5-9岁儿童在愿望—规则冲突情景下的情绪理解
摘要
儿童在2—3岁就能理解愿望和情绪之间有着密切的关系，4岁以后儿童开始理解和信念有关的情绪，儿童开始理解了愿望—信念—情绪之间的相互联系。在儿童的日常生活中，情绪除了受到愿望、信念等心理因素的影响，还会受到一些外部因素的影响，比如规则。儿童逐渐形成规则会影响的理解是其社会认知发展的一个方面。
以往研究发现了“快乐的损人者”现象，年幼儿童认为违反了道德规则伤害了别人的儿童会感到高兴，这种现象随着年龄的增长而减弱。在习俗领域，也发现了类似的现象，年幼的儿童大都认为违反规则满足愿望会感觉好，遵守规则不满足愿望会感觉不好，而年长儿童较多地认为违反规则满足愿望会感觉不好，遵守规则不满足愿望会感觉好。
本研究比较了不同年龄在愿望—规则冲突情景下的情绪预测和解释的发展性变化，他人预测和自我预测的差异，使用了8个愿望—规则冲突情景故事，对48名5到9岁的儿童进行访谈，前4个故事中请他们预测和解释主人公及儿童自己的情绪，后四个故事请儿童直接解释和愿望不匹配的情绪。得到的主要结果如下：
对于他人总的愿望—情绪不匹配预测，呈现了显著的年龄差异，随着年龄的增长，儿童做出了越来越多的愿望—情绪不匹配预测，并且做出了越来越多的未来取向的解释。
儿童在解释故事中，提到的愿望取向解释少于预测故事，规则取向的解释和预测故事没有差异，未来取向解释多于预测故事。
儿童对自我的首要愿望—情绪不匹配预测多于对他人的预测。儿童对自我的情绪解释中，愿望取向的解释少于他人预测，规则取向没有差异，未来取向的解释多于他人预测。
儿童在行为评价中一致地认为遵守规则的行为是对的，违反规则的行为是不对的。
2-to 3-year-old children can understand the connection between desires and emotions, and 4-year-old children begin to understand the emotions which are connected by beliefs. In children's everyday life, emotions are not only affected by psychological factors, such as desires and beliefs, but also external factors, such as rules. Children's gradual understanding that rules can affect emotion is part of their social cognition development
Researchers have found the phenomenon of "happy victimizers". Young children attribute positive emotions to the victimizer, and older children attribute less. Besides, research results in the conventional domain are similar, young children attribute positive emotions to the transgressors and negative emotions to the abiders, and older children attribute more negative emotions to the transgressors and positive emotions to the abiders.
The goal of current research is to investigate the children's emotion understanding in the desire-rule conflict situation in the conventional domain, to find the developmental change in the emotion predictions and explanations, and to compare the predictions of other people with the predictions of children themselves. 48 5-to 9-year-old children were interviewed with 8 desire-rule conflict stories. The children were asked to predict emotions and explain them during the first four stories, and were asked to explain the emotions which are mismatched with desires during the last four stories. The results are as following:
There are developmental changes in the others' desire-emotion mismatch predictions. Older children predicted more desire-emotion mismatch, and explained more how future consequences influence emotions.
Children provided less goal-oriented explanations in the explanation stories than the prediction stories, and provided more future-oriented explanations.
Children predicted more primary desire-emotion mismatch to themselves than to the story protagonists, and they provided less goal-oriented and more future-oriented explanations.
Children consistently evaluated that the protagonist who obeyed the rule did the right thing, and violated the rule did the wrong thing.
以往研究发现了“快乐的损人者”现象，年幼儿童认为违反了道德规则伤害了别人的儿童会感到高兴，这种现象随着年龄的增长而减弱。在习俗领域，也发现了类似的现象，年幼的儿童大都认为违反规则满足愿望会感觉好，遵守规则不满足愿望会感觉不好，而年长儿童较多地认为违反规则满足愿望会感觉不好，遵守规则不满足愿望会感觉好。
本研究比较了不同年龄在愿望—规则冲突情景下的情绪预测和解释的发展性变化，他人预测和自我预测的差异，使用了8个愿望—规则冲突情景故事，对48名5到9岁的儿童进行访谈，前4个故事中请他们预测和解释主人公及儿童自己的情绪，后四个故事请儿童直接解释和愿望不匹配的情绪。得到的主要结果如下：
对于他人总的愿望—情绪不匹配预测，呈现了显著的年龄差异，随着年龄的增长，儿童做出了越来越多的愿望—情绪不匹配预测，并且做出了越来越多的未来取向的解释。
儿童在解释故事中，提到的愿望取向解释少于预测故事，规则取向的解释和预测故事没有差异，未来取向解释多于预测故事。
儿童对自我的首要愿望—情绪不匹配预测多于对他人的预测。儿童对自我的情绪解释中，愿望取向的解释少于他人预测，规则取向没有差异，未来取向的解释多于他人预测。
儿童在行为评价中一致地认为遵守规则的行为是对的，违反规则的行为是不对的。
2-to 3-year-old children can understand the connection between desires and emotions, and 4-year-old children begin to understand the emotions which are connected by beliefs. In children's everyday life, emotions are not only affected by psychological factors, such as desires and beliefs, but also external factors, such as rules. Children's gradual understanding that rules can affect emotion is part of their social cognition development
Researchers have found the phenomenon of "happy victimizers". Young children attribute positive emotions to the victimizer, and older children attribute less. Besides, research results in the conventional domain are similar, young children attribute positive emotions to the transgressors and negative emotions to the abiders, and older children attribute more negative emotions to the transgressors and positive emotions to the abiders.
