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《道藏》内景理论研究
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摘要
道教自魏晋时期起即集结道书,历代都有增修,明英宗正统年间终完成《正统道藏》,合5305卷,明神宗万历年间再完成编修《万历续道藏》合180卷,《正统道藏》及《续道藏》合称《道藏》,共收道书1476种,合5485卷。《道藏》是道教经典的总集,收明代以前大部份的道书,而中也包括被视为道书的许多中医经典。古代医、巫不分,自《黄帝内经》后医、巫分家,道教源于古代的神仙方术,追求长生不老,形体不朽,故其宗教理论与医学理论关系密切,医、道同源同旨,互相影响。道教与《内经》同样形成于黄老道家思想盛行的汉代,其哲学基础基本一致,自战国中后期黄老道家渐形成元气论,至汉代元气论发展成熟,成为中国古代思想的重要元素,万物源于道,道即是气,气分阴阳,阴阳二气交感而化生万物,万物生于气而且通天下一气。道教的生命哲学以元气论为基础,认为人的生命是一个形、气、神的三重结构,「形」为构成生命的形体,「神」为形体所呈现的精神,两者的中间态则为「气」,气实在存在但既非精神,亦非物质,气为生命的动力,既可转化为形,也可转化为神,故道教追求长生就以养气为本,生命在于神居形内,气足则神长居形内,也可提升神的质量,道教长生理论的核心就是「养气、尊神、重精」,精为形的最精微物质,所以道教医学分别针对形、气、神的三个层次提出不同的治病养生方法,其中又以气为主。在长期修炼中道教形成对人体生理的独特认识,而形成既吸纳《内经》的脏象理论,又有修道者独特体会的内景理论。《道藏》藏有以《黄庭经》为核心的一系列相关道书,本文尝试以《黄庭经》系列的道书为核心,旁涉《道藏》其它经典,重新构建道教的内景理论,发现道教内景理论既与《内经》的脏象理论一致,同时又有《内经》所无或没有详细阐述的内容。其中包括:
     1.以五脏为中心,以三丹田为轴的身神系统
     《黄庭经》认为人体的脏腑官窍都有神明居住,神明离开人就死亡,道教重视辟毂炼气,故不重视消化道的作用,而把大部份腑的功能并入相应的五脏中,其脏腑理论独论五脏和胆腑,并以身神来代替脏象,其对五脏和胆腑的身神描述基本与《内经》的脏象一致,可是也有一些细微的差异,因为辟毂就不重视消化道,所以《黄庭经》所论三焦就与传统中医学不同。但《黄庭经》及其它道教经典并不单纯以五脏为中心,道教以为人体有三个能量中心,分别为上、中、下三丹田,丹田并无相应的脏器,而是虚拟的能量中心。
     2.以脑为神明之主,以心统率五脏
     《黄庭经》内景理论以脑神为尊,脑神泥丸为百神之王,脑神直接主宰发、眼、鼻、耳、舌、齿等头面诸神,头面诸神的描述就包含了人体的视觉、嗅觉、听觉和味觉四种感官功能,以及呼吸功能和咽津功能,《黄庭经》将各种感官功能意象化为各种神灵,然后说明他们都受脑神泥丸统摄,实际反映各种感官都以大脑中枢神经为主导的生理内涵。《黄庭经》及其它道书并详细描述大脑分为九个官殿,并且以脑神为百神之王来说明大脑统摄全身各种生理功能。而在强调「脑主神明」的同时,《黄庭经》也以心为五脏主宰,心是具体执行统率五脏生理机能的,所以脑神地位尊贵,为百神之主,而心神主宰五脏运作,故脑神静而心神动,脑神无为而心神有为,脑神以心神为用。《黄庭经》心脑学说在明代以后才开始引起医家的注意而提出「脑主神明」学说。
     3.以丹田为没有具体脏器的能量中心
     道教以元气为生命本源,形与神都是元气所化生,而丹田田就是元气积聚之所,丹田又有上、中、下之分,上丹田为脑神所居,为藏神之府,中丹田在心中,为藏气之府,下丹田在脐下,为藏精之府,上丹田主精神面貌,中丹田主气血充盈,下丹田主脏腑盛衰,人要养生延寿就要使三丹田田气机通畅,道教的修炼就是要使丹田的气充盈。
     4.以命门為神氟出入之门
     《黄庭经》也多次提到命门,但位置不一,并非一个特定的脏腑或官窍,而是指元气出入之门,元气为生命之本,所以说是命门,不同的脏腑都可以有有它自己的命门。而《黄庭经》中出现的命门的位置比较多的是鼻与脐,所以脐为先天精气之命门、生命之门户,而鼻则为后天之气的命门。下丹田为藏精之所,故脐为下丹田之命门。这与《难经》所说不同,以脐为命门的下丹田的作用弱化了肾的功能,下月田藏精气的功能对养生长寿至关重要。藏精之所在下丹田,但纳气之门在于命门,故此命门与道教修炼息息相关。明清医家受道经影响而倡命门学说,实际上他们所指的命门即道书上说的下丹田。命门学说在指导临床上有很实际的意义。
     5.以五脏为中心形成辨证和养生系统
     后世对《黄庭经》的注释和演绎甚多,其中唐代女道医胡愔的《黄庭内景五脏六腑补泻图》则将《黄庭经》的内景理论进一步和医学结合,形成以五脏为中心的脏腑辨证体系。胡愔以《内经》的脏象为基础,再加上道经对脏腑内景的认识,提出疾病的脏腑辨证法,并具体说明各个脏腑病变的特征,在脏腑辨证的基础上,以药物、导引、服气、吐纳、咽津、禁忌、食疗等方法分别对治,综合调理,针对人的形、气、神三个层次分别调理,通过强化五脏而连到养生延寿。
     6.以意行气,聚气养生
     道教认为形神相依、形须神立,元气充盈则心安神定,神由气所化生生,心为神之用,而心能御气,使元气积聚,心意专注之处,气就会聚拢,元气充盈,神就安定,所以神气相依相使。所以道教医学强调对气的驾驭,通过以意行气使气积蓄丹田,丹田元气充盈不但可以调动来为自身治病,也可通过布气为别人治病。宋代以后在内景理论的基础上,进一步发展出内丹学,强调三丹田的作用,并发展出以任、督二脉为元气的主要信道,利用呼吸和意守导引气在任、督二脉上周流运行,以连到结内丹于丹田的目的。近代火神派的思想就是道教医学重阳气的具体表现。
     中医与道教有共同的源头,也都受同一种哲学思想所影响,元气论和阴阳五行是两者共同的基础,道教基于其宗教追求的特殊性,又与医药密不可分,医、道在养生延寿方面目标是一致的,医与道互相影响,历代道医人材辈出,对中医的发展影响深远。《道藏》藏有大部份明代以前的道经,是研究道教医学最好的切入点,从《道藏》所藏与《黄庭经》相关道经我们可整理出一套人体生理的内景理论,其内容丰富,既与《内经》的脏象一致,又有很多超出《内经》的内容,这些内容有待我们进一步发掘整理,使中医基础理论更为完备,也可为临床治病开拓更多新的思路。
Taoist religion started collecting its scriptures since Wei and Jin era. Each succeeding dynasty added more to the collection. During the reign of ZhengtongEmperorZhengtongTaozhang was completed, totaling5305scrolls. During the reign of Wanli Emperor, another180scrolls were added to the collection as Wanli Additional Taozhang. ZhengtongTaozhangandWanli Additional Taozhang together are called Taozhang. It is a collection of1476Taoist scriptures, totaling5485scrolls. Taozhang is a collection of Taoist scriptures which contains most Taoist writings before Ming dynasty. Since Chinese medicine classics are also considered as Taoist scriptures, many are also included in the collection. In ancient times medicine and shamanism are inseparable. Since the time of HuangdiNeijing medicine and shamanism officially separated. Taoist religion can be traced back to the ancient immortal and alchemist practices. Taoists seek immortal ity of physical body. Therefore, its theology and medical theory are closely related. Medicine