可持续发展视野下中国小矿的法律规制
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摘要
小矿是小型矿山的简称,包括小型矿山和小矿山(含零星个体采矿)。它因规模小、启动资金需求量小、技术要求低、收益快,因而在发展中国家普遍存在。小矿在充分利用矿产资源,为各国增收创汇,特别是在缓解贫困方面做出了积极的贡献,成为推动各国矿业、国民经济和社会发展不可或缺的部门。然而,小矿在发展过程中暴露出很多问题,如资源浪费、环境污染、安全事故频发,这是与可持续发展的理念和要求相背离的。这些问题日益受到国际社会的高度重视。我国的小矿由来已久,随着国家的改革开放和在“有水快流”政策的影响下,它(当时被称为乡镇矿山)异军突起,飞速发展,显示出前所未有的强大生命力。多年来,它为缓解我国矿产品供需矛盾,改善农村经济结构,促进乡镇企业和地方经济发展,帮助农民扩大就业门路、脱贫致富,推动小城镇建设发挥了重要作用。但与此同时,一系列的严重问题也相伴而来,各种小矿鱼龙混杂、开采技术落后、无序竞争、私挖乱采、破坏资源、污染环境、事故频发。这些问题不仅影响到国家正常的矿业秩序,也成为制约小矿自身可持续发展的瓶颈。
我国从20世纪90年代末开始对各类小矿,特别是对小煤矿进行大规模治理整顿,先后经历了“关井压产”和“资源整合”两个重要整顿阶段,开展了一系列与此相关的活动。前一阶段以治小、散、乱为主,后一阶段则侧重矿产资源规划布局的调整。经过十余年的整顿,小矿几度关停,到2005年我国各类矿山数目由1995年的28万余个减少到12万余个,小煤矿的数量也由7.6万个减少到2.5万个。按照国土资源部等12部门的联合部署,到2010年小煤矿要减到1万个左右,到2015年基本退出煤炭行业。随着国家的三令五申,小矿的绝对数目在有计划地减少,但被关停的小矿屡关屡开、死灰复燃的事件却频频曝光,由此引发的矿难亦不绝于耳。这些小矿为什么久关不闭?小矿主为什么置矿工的生命而不顾顶风作业?这背后真正的原因是什么?从中央到地方各级政府对小矿的规制为什么会失灵?失灵的症结又在哪里?资源整合是否简单地等同于关闭小矿?这一连串的问题是我国当前资源整合过程中亟待解决的重大现实问题,它们不仅关系到我国整顿矿业秩序的成败,而且事关小矿及其矿区的可持续发展乃至全社会的稳定。本文就这些问题从法律规制角度展开研究,以期为我国对矿产资源开发活动进行理性的、规范化的整合提供法律依据,也为合法小矿的可持续发展寻求一条依法开采、依法治矿的有效途径。
国外对小矿法律规制的研究已有30多年的历史,成果较多。而国内同类研究则断断续续、比较分散。其中深究小矿的负面影响,探讨如何关闭、取缔小矿的成果不在少数,而客观地评价小矿,研究如何规范、促进其发展的成果却屈指可数。本文以可持续发展为视角,试图从法律角度分析我国现阶段在小矿规制方面存在的问题与症结,探讨我国小矿存在和发展的规律性与必要性,然后通过对国外小矿法律规制的考察与比较,廓清小矿法律规制的内在特征,在此基础上提出构建和完善我国小矿法律规制体系的建议。
论文除导论和结论外共分六章:
第一章从“小矿”的概念界定入手,介绍与评价国内外现存的关于“小矿”的各种概念,并对与“小矿”相关的几个概念——小小矿/手工小矿、非正规矿、(中)小企业进行辨析,之后,给出了本文对“小矿”下的定义:“小矿是以谋生或营利为目的,采用简单的或基本的采掘设备与技术,在有限的矿藏范围内从事某种矿产品采选活动的小规模、劳动密集型的矿山企业。其中包括开采规模达到国家规定的小型矿山标准的小型矿山企业和开采规模在小型矿山上限1/10以下的小矿山企业(含零星个体采矿)。小矿是采矿业最基本的构成部门。”该定义厘清了小矿的概念及其法律含义,为解决小矿问题提供了准确的切入点。
第二章探讨国内外小矿的地位和作用以及存在的主要问题。无论国际还是国内小矿在各国国民经济中都占有非常重要的位置,是为国家增收创汇、缓解贫困、推动地方经济发展的一支生力军。但它存在的问题亦十分突出。虽然国内外略有差异,但无序开采、浪费资源、破坏环境、安全事故频发等一系列的问题是小矿共同存在的问题。究其原因,本文认为,一方面,除资源禀赋条件外,小矿的存在源于贫穷,低投入、粗放型运作又使其回归到贫穷原点,以致小矿不得不在恶性循环中重演着“公地悲剧”。而另一方面,政府不公允的政策与制度缺陷在很大程度上进一步加剧了小矿问题的严重性。鉴于此,本文提出,小矿问题的解决不能简单地运用矿业知识、环保或安全标准进行“一刀切”式的“关闭”或“取缔”,而应当从可持续发展的战略高度出发,把环境问题、安全问题与社会经济问题结合起来考虑,统筹兼顾,从而使小矿问题得以根治。
第三章在可持续发展的大背景下探讨小矿法律规制的理论支点与依据以及小矿可持续发展的实现形式。可持续发展思想的人本理念强调,要把满足贫困和弱势群体的基本需要放在优先地位。我国基于国情、又从世界可持续发展思想中孕育而生的科学发展观也同样强调以人为本、全面协调的可持续发展。本文认为,可持续发展的首要目标应当是在尽可能保护环境和资源的条件下,优先消除贫困,最大限度地满足贫弱群体的基本需求。小矿虽然问题很多,但作为一种有效的减贫载体,它自身需要实现可持续发展,同时,它又是促进整个矿业以及社会经济可持续发展的重要组成部分。所以,政府规制小矿的目的就是要以社会福利最大化为目标,根据国家有关的矿业政策、法律、法规与法律制度,对小矿的准入、生产经营活动、税收、环境管理、安全健康及劳动用工等状况进行干预与监管,帮助小矿除弊兴利,实现对矿产资源的永续利用、矿区环境的可持续发展和矿区生活的永久保障。
第四章对我国小矿法律规制的历程、特征和存在的问题进行概述和分析。总体上,我国在小矿法律规制上政策弹性大,稳定性差,鼓励、扶持不足,限制、责备有余;立法分散庞杂,法律层次低,权宜性明显;管理体制复杂、多变,权限模糊,缺乏协调;监管手段单一、效率低下。本文认为,这些缺陷和不足与我国在矿业政策上长期以大矿利益为重,忽视小矿的地位和作用关系密切,这也是导致我国小矿发展过快、过滥,开发无序,环境破坏严重,安全事故多发,屡禁不止的一个重要原因,十分有必要尽快完善小矿立法,改革小矿管理体制。
第五章考察国外小矿法律规制的过程与特点,总结出国外小矿法律制度的基本原则与逐步形成的法律制度以及小矿管理制度的发展趋势,结合哥伦比亚规制小煤矿的个案研究,归纳出国外小矿规制实践对我国的启示。本文认为,国外小矿法律规制有很多宝贵经验值得我国借鉴,其中两点尤为重要:一是在政策上充分肯定小矿在促进国家经济发展与缓解贫困方面的重要作用,把小矿的发展战略融入到整个农村复兴和农民增收战略当中。二是在立法中明确小矿的法律地位,相应的法律制度与管理制度的设计以促进小矿发展为本,把规范与促进发展有机结合起来。
第六章首先对我国小矿问题进行深度剖析,继而对小矿的存废问题进行理性探讨。本文认为,在很大程度上国家长期“重大矿、轻小矿,重封堵、轻疏导,重经济、轻社会”的政策导向和管理手段是导致我国小矿问题久而不绝、治而低效的重要原因之一。我国仍处于社会主义初级阶段,“三农”问题十分突出,而我国矿产资源又以小型矿床居多,这种国情、民情、矿情决定了我国在现阶段留存少量合法小矿的必要性。基于以上认识,本文认为,完善我国小矿法律规制的路径应当是:在可持续发展观和科学发展观的指导下,政策先行,正确评价小矿的地位和作用;完善立法,优先制定小矿专门法律;设立独立、权威的小矿专门管理机构,转变管理理念,实现以人为本的多元服务型管理模式;充分发挥社会力量,挖掘外部资源,扩大国际合作,形成共管共促格局,全方位推进小矿的可持续发展。
