cultural Prison. University Alabama Press.
Spiropoulos, Georgia V. (2007).The Neglect of Racial Responsivity:An Examination of Why Race Matters in Correctional Treatment. Ph.D Dissertation. University of Cincinnati.
Stern, Kaia (2008). Eight Voices on Prison:Transfonning the Spirit of Punishment. Ph.D. Dissertation. Atlanta:Emory University.
Strong, Tom, Busch, Robbie,& Couture, Shari. (2008). Conversational Evidence in Therapeutic Dialogue, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 34 (3):388-405.
Strong, T., Pyle, N. R., deVries, C., Johnston, D. N.& Foskett, A. J. (2008). Meaning-making Lenses in Counseling:Discursive, Hermeneutic-phenomenological, and Autoethnographic Perspectives. Canadian Journal of Counselling 42(2):117-130.
Stubbs, M. (1983). Discourse analysis:The sociolinguistic analysis of natural language. Oxford:Basil Balckwell.
Sue, D. W. (1990). Culture-specific Strategies in Counseling:A Conceptual Framework. Professional Psychology:Research and Practice 21(6):424-433.
Sue. D. W. (1997). Counseling Strategies for Chinese Americans. In C. C. Lee (ed.). Multicultural Issues in Counseling:New Approaches to Diversity (2nd ed., pp. 173-187). Alexandria, VA:American Counseling Association.
Sun, Key (2008). Correctional Counseling:a Cognitive Growth Perspective. Massachusetts:Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Inc.
Sundt. J. Dammer, H.& Cullen. F. (2002). The Role of Prison Chaplain in Rehabilitation, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 35:59-86.
Tannen, Deborah (2000). Indirectness at Work. In Peyton, Joy Kreeft, Griffin, Peg. Wolfram, Walt & Fasold, Ralph (eds.). Language in Action:New Studies of Language in Society (pp.189-212). Cresskill, NJ:Hampton.
Ten Have, P. (1989). The Consultation as a Genre, Text and Talk as Social Practice 115-35.
Tracy, Karen & Robles, Jessica (2009). Questions, Questioning, and Institutional Practices:an Introduction, Discourse studies 11(2):131-152.
Twersky-Glasner, Aviva (2004). The ADA and Deaf Inmates. In Kratcoski, Peter C (ed.) Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.543-557). Illionois:Waveland Press. Inc.
van Dijk, Teun A. (2004). From Text Grammar to Critical Discourse Analysis:A Brief Academic Autobiography. http://www.docin.com/p-228654991.html (accessed 02/12/2011).
Van Voorhis, P. (1987). Correctional Effectiveness:The High Cost of Ignoring Success, Federal Probation 51:56-62.
Watkins, R. E. (1992). A Historical Review of the Role and Practice of Psychology in the Field of Corrections. http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/rsrch/reports/r28/r28e-eng. shtml (accessed 29/07/2012).
Weinberger, L. E.,& Sreenivasan, S. (1994). Ethical and professional conflicts in correctional psychology, Professional Psychology:Research and Practice 25: 161-167.
Whiteley, S. M.& Hosford, R. E. (1983). Counseling in prisons, The Counseling Psychologist 11(2):27-34.
Wiggins, S.& Hepburn, A. (2007). Discursive Research:Applications and Implications. In Hepburn, A.& Wiggins, S. (eds.). Discursive Research in Practice:New Approaches to Psychology and Interaction (pp.1-28). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Williams, Philip F.& Wu, Yenna (eds.) (2006). Remolding and Resistance among Writers of the Chinese Prison Camp:Diciplined and Published. London & N.Y. Routledge.
Williamson, Timothy (1994). Vagueness. In Asher, R., Simpson, J. (Eds.). The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (pp.4869-4871). Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1958). Philosophical investigation (3rd ed.) G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans. Oxford:Blackwell.
Wittgenstein. Ludwig (1984). Culture and Value, trans. Peter Winch, ed. G. H. von Wright Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
Wu. Honda Harry (1992). Laogai——The Chinese Gulag, Slingerland, Ted, trans. San Fransico. Oxford:Westerview Press.
Wu. Z. X. (2003). Western Prisons and Chinese Prisons:Focusing on Differences, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 1:93-113.