and Taoism both come from the same source and have the same goal. They influence each other. Taoist religion and Neijing both emerge during Han dynasty when Huang-Lao Taoism is the most influential philosophical thinking. They have common philosophical foundation. Since the middle to late Warring States era Huang-Lao Taoism have gradually formulated its theory of Yuan-Qi. During Han dynasty the development of the theory of Yuan-Qi has become mature, becoming the most important element in ancient Chinese thinking. According to the theory, all being come from Tao. Tao is ultimately Qi. Qi maybe classified into two types:yin and yang. It is the interaction of yin and yang Qi that generates all creation. All creation come from one unified Qi and remains part of this unified Qi. The philosophy of life according to Taoist religion is based on the theory of Yuan-Qi. It believes the human life is a three layer structure of body, Qi and spirit. The body is the physical host of life. Spirit is the consciousness exhibited by the living body. Qi is that which linking both together in between. Qi really exist but it is neither spirit nor physical body. Qi is the primordial life force. It can transform into either physical body or spirit. Therefore, in seeking immortality the Taoist religion treasures the cultivation of Qi. Being alive means the spirit dwells within the body. When there is enough Qi the spirit will stay within the body. Enough Qi also elevates the spirit. The heart of the theory of immortality according to the Taoist religion is cultivating Qi, respecting spirit and treasuring Jin (essence). Jin is the most elemental building block of body. Taoist medicine has different methods to treat each layer of life in the prevention of sickness. Qi is always the primary focus. After long period of practice Taoist practitioners have formed their unique view of human physiology. They formulated a theory of internal scene which combines the theory of visceral manifestation of Neijing together with their unique experience. Taozhang contains Iluangting Jing and other Taoist classics associated with it. In this dissertation attempt is made using Huangtingjingseries of Taoist scripture as core material, drawing from all other Taozhang sources to re-construct the Taoist internal scene theory. The Taoist internal scene theory is consistent with visceral manifestation theory of Neijing, at the same time having contents that are missing or not described in detail in Neijing. These includes:
     A body spirit system having five visceral organ as center, with the three Dantian as axis
     Huangting Jing states that all physical organs are inhabited by the spirits. When the spirits leave the man dies. Taoist religion considers food abstinence for Qi cultivation an important practice. Therefore, the digestive tracts are no longer important. Their functions are include in the corresponding five visceral organs. Their viscera theory only speaks about the five visceral organs and the gallbladder. The concept of body spirit is used instead of visceral manifestation. However, its description of the body spirits is basically in line with visceral manifestation of Neijing. There are some small differences. For example, advocating food abstinence means digestive tracts become irrelevant. Therefore, the way it describes Three Burner system is different from that of traditional Chinese medicine. Huangting Jing and other Taoist scriptures do not just consider the five viscera as the center. Taoist religion thinks there are three energy centers in the human body, namely, the upper, middle and lower Dantian.
     The brain as master of consciousness and the heart to rule over five viscera