The goal of current research is to investigate the children's emotion understanding in the desire-rule conflict situation in the conventional domain, to find the developmental change in the emotion predictions and explanations, and to compare the predictions of other people with the predictions of children themselves. 48 5-to 9-year-old children were interviewed with 8 desire-rule conflict stories. The children were asked to predict emotions and explain them during the first four stories, and were asked to explain the emotions which are mismatched with desires during the last four stories. The results are as following:
There are developmental changes in the others' desire-emotion mismatch predictions. Older children predicted more desire-emotion mismatch, and explained more how future consequences influence emotions.
Children provided less goal-oriented explanations in the explanation stories than the prediction stories, and provided more future-oriented explanations.
Children predicted more primary desire-emotion mismatch to themselves than to the story protagonists, and they provided less goal-oriented and more future-oriented explanations.
Children consistently evaluated that the protagonist who obeyed the rule did the right thing, and violated the rule did the wrong thing.
引文
1. Arsenio W, Kramer R. Victimizers and their victims: Children's conception of the mixed emotional consequences of moral transgressions. Child Development, 1992,63: 915-927
2. Arsenio, W F, Lover A. Children's conceptions of sociomoral affect: Happy victimizers, mixed emotions and other expectancies. In M. Killen & D. Hart (Eds.), Morality in everyday life: Developmental perspectives. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 1995. 87-128
3. Case R, Okamoto, Y. The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's thought. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1996,61
4. Dunn J, Munn P. Becoming a family member: Family conflict and the development of social understanding. Child Development, 1985, 56: 480-492
5. Dunn, J, Bretherton I, Munn P. Conversations about feelings between mothers and their young children. Developmental Psychology, 1987,23: 132-139
6. Dunn J, Munn P. Development of justification in disputes with mother and sibling. Developmental Psychology, 1987, 23: 791-798
7. Eisenber N. Altruistic emotion, cognition, and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.1988
8. Gralinski J H, Kopp C B. Everyday rules for behavior: Mothers' Requests to Young Children. Developmental Psychology, 1993,29(3): 573-584
9. Harter S, Buddin B J. Children's understanding of the simultanieity of two emotions: A five-stage developmental acquisition sequence. Developmental psychology, 1987,23: 388-399
10. Keller M, Gummerum M, Wang X, Lindsey S. Understanding perspectives and emotions in contract violation: Development of deontic and moral reasoning.Child Development, 2004, 74,614-635
11. Keller M, Lourenco O, Malti T, Henrik Saalbach. The multifaceted phenomenon of 'happy victimizers': A cross-cultural comparison of moral emotions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2003,21:1-18
12. Kochanska G. Committed compliance, moral self, and internalization: A mediational model. Developmental Psychology, 2002, 38, 339-351.
13. Kochanska G, Coy K C, Murray K T. The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 2001,72,1091-1111.
14. Lagattuta K H. When you shouldn't do what you want to do: Young children's understanding of desires, rules, and emotions. Child Development, 2005, 76 (3):713-733
15. Lagattuta, K H, Wellman, H M. Thinking about the past: Young children's knowledge about links between past events, thinking, and emotion. Child Development, 2001,72: 82-102
16. Lagattuta, K H, Wellman, H M, Flavell, J H. Preschoolers' understanding of the link between thinking and feeling: Cognitive cuing and emotional change. Child Development, 1997,68: 1081-1104.
17. Lourenco O. Children's attributions of moral emotions to victimizers: Some data,doubts and suggestions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1997,15:425-438
18. Murgatroyd, S J, Robinson, E J. Children's judgments of emotion following moral transgression. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1993, 16: 93-111.
19. Murgatroyd, S J. Robinson E J. Children's and adults' attributions of emotion to a wrongdoer: The influence of onlooker's reaction. Cognition and Emotion, 1997,11:83-101.