Yousman, William (2004). The Prisons Outside and the Prisons in Our Heads:Television and the Representation of Incarceration. Ph.D. Dissertation. Amherst:University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Zhu Zhe (2007). Prisoners' need more counseling' http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ china/(accessed 12/08/2012).
陈兰珍、聂武文 (2008),罪犯心理矫治与“三大改造手段”的整合运用《中国监狱学刊》1：120-122。
冯宇平 (2011),罪犯心理咨询中阻抗的分析与对策, 《社会心理科学》2：27-31。
郭晶英(2009),外籍犯处遇现状的话语构建, 《长沙大学学报》(6)97-100。
郭晶英(2011)软命令与弱顺从---对罪犯心理咨询中建议提供与应答的会话分析,《广东外语外贸大学学报》5：64-69。
黄郁婷(2002),台湾医病问诊互动的结束,硕士学位论文。台湾：“国立”成功大学。
金琳(2003),罪犯心理咨询中应注意的几个问题,《安徽警官职业学院学报》5(2)：68-69。
李金华(1999),《罪犯心理咨询的理论与方法》。贵阳：贵州人民出版社。
刘建时(2010),教育学视野下的罪犯个别教育形式研究,《长沙铁道学院学报》11(3)：147-149。
刘建时、胡赪(2010),试论罪犯个别教育的时机,《湖南科技学院学报》31(10)：141-143.
刘万军(2001),论个别教育的治本功能,《中国司法》12：20-21。
罗大华(编)(2007),《犯罪心理学》。 北京：中国政法大学出版社。
马粉兰(2010),对监狱民警心理咨询师双重角色有机融合的思考,《法制与社会》2： 121-122。
马立骥、杨国强、潘华春、张敏(2007),团体心理咨询在青年罪犯心理矫治中的应用初探,《青少年犯罪问题》4：49-53。
马晓华(2009),个别教育工作应实现十个转变——以行刑个别化为视角,《监狱制度》1：48-50。
苗京平、陈杰(1997),论对罪犯的集体教育和个别教育,《研究生法学》1：20-22。
邵晓顺(2012),《服刑人员心理矫治：理论与实务》。北京：群众出版社。
施旭(2008),话语分析的文化转向：试论建立当代中国话语研究范式的动因、目标和策略, 《浙江大学学报》,38(1)：131-140。
施旭(2010),《文化话语研究：探索中国的理论、方法与问题》。北京：北京大学出版社。
田洋(2011),罪犯个别教育策略初探,《法制天地》2：158-159。
王卉、陈雪云(2008),戒毒所、看守所等监禁空间特殊语言现象探究-以昆明市为例, 《修辞学习》(5)：43-46。
吴宗宪 (2010),《中国服刑人员心理矫治技术》。北京：北京师范大学出版社。
吴宗杰、姜克银(2009),中国文化人类学的话语转向,《浙江大学学报》39(5)：83-93。
杨木高(2010), 罪犯心理矫治的实践与思考。中芬罪犯矫正与康复研讨会,2010年9月,浙江杭州。
姚明军、杨培兴(2006),《对个别教育工作的探索与思考》。河南司法警官职业学院学报4(4)：15-17。
姚先进(2004),角色理论在骨干犯管理中的应用研究,《社会心理科学》3：69-70。
尹华飞狱警忌用威胁性语言http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_504c443c010094ad html. (accessed 04/07/2008)
张洪国(2006),论罪犯心理矫治,硕士学位论文。山东：山东大学。
张晶(2008),《走向启蒙：基于监狱·矫正的视角》。北京：中国法律出版社。
章恩友(2007), 《罪犯心理矫治》。北京：中国民主法制出版社。
章恩友、于海霞(2004),论罪犯心理矫治的模式选择, 《河南司法警官职业学院学报》2(2)：26-29。
赵卫宽(2005),论罪犯心理咨询的原则, 《警官教育论坛》1(7)：12-16.
Alba-Juez, Laura (2009). Perspectives on Discourse Analysis:Theory and Practice. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK:Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Andrew, M. (2006). Ethical Dilemmas Faced by Correctional Psychologists in Canada, CriminalJustice and Behavior 33:93-109.
Andrews, D. A., Bonta, J.,& Hoge, R. D. (1990). Classification for Effective Rehabilitation:Rediscovering Psychology, Criminal Justice and Behavior 17(3): 19-52.