     The internal scene theory of Huangting Jing considers the brain spirit as most dignified. Brain spirit Niwan is the king of all spirits. Brain spirit directly commands hair, eys, nose, ear, tongue and tooth spirits in the head. The description of the spirits in the head includes vision, odor, sound and taste functions together with breathing and saliva swallowing function. Huangting Jing personifies these functions as the spirits, and then states that they are all controlled by the brain spirit Niwan. This actually reflects the physiology of all sense perceptions being controlled by the central nervous system of the brain. Huangting Jing and other Taoist scriptures even describe the brain as having nine compartments. The description of brain spirit being the king of all spirits is a way of saying that the brain controls all physiological functions of the body. While emphasizing the brain as master of consciousness, at the same time Huangting Jing considers the heart as master of the five viscera. Heart is what carries out the governance of the physiological functions of the five viscera. Therefore, the brain spirit is most dignified, being the king of all spirits, but the heart spirit commands the functioning of five viscera. The brain spirit is serene, while the heart is active. The brain spirit is in a state of wuweiwhile the heart spirit is in a state of yuwei. The brain spirit relies on the heart spirit to do its bidding. This theory of brain-heart relationship is never noticed until after Ming dynasty. At that time some doctors began to propose the theory of "brain as the master of consciousness".
     Dantian as the virtual energy center without being associated with any particular physical organ
     Taoist religion considers YuanQi as the primordial life force. Both body and spirit are generated from YuanQi. Dantian is the center where YuanQi concentrates. Upper Dantian is in the brain where the brain spirit inhabits. It is the storage of Shen. Middle Dantian is in the heart which is the storage of Qi. Lower Dantian is below the belly which is the storage of Jin. Upper Dantian is responsible for consciousness. Middle Dantian is responsible for the sufficiency of Qi and blood. Lower Dantian is responsible for the strength or weakness of the viscera. In order for man to achieve longevity it is essential to ensure unobstructed flow of Qi among the three Dantian. The purpose of Taoist practice is to boost up Qi in the Dantian.
     Mingmeng as the gateway of Qi and Spirit
     Huangting Jing frequently mentions Mingmeng. However, its location is inconsistent. It does not refer to any particular viscus or organ. It is the gateway through which YuanQi enters and exits. YuanQi is the source of life. That is why it is called the Mingmeng(Gate of Life). Different viscus may have its own Mingmeng. The more frequently occurringMingmeng in Huangting Jing is the nose and the navel. The navel is the Mingmeng of innate Jin and Qi. The nose is Mingmeng of Qi after birth. Lower Dantian is the storage of Jin. Therefore the navel is the Mingmeng of lower Dantian. This is different from that of the Nanjing. The lower Dantian with the navel as its Mingmeng diminishes the function of the kidney. The function of lower Dantian storing Jin is very important to longevity. The storage if Jin is in the lower Dantian but the gateway of accepting Qi is the Mingmeng. Therefore, Mingmeng is very important to Taoist practice. Doctors during the Ming and Qing dynasties are influenced by the Taoist scriptures when they advocate the theory of Mingmeng. What they mean by Mingmeng is actually the function of lower Dantian in the Taoist scriptures. The theory of Mingmeng has very practical use in guiding clinical practices.