本文的创新点主要包括:1)从法律规制角度对我国的小矿问题进行了较为全面的梳理与分析,填补了我国在这一领域研究的空白。2)立足于可持续发展观,提出我国小矿的法律规制应当注重环境效益和经济、社会效益的协调发展,应当把规制小矿与减贫战略与建设我国社会主义新农村战略结合起来。从这个战略高度出发,规制就不再是资源整合的目的,而成为促进小矿健康、有序发展的手段。这一观点的提出对于避免我国目前为整顿而整顿、不计后果地对所有小矿实行关闭的“一刀切”做法,实行统筹规划、疏堵结合有着重要的现实意义。3)对我国的小矿进行了现实且较为科学的概念界定与法律含义分析,为依法规制小矿提供了法律依据。4)基于我国在今后较长一段时间内小矿还有必要继续存在的客观现实,建议修订我国现有的《矿产资源法》,在其中设小矿专章,并对小矿的立法指导思想、立法原则与法律制度提出了完善建议。这些立法建议将有助于充实与丰富我国小矿法律规制理论的内容。5)本文提出设立独立、权威的国家小矿管理机构,并根据我国行政区划特点设立直属于中央的地方小矿管理机构,为小矿提供一站式服务与实施统一监管。6)本文提出政府应当加大对涉及小矿的行业协会或社团的鼓励与扶持力度,充分挖掘外部资源,促进全社会参与规范小矿的行动,从而降低政府监管成本,提高监管效率。
SSM is a short form for the small-scale mine, which is popularly found in developing countries due to its small scale, less start-up capital, low technical requirements and quick recovery. Small-scaled mines and artisanal mines are two major forms of mines engaging in small-scale mining. These SSMs have contributed tremendously for these countries in exploiting natural resources, generating revenues and foreign exchange earnings, and in alleviating poverty, which has made them an indispensable component part in the promotion of these countries’mining and socio-economic development. However, their contributions often come with serious problems such as waste of resources, environmental pollution and repeated mine accidents. This is thoroughly incompatible with the concept of sustainable development that emphasizes balanced environmental and socio-economic development, and thus has become an increasing concern of the international community. SSMs have a long history in China, but they (referred as Township and Village Mines in the past) boomed with unprecedented great vitality with China’s open-door and reform policy in late 1970s and under the influence of a“rigorous policy”that encouraged large, medium and small-scale mines to simultaneously realize the maximum of production. For years, these SSMs have played a vital role in easing minerals shortage of the country; improving rural economic structures, promoting township and village enterprises and local economy; creating alternative livelihoods and income for farmers and strengthening the development of minor cities across rural areas. But meanwhile, their operations are fraught with issues, mainly including illegal operations, backward mining technology, disorderly competitions, irrational locations, resources waste, environmental damage and poor safety records. These issues have not only affected the normal national mining order, but also hindered the possibility for sustained development on the SSM’s side.
For this very reason China has began to launch large-scale campaigns across the country from late 90s of the 20th century in an attempt to rectify those small-scale mines, especially small-scale coal mines (township and village coal mines—TVCMs) with the above problems. Closure and consolidation are two important programs of the campaigns coupled with a whole train of rectifying events. The former aims at overcoming small-scale, scattering and disorder of TVCMs for the purpose of combating the over-production of coal, and the latter at consolidating mineral resources in line with the country’s planned layouts for mineral resources. During these two programs, tens of thousands of SSMs were closed, and by the end of 2005, the number of SSMs throughout the country decreased from 280,000 in 1995 to 120,000, and TVCMs from 76,000 to 25,000. According to the deployment of the Ministry of Land Resources and other 11 ministries and commissions at central level, the number of TVCMs will be cut down to