Antonowicz, D. H.,& Ross, R. R. (1994). Essential Components of Successful Rehabilitation Programs for Offenders, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 38:97-104.
Atkinson, J. Maxwell & Heritage, John (1984). Structures of Social Action:Studies in Conversation Analysis. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Auburn, Timothy (2005). Narrative Reflexivity as a Repair Device for Discounting 'Cognitive Distortions' in Sex Offender Treatment. Discourse Society 16(5): 697-718.
Austin. J. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Oxford:Clarendon.
Avdi, Evrinomy (2008). Analysing Talk in the Talking Cure:Conversation, Discourse, and Narrative Analysis of Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy. European Psychotherapy 8(1):69-87.
Avdi, Evrinomy & Georgaca. Eugenie (2007). Discourse Analysis and Psychotherapy:A Critical Review. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counseling 9(2):157-176.
Bakhtin. M. M. (1973). Questions of Literature and Aesthetics. Russian:Progress Moscow.
Billig, Michael (1996). Arguing and Thinking:A Rhetorical Approach to Social Psychology. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Billig. Michael (1997). The Dialogic Unconscious:Psycho-analysis. Discursive Psychology and the Nature of Repression. British Journal of Social Psychology 36: 139-159.
Boothby, Jennifer L.& Clements, Carl B. (2000). A National Survey of Correctional Psychologists, Criminal Justice and Behavior 27(6):716-732.
Boothby, Jennifer L.& Clements, Carl B. (2002). Job Satisfaction of Correctional Psychologists:Implications for Recruitment and Retention. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 33(3):310-315.
Brodsky. S. L. (1980). Ethical issues for psychologists in corrections. In J. Monahan (Ed.), Who is the client? The ethics of psychological intervention in the criminal justice system (pp.63-92). Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.
Burger, Warren E. (1991). Factories with Fences, In Haas, Kenneth C./Alpert. Geoffrey. The Dilemmas of Corrections (pp.349-356). Illionois:Waveland Press, Inc.
Cameron. D. (2001). Working With Spoken Discourse. London:Sage.
Camic, Paul M., Rhodes. Jean E.,& Yardley, Lucy (2003). Naming the Stars:Integrating Qualitative Methods into Psychological Research, In Camic. Paul M. Rhodes, Jean E. and Yardley, Lucy (eds.) Qualitative Research in Psychology:Expanding Perspectives in Methodology and Design (pp.3-15). Washington:American Psychological Association.
Candlin. C. N. (1997). General Editor's Preface. In Gunnarsson. B. L., Linell and Nordberg, B. (eds). The Construction of Professional Discourse (pp. ix-xiv). London: Longman.
Cao. S. Q. (2008). The Discourse of Chinese Literary Theory and the Dialogue between Western and Chinese Literary Theories, Journal of Multicultural Discourses 3(1): 1-15.
Carrabine, Eamonn (2004). Power, Discourse and Resistance:A Genealogy of the Strangeways Prison Riot. Aldershot:Ashgate.
Carter, R.& McCarthy, M. (1997). Exploring Spoken English. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Chan, David W. (2003). Multicultural Considerations in Counseling Chinese Clients: Introducing the Narrative Alternative, Asian Journal of Counselling 1 (2):169-192.
Chen. P. H., Tsai, S. L.,& Lai, N. H. (2001). The Construction of a Process-Change Model of Unmet Expectations Based on the Satir Model, Asian Journal of Counselling 8(1):5-34.
Cooke, Cheryl L. (2002). (Re)Presenting African-American Men:Analyzing Discourses on Manhood, Prison, and Relationships. Ph.D. Dissertation. Washington:University of Washington.
Cornforth, Sue (2006). Controversies in Counselling:Re-thinking. Ph.D. Dissertation. Wellington:Victoria University of Wellington.
Correia, K.M., (2009). A handbook for correctional psychologists:Guidance for the prison practitioner (2nd.). Springfield, Illinois:Charles C. Thomas Publisher Ltd.
Corsini, R.,& Wedding, D. (1995). Current Psychotherapies (5ed.). Itasca Illinois:F.E. Peacock Publishers Inc.