     Symptom dialectics and regimen based on the five viscera
     Later generations have many annotations and interpretations of Huangting Jing. An important deduction comes from the female Taoist doctor Hu-an who wrote HuangtingNeijing Viscera Reinforcing and Reducing Illustration. She took a step further by combining the internal scene theory of Huangting Jing with medicine. She proposed a symptom dialectic system based on the five viscera. Hu-an used visceral manifestation of Neijingas basis and added the understanding of internal organs from the Taoist scriptures for differentiating disease based on the viscera. She described in detail the symptoms of sickness for each viscus. On the basis of detecting visceral weakness, methods of herbal formula prescription, exercise, breathing, swallowing of saliva, abstinence, food therapy are proposed to restore the health. This is a holistic treatment. It treats all three layers of life including the body, Qi and spirit. Through strengthening the five viscera it hopes to achieve longevity.
     Controlling Qi with mind, gathering Qi for longevity
     Taoist religion thinks body and spirit rely on each other. The body requires the invigorating spirit in order to exist. When YuanQi is plentiful mind and spirit becomes stable. The spirit is generated from Qi. The mind is the manifestation of spirit. The mind can control Qi. It can gather Qi. Where the mind focuses Qi will gather. When Qi is plentiful the spirit becomes stable. Therefore, spirit and Qi are mutually dependent. Taoist religion puts a lot of emphasis on the control of Qi. Through controlling Qi with the mind it seeks to gather Qi and store in the Dantian. When Qi is plentiful in the Dantian not only can it be harnessed to treat diseases in one's own body, it can also be used to treat others. After Sung dynasty the Neidan theory is developed on the basis of internal scene theory. It puts even more emphasis on the three Dantian. At the same time it proposes the governor channel and conception channel as the main path of Qi. Using special breathing techniques and mind control Qi is directed to traverse the conception channel and governor channel, ultimately gathering at Dantian to form Neidan. The fire god school in modern times is a direct manifestation of the idea of treasuring Yang Qi in Taoist medicine.
     Chinese medicine and Taoist religion have common origin. Both are influenced by the same philosophical thought. Yuan-Qi theory and Yin-Yang Five Elements theory are the foundation for both of them. Due to its peculiar religious aspiration, Taoist religion is inextricably connected with medicine. Medicine and Taoist religion have a common goal for longevity. They influence each other. Throughout Chinese history there are many talented Taoist doctors. They have a great impact on Chinese medicine. Taozhangis a collection of Taoist scriptures before the Ming dynasty. It is the best source to start the study of Taoist medicine. From the Huangting Jing series of Taoist scriptures contained in Taozhang we are able to reconstruct an internal scene theory of human physiology which is very rich in content. It is consistent with viscera manifestation theory of Neijing. At the same time, it has many contents not found in Neijing. These contents remains to be discovered. They will make the basic theory of Chinese medicine more faultless and also inspire new way of thinking in clinical treatment of diseases.
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    [212]同上
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    [220]同上
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    [223]《道藏》6册:531
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    [237]《道藏》6册:525
    [238]同上
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    [252]同上,见注释13
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    [255]同上
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    [257]《道藏》33册:400
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    [262]同上
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    [273]《道藏》22册:65
    [274]《道藏》18册:433
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    [281]《道藏》4册:485
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    [283]《道藏》22册:103
    [284]《难经.藏府配像》, 中国哲学书电子化计划:http://ctext.org/nan-jing/cang-fu-pei-xiang/zh
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    [286]《道藏》4册:876
    [287]《道藏》4册:856
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    [289]《道藏》22册:86
    [290]刘连朋;顾宝田.新译黄庭经.阴符经,台北:三民书局,2008年第一版:96见注23
    [291]《道藏》22册:87
    [292]刘连朋;顾宝田.新译黄庭经.阴符经,台北:三民书局,2008年第一版:146-147见注5
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    [299]同上:797
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    [306]《道藏》11册:396
    [307]《道藏》11册:396-397
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    [310]《道藏》6册:687
    [311]同上
    [312]同上
    [313]《道藏》4册:837
    [314]《道藏》6册:689
    [315]《道藏》4册:839
    [316]《道藏》4册:840
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    [319]《道藏》4册:835
    [320]《道藏》6册:687
    [321]同上
    [322]王明.太平经合校,北京:新华书局,1960年第一版:236
    [323]同上:726
    [324]《道藏》22册:385
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