20. Nunner-Winkler G, Sodian B. Children's understanding of moral emotions. Child Development, 1988, 59, 1323-1338
21. Piaget J. The child's concept of number. New York: Norton, 1952
22. Ryan, R M. Deci E L. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 2000, 55:68-78.
23. Smetana J G. Preschool children's conceptions of moral and social rules. Child Development, 1981, 52.. 1333-1336
24. Smetana .J G. Preschool children's conceptions of transgressions: Effects of varying moral and conventional domain-related attributes. Developmental Psychology, 21:18-29
25. Smetana .J G. Schlagman N, Adams P W. Preschool children's judgments about hypothetical and actual transgressions. Child Development, 1993, 64:202-214
26. Stein, N L, Levine, L J. The causal organization of emotional knowledge: A developmental study. Cognition and Emotion, 1989, 3:343-378
27. Turiel L P. Education in the moral domain. Cambridge University Press, 2001
28. Wellman, H M, Banerjee, M. Mind and emotion: Children's understanding of the emotional consequences of beliefs and desires. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1991, 9:191-124
29. Wellman, H M, Woolley, J D. From simple desires to ordinary beliefs: The early development of everyday psychology. Cognition, 1990, 35:245-275
30．陈少华，郑雪．儿童道德情绪判断及归因模式的实验研究．心理科学，2000，23(6)：703-707
2. Arsenio, W F, Lover A. Children's conceptions of sociomoral affect: Happy victimizers, mixed emotions and other expectancies. In M. Killen & D. Hart (Eds.), Morality in everyday life: Developmental perspectives. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. 1995. 87-128
3. Case R, Okamoto, Y. The role of central conceptual structures in the development of children's thought. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 1996,61
4. Dunn J, Munn P. Becoming a family member: Family conflict and the development of social understanding. Child Development, 1985, 56: 480-492
5. Dunn, J, Bretherton I, Munn P. Conversations about feelings between mothers and their young children. Developmental Psychology, 1987,23: 132-139
6. Dunn J, Munn P. Development of justification in disputes with mother and sibling. Developmental Psychology, 1987, 23: 791-798
7. Eisenber N. Altruistic emotion, cognition, and behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.1988
8. Gralinski J H, Kopp C B. Everyday rules for behavior: Mothers' Requests to Young Children. Developmental Psychology, 1993,29(3): 573-584
9. Harter S, Buddin B J. Children's understanding of the simultanieity of two emotions: A five-stage developmental acquisition sequence. Developmental psychology, 1987,23: 388-399
10. Keller M, Gummerum M, Wang X, Lindsey S. Understanding perspectives and emotions in contract violation: Development of deontic and moral reasoning.Child Development, 2004, 74,614-635
11. Keller M, Lourenco O, Malti T, Henrik Saalbach. The multifaceted phenomenon of 'happy victimizers': A cross-cultural comparison of moral emotions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2003,21:1-18
12. Kochanska G. Committed compliance, moral self, and internalization: A mediational model. Developmental Psychology, 2002, 38, 339-351.
13. Kochanska G, Coy K C, Murray K T. The development of self-regulation in the first four years of life. Child Development, 2001,72,1091-1111.
14. Lagattuta K H. When you shouldn't do what you want to do: Young children's understanding of desires, rules, and emotions. Child Development, 2005, 76 (3):713-733
15. Lagattuta, K H, Wellman, H M. Thinking about the past: Young children's knowledge about links between past events, thinking, and emotion. Child Development, 2001,72: 82-102
16. Lagattuta, K H, Wellman, H M, Flavell, J H. Preschoolers' understanding of the link between thinking and feeling: Cognitive cuing and emotional change. Child Development, 1997,68: 1081-1104.
17. Lourenco O. Children's attributions of moral emotions to victimizers: Some data,doubts and suggestions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1997,15:425-438
18. Murgatroyd, S J, Robinson, E J. Children's judgments of emotion following moral transgression. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 1993, 16: 93-111.
19. Murgatroyd, S J. Robinson E J. Children's and adults' attributions of emotion to a wrongdoer: The influence of onlooker's reaction. Cognition and Emotion, 1997,11:83-101.
20. Nunner-Winkler G, Sodian B. Children's understanding of moral emotions. Child Development, 1988, 59, 1323-1338
21. Piaget J. The child's concept of number. New York: Norton, 1952
22. Ryan, R M. Deci E L. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 2000, 55:68-78.
23. Smetana J G. Preschool children's conceptions of moral and social rules. Child Development, 1981, 52.. 1333-1336
24. Smetana .J G. Preschool children's conceptions of transgressions: Effects of varying moral and conventional domain-related attributes. Developmental Psychology, 21:18-29
25. Smetana .J G. Schlagman N, Adams P W. Preschool children's judgments about hypothetical and actual transgressions. Child Development, 1993, 64:202-214
26. Stein, N L, Levine, L J. The causal organization of emotional knowledge: A developmental study. Cognition and Emotion, 1989, 3:343-378
27. Turiel L P. Education in the moral domain. Cambridge University Press, 2001
28. Wellman, H M, Banerjee, M. Mind and emotion: Children's understanding of the emotional consequences of beliefs and desires. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 1991, 9:191-124
29. Wellman, H M, Woolley, J D. From simple desires to ordinary beliefs: The early development of everyday psychology. Cognition, 1990, 35:245-275
30．陈少华，郑雪．儿童道德情绪判断及归因模式的实验研究．心理科学，2000，23(6)：703-707