Cullen, F. T. (2005). The Twelve people who Saved Rehabilitation:How the Science of Criminology Made a Difference, The American Society of Criminology 2004 Presidential Address, Criminology 43:1-42.
Diamond, Pamela M., Magaletta, Philip R., Harzke, Amy Jo & Baxter, John (2008). Who Requests Psychological Services upon Admission to Prison? Psychological Services 5(2):97-107.
Duan. Changming (2001). Counseling Process and Outcome:A Critical Area of Inquiry in Counseling Research, Asian Journal of Counselling 8(1):61-68.
Durcan, Graham (2008). From the inside:Experiences of prison mental health care. London:Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health.
Dutton. Michael Robert (1992). Policing and Punishment in China:Frm Patriacrchy to 'the People'. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Edwards. D.& Potter,J. (1992). Discursive Psychology. London:Sage.
Edwards, Derek (2004). Discursive Psychology. In K. L. Fitch & R. E. Sanders (eds.). Handbook of Language and Social Interaction (pp.257-273). New Jersey:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Inc., Publishers.
Edwards, Derek (2006). Facts, Norms and Dispositions:Practical Uses of the Modal Verb Would in Police Interrogations. Discourse Studies 8(4):475-501.
Egan, Gerard (Ed.). (1990). The Skilled Helper:A Systematic Approach to Effective Helping. Pacific Grove. CA:Brooks/Cole.
Egan, Gerard (2010). The Skilled Helper:A Problem-Management and Opportunity-development Approach to Helping. Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.
Foucault, M. (1979). Discipline and Punish:The Birth of the Prison. New York:Vintage.
Fox, Vernon (1954). The Effect of Counseling on Adjustment in Prison. Social Forces 32(3):285-289.
Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs. N.J., Prentice-Hall.
Goldfried, M. R.,& Wolfe, B. E. (1996). Psychotherapy Practice and Research:Repairing a Strained Alliance, American Psychologist 51 (10):1007-1016.
Greer, C. (2006). Delivering death:capital punishment, botched executions, and the American news media. In:P. Mason (Ed.). Captured by the media:Prison discourse in popular culture (pp.84-102). Devon. U.K.:Willan Publishing.
Guo, Jing-ying (2012). One or Two-Way Communication:A Case Study on Offender Counseling. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 51:331-350.
Guo, Jing-ying (2013 forthcoming). For the Sake of Whom:Conversation Analysis of Advice Giving in Offender Counseling, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology.
Gutierrez, L. M. (1990). Working with Women of Color:An Empowerment Perspective. Social Work35(2):149-154.
Haag, A. M. (2006). Ethical dilemma faced by correctional psychologists in Canada. Criminal Justice and Behavior 33:93-109.
Hepburn, A. (2004). Crying:Notes on Description, Transcription And Interaction. Research on Language and Social Interaction 37:251-90.
Hepburn, A.& Wiggins, S. (2005). Developments in Discursive Psychology. Discourse and Society 16 (5):595-601.
Hepburn, A.& Wiggins, S. (2007). Discursive Research:Themes and Debates. In Hepburn. A.& Wiggins, S. (Eds.). Discursive Research in Practice:New Approaches to Psychology and Interaction (pp.1-28). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Higgins, Louise T. Davey, Gareth. Gao, Xiang. Zheng, Richang, Ni, Zijun & Lang, Lijun (2008). Counseling in China:Past, Present and Future, Psychology Developing Societies 20(1):99-109.
Horton Ⅱ, Kerry F. (1997). Images of Penality:Prison Films and the Construction of Discourse Degrading Punishment and Obligation. MA Dissertation. Michigan: Eastern Michigan University.
Jefferson, A. M. (2003). Therapeutic Discipline? Reflections on the Penetration of Sites of Control by Therapeutic Discourse, Outlines 1:55-73.
Jenkins, T.N. (2002). Chinese Traditional Thought and Practice:Lessons for an Ecological Economics Worldview, Ecological Economics 40 (1):39-52.
Jorgensen, Marianne W.& Phillips, Louise J. (2002). Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. London:Sage.
Kadish, T.E., Glaser, B.A., Calhoun, G. B.,& Risler, E. A. (1999). Counseling juvenile offenders:A program evaluation, Journal of Addictions and Offender Counseling 19: 88-94.
Knapp, S.,& VandeCreek, L. (2001). Ethical issues in personality assessment in forensic psychology, Journal of Personality Assessment 77:242-254.
Kratcoski, Peter C. (2004). Introduction:The Scope and Purposes of Correctional Treatment. In Kratcoski, Peter C (eds). Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.1-8). lllionois:Waveland Press, Inc.
Kurri. K.& Wahlstrom, J. (2005). Placement of Responsibility and Moral Reasoning in Couple, Therapy. Journal of Family Therapy 27:352-369.
Leung, P. W. L.,& Lee, P. W. H. (1996). Psychotherapy with the Chinese. In M. H. Bond (Ed.). The Handbook of Chinese Psychology (pp.441-456). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Lin, Y. N. (2001). The Effects of Counseling Styles and Stages on Perceived Counselor Effectiveness from Taiwanese Female University Clients, Asian Journal of Counselling 8(1):35-60.
Lipton, D., Martinson, R.,& Wilks, J. (1975). The effectiveness of correctional treatment: A survey of treatment evaluation studies. New York:Praeger.
MacMartin, C. (2003). (Un)reasonable Doubt? The Invocation of Children's Consent in Sexual Abuse Trail Judgments, Discourse & Society 13(1):9-40.
Marecek, Jeanne (2003). Dancing through Minefields:Toward a Qualitative Stance in Psychology. In Camic, paul M., Rhodes, Jean E.& Yardley, Lucy (eds). Qualitative Research in Psychology (pp.49-69). Washington:American Psychological Association.
Martinson, R. (1979). What works:Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest 35:22-54.
Mason, Paul (2006). Captured by The Media:Prison Discourse in Popular Culture. Devon, U.K.:Willan Publishing.
Masters, Ruth E. (2004). Counseling Criminal Justice Offenders. London:Sage publications.
Mayr. Andrea (2003). Prison Discourse:Language as a Means of Control and Resistance. Palgrave Macmillan.
McGee, D. (2005). An Interactional Model of Questions as Therapeutic Interventions, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 31 (4):371-384.
McGuire. J. (1997). Ethical dilemmas in forensic clinical psychology. Legal and Criminological Psychology 2:177-192.
McKendy, J. P. (2006). "I'm Very Careful about That". Narrative and Agency of Men in Prison, Discourse & Society 17:473-502.
Miller, Gale & Silverman, David (1995). Troubles Talk and Counseling Discourse:A Comparative study, The Sociological Quarterly 36 (4):725-747.
Muhlhahn, Klaus (2009). Criminal Justice in China:A History. Massachusetts:Harvard University Press.
National Center for Alcohol Education (2004). Counseling Alcoholic Clients:A Microcounseling Approach to Basic Communication Skills. In Kratcoski, Peter C (ed). Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.459-495). Illionois:Waveland Press, Inc.
O'Connar, Partricia E. (2000). Speaking of Crime:Narratives of Prisoners. Lincoln and London:Univesity of Nebraska Press.
Perakyla, A. (1995). AIDS Counselling:Institutional Interaction and Clinical Practice. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Perakyla, A. (1997). Reliability and Validity in Research Based on Transcripts. In David Silverman (ed.). Qualitative Research. Theory, Method and Practice (pp.201-220). London:Sage.
Perakyla, A. (2004). Reliability and Validity in Research Based on Naturally Occurring Social Interaction. In Silverman, D. (ed.). Qualitative Research (pp.283-304). London:Sage.
Phillips. N. and Hardy, C. (2002). Discourse Analysis:Investigating processes of social construction. London:Sage.
Policy and Procedures of the state of North State of North Carolina Department of correction Division of Prisons. (2010). http://www.doc.state.nc.us/dop/policy_procedure_manual/c1400.pdf (accessed 01/004/2012).
Pomerantz, A. M. (1986). Extreme Case Formulations:a New Way of Legitimating Claims, Human Studies 9:219-30.
Potter, Jonathan (1996). Representing Reality:Discourse, Rhetoric and Social Construction. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage Publications.
Potter, Jonathan (2005). Making Psychology Relevant, Discourse & Society 16 (5): 739-747.
Potter, J. and Hepburn, A. (2003)."I" a Bit Concerned"-Call Openings on a Child Protection Helpline, Research on Language and Social Interaction 36:197-240.
Potter. J.& Hepburn, A. (2007). Discursive Psychology:Mind and Reality in Practice. In Weatherall, A. Watson, B. M.& Gallois, C. (eds). Language, discourse and social psychology (pp.160-181). New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Potter, J. and Wiggins, S. (2007). Discursive Psychology. In:Willig, Carla & Stainton-Rogers, Wendy (eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research in Psychology (pp. 73-90). London:Sage.
Potter, J.,& Wetherell, M. (1987). Discourse and Social Psychology:Beyond Attitudes and Behaviour. London:Sage.
Psychological Services Manuel issued by the U.S. Ministry of Justice (1993). http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/dchcs/docs/mental%20health%20program%20guide.pdf (accessed 01/004/2012).
Ryan. M. (2006). Red tops, populists and the irresistible rise of the public voice(s). In Mason, P (ed). Captured by the media:Prison discourse in popular culture (pp. 31-47). Devon, U.K.:Willan Publishing.
Sacks, H. (1992). Lectures on Conversation vol 1. Edited by G. Jefferson and with an introduction by E A Schegloff. Cambridge:Blackwells.
Sacks, Stanley & Pearson, Frank S. (2004). Co-occurring Substance Use and Mental Disorders in Offenders:Approaches, Findings and Recommendations. In Kratcoski, Peter C (eds.). Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.527-542). Illionois: Waveland Press, Inc.
Samenow, S. (1984). Inside the Criminal Mind. New York:Times Books.
Saxton, G. H. (1986). Confidentiality dilemmas for psychologists and psychiatrists in the criminal justice system. American Journal of Forensic Psychology 4(2):25-32.
Schegloff, E.A. (1968). Sequencing in Conversational Openings, American Anthropologist 70(6):1075-1095.
Schegloff, E. A. (1986). The Routine as Achievement, Human Studies 9:111-151.
Schegloff, E. A.,& Sacks. H. [1973] (1984). Opening up Closings. In J. Baugh,& J. Sherzer (eds.). Language in use:Readings in sociolinguistics (pp.69-99). Englewood Cliffs NJ:Prentice Hall.
Schiffrin, D. (1994). Approaches to Discourse. Oxford:Blackwell.
Schuck, Andreas R. T.& Ward, Janelle (2008). Dealing with the Inevitable:Strategies of Self-presentation and Meaning Construction in the Final Statements of Inmates on Texas Death Row, Discourse & Society 19:43-62.
Schwaebe Ⅱ, Charles F. (2003). Playing the Game:A Qualitative Study of Sex Offenders in Prison-based Treatment Program. Ph.D. Dissertation. Cincinnati:The Union Institute and University.
Searl, J R. (1969). Speech Acts:an Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
See, E. (2004). Student Study Guide, for Criminological Theories:Introduction, Evaluation, and Application (4th Edition). Los Angeles, California:Roxbury Publishing Company.
Seymour, James D.& Anderson, Richard (1998). New Ghosts, Old Ghosts:Prisons and Labor Reform Camps in China. New York:M. E. Sharpe, Inc.
Sherman, L. W., Gottfredson, D. C.; MacKenzie, D. L., Eck, J., Reuter, P.,& Bushway, S. D. (1998). Preventing Crime:What Works, What Doesn't, What's Promising:A Report to the United States Congress. Washington, DC:National Institute of Justice.
Shi Nai'an & Luo Guan (2006) The Outlaws of the Marsh. Silk Pagoda.trans. http://www.silkpagoda.com (accessed 02/26/2012).
Shi-xu (2005). A Cultural Approach to Discourse. New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Shi-xu (2006). A Muticulturalist Approach to Discourse Theory, Semiotica:383-400.
Shi-xu (2009). Reconstructing Eastern Paradigms of Discourse Studies, Journal of Multicultural Discourses 4(1):29-48.
Shi-xu (2010). The Chinese Discourse of Human Rights and Globalization. In:Coupland, Nikolas (Ed.) The Handbook of Language and Globalization (pp.426-446). Wiley-blackwell:A John Wiley & Sons. Ltd., Publication.
Shi-xu (2011). Understanding the Chinese Discourse of Human Rights as Cultural Response, Journal of Asian Pacific Communication 21(2):196-212.
Silverman, D. (1997). Discourses of Counseling:HIV Counseling as Social Interaction. London:Sage.
Sloop, John M. (1996). The Cultural Prison. University Alabama Press.
Spiropoulos, Georgia V. (2007).The Neglect of Racial Responsivity:An Examination of Why Race Matters in Correctional Treatment. Ph.D Dissertation. University of Cincinnati.
Stern, Kaia (2008). Eight Voices on Prison:Transfonning the Spirit of Punishment. Ph.D. Dissertation. Atlanta:Emory University.
Strong, Tom, Busch, Robbie,& Couture, Shari. (2008). Conversational Evidence in Therapeutic Dialogue, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 34 (3):388-405.
Strong, T., Pyle, N. R., deVries, C., Johnston, D. N.& Foskett, A. J. (2008). Meaning-making Lenses in Counseling:Discursive, Hermeneutic-phenomenological, and Autoethnographic Perspectives. Canadian Journal of Counselling 42(2):117-130.
Stubbs, M. (1983). Discourse analysis:The sociolinguistic analysis of natural language. Oxford:Basil Balckwell.
Sue, D. W. (1990). Culture-specific Strategies in Counseling:A Conceptual Framework. Professional Psychology:Research and Practice 21(6):424-433.
Sue. D. W. (1997). Counseling Strategies for Chinese Americans. In C. C. Lee (ed.). Multicultural Issues in Counseling:New Approaches to Diversity (2nd ed., pp. 173-187). Alexandria, VA:American Counseling Association.
Sun, Key (2008). Correctional Counseling:a Cognitive Growth Perspective. Massachusetts:Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Inc.
Sundt. J. Dammer, H.& Cullen. F. (2002). The Role of Prison Chaplain in Rehabilitation, Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 35:59-86.
Tannen, Deborah (2000). Indirectness at Work. In Peyton, Joy Kreeft, Griffin, Peg. Wolfram, Walt & Fasold, Ralph (eds.). Language in Action:New Studies of Language in Society (pp.189-212). Cresskill, NJ:Hampton.
Ten Have, P. (1989). The Consultation as a Genre, Text and Talk as Social Practice 115-35.
Tracy, Karen & Robles, Jessica (2009). Questions, Questioning, and Institutional Practices:an Introduction, Discourse studies 11(2):131-152.
Twersky-Glasner, Aviva (2004). The ADA and Deaf Inmates. In Kratcoski, Peter C (ed.) Correctional Counseling and Treatment (pp.543-557). Illionois:Waveland Press. Inc.
van Dijk, Teun A. (2004). From Text Grammar to Critical Discourse Analysis:A Brief Academic Autobiography. http://www.docin.com/p-228654991.html (accessed 02/12/2011).
Van Voorhis, P. (1987). Correctional Effectiveness:The High Cost of Ignoring Success, Federal Probation 51:56-62.
Watkins, R. E. (1992). A Historical Review of the Role and Practice of Psychology in the Field of Corrections. http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/text/rsrch/reports/r28/r28e-eng. shtml (accessed 29/07/2012).
Weinberger, L. E.,& Sreenivasan, S. (1994). Ethical and professional conflicts in correctional psychology, Professional Psychology:Research and Practice 25: 161-167.
Whiteley, S. M.& Hosford, R. E. (1983). Counseling in prisons, The Counseling Psychologist 11(2):27-34.
Wiggins, S.& Hepburn, A. (2007). Discursive Research:Applications and Implications. In Hepburn, A.& Wiggins, S. (eds.). Discursive Research in Practice:New Approaches to Psychology and Interaction (pp.1-28). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Williams, Philip F.& Wu, Yenna (eds.) (2006). Remolding and Resistance among Writers of the Chinese Prison Camp:Diciplined and Published. London & N.Y. Routledge.
Williamson, Timothy (1994). Vagueness. In Asher, R., Simpson, J. (Eds.). The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (pp.4869-4871). Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig (1958). Philosophical investigation (3rd ed.) G. E. M. Anscombe, Trans. Oxford:Blackwell.
Wittgenstein. Ludwig (1984). Culture and Value, trans. Peter Winch, ed. G. H. von Wright Chicago:University of Chicago Press.
Wu. Honda Harry (1992). Laogai——The Chinese Gulag, Slingerland, Ted, trans. San Fransico. Oxford:Westerview Press.
Wu. Z. X. (2003). Western Prisons and Chinese Prisons:Focusing on Differences, European Journal of Crime, Criminal Law and Criminal Justice 1:93-113.
Yousman, William (2004). The Prisons Outside and the Prisons in Our Heads:Television and the Representation of Incarceration. Ph.D. Dissertation. Amherst:University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Zhu Zhe (2007). Prisoners' need more counseling' http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/ china/(accessed 12/08/2012).
陈兰珍、聂武文 (2008),罪犯心理矫治与“三大改造手段”的整合运用《中国监狱学刊》1：120-122。
冯宇平 (2011),罪犯心理咨询中阻抗的分析与对策, 《社会心理科学》2：27-31。
郭晶英(2009),外籍犯处遇现状的话语构建, 《长沙大学学报》(6)97-100。
郭晶英(2011)软命令与弱顺从---对罪犯心理咨询中建议提供与应答的会话分析,《广东外语外贸大学学报》5：64-69。
黄郁婷(2002),台湾医病问诊互动的结束,硕士学位论文。台湾：“国立”成功大学。
金琳(2003),罪犯心理咨询中应注意的几个问题,《安徽警官职业学院学报》5(2)：68-69。
李金华(1999),《罪犯心理咨询的理论与方法》。贵阳：贵州人民出版社。
刘建时(2010),教育学视野下的罪犯个别教育形式研究,《长沙铁道学院学报》11(3)：147-149。
刘建时、胡赪(2010),试论罪犯个别教育的时机,《湖南科技学院学报》31(10)：141-143.
刘万军(2001),论个别教育的治本功能,《中国司法》12：20-21。
罗大华(编)(2007),《犯罪心理学》。 北京：中国政法大学出版社。
马粉兰(2010),对监狱民警心理咨询师双重角色有机融合的思考,《法制与社会》2： 121-122。
马立骥、杨国强、潘华春、张敏(2007),团体心理咨询在青年罪犯心理矫治中的应用初探,《青少年犯罪问题》4：49-53。
马晓华(2009),个别教育工作应实现十个转变——以行刑个别化为视角,《监狱制度》1：48-50。
苗京平、陈杰(1997),论对罪犯的集体教育和个别教育,《研究生法学》1：20-22。
邵晓顺(2012),《服刑人员心理矫治：理论与实务》。北京：群众出版社。
施旭(2008),话语分析的文化转向：试论建立当代中国话语研究范式的动因、目标和策略, 《浙江大学学报》,38(1)：131-140。
施旭(2010),《文化话语研究：探索中国的理论、方法与问题》。北京：北京大学出版社。
田洋(2011),罪犯个别教育策略初探,《法制天地》2：158-159。
王卉、陈雪云(2008),戒毒所、看守所等监禁空间特殊语言现象探究-以昆明市为例, 《修辞学习》(5)：43-46。
吴宗宪 (2010),《中国服刑人员心理矫治技术》。北京：北京师范大学出版社。
吴宗杰、姜克银(2009),中国文化人类学的话语转向,《浙江大学学报》39(5)：83-93。
杨木高(2010), 罪犯心理矫治的实践与思考。中芬罪犯矫正与康复研讨会,2010年9月,浙江杭州。
姚明军、杨培兴(2006),《对个别教育工作的探索与思考》。河南司法警官职业学院学报4(4)：15-17。
姚先进(2004),角色理论在骨干犯管理中的应用研究,《社会心理科学》3：69-70。
尹华飞狱警忌用威胁性语言http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_504c443c010094ad html. (accessed 04/07/2008)
张洪国(2006),论罪犯心理矫治,硕士学位论文。山东：山东大学。
张晶(2008),《走向启蒙：基于监狱·矫正的视角》。北京：中国法律出版社。
章恩友(2007), 《罪犯心理矫治》。北京：中国民主法制出版社。
章恩友、于海霞(2004),论罪犯心理矫治的模式选择, 《河南司法警官职业学院学报》2(2)：26-29。
赵卫宽(2005),论罪犯心理咨询的原则, 《警官教育论坛》1(7)：12-16.