around 10,000 by the end of 2010, and they will be eventually withdrawn from the coal industry by the end of 2015. With the enjoinment of the country, TVCMs have been closed in a planned way, however, reopening occurrences of the closed TVCMs and subsequent mine accidents are continually exposed in the press. Why do these closed TVCMs insist on reopening?Why do the miners do this without taking account of the workers’lives? What underlies these reopening occurrences? Why has regulation at both central and local levels failed and what are the reasons concerned? Is consolidation simply equal to the closure of SSMs? These questions are utterly important and require prompt answers since they not only relate to the success of the country’s rectification and consolidation programs, but relate to the sustainable development of SSMs and their communities as well as social stability. This thesis attempts to address all the above questions from the perspective of legal regulation with a purpose to provide legal basis for China’s consolidation mineral resources with SSMs as a key sector with more reasonable and standardized regulation, and to provide an effective way for those legal SSMs to sustainably exploit and manage mineral resources by law.
The research on SSM regulation abroad is over 30 years long with plenty of academic achievements. But domestically, the similar research has been sporadic and segmented. More literature studies the negative sides of SSMs, or rather, how to ban and close these SSMs, but very few concerns with how to regulate SSMs so as to strengthen their growth. This thesis, in the context of sustainable development, seeks to analyze issues and constraints facing China’s present SSM regulation from a legal perspective, to discuss the rule and necessity of the existence and development of these SSMs. After a thorough overview and contrast of SSM regulation experiences in foreign countries, developing countries in particular, the thesis identifies and clarifies inherent characteristics for regulating SSMs. Based upon the above study, the thesis concludes with a number of options and recommendations for improved policy and regulatory frameworks for sustained SSM development in China.
The thesis includes six main chapters:
Chapter One begins with the definition of SSMs by reviewing and evaluating existing definitions of SSMs both in China and abroad, and by comparing a few of definitions with respect to SSMs such as artisanal mines, informal mines, (medium-and ) small-scale enterprises, and then follows up with the author’s definition of SSMs:“Small-scale mines are those small-scaled and labour-intensive mining enterprises that, for livelihood or commercial purposes, conduct mining operations in mineral-limited areas by applying simple or rudimentary mining equipment and technology. They include small-scaled mines with a production capacity that conforms to the national small-scale criteria, and artisanal mines with a capacity below 1/10 of the upper limit of the criteria for the former, all of which constitute a fundamentally component part of the mining industry.”This definition streamlines and clarifies the connotations of SSMs and their legal implications, providing a valuable entry point to exploring solutions for SSM issues.
Chapter Two explores the status and role of SSMs domestically and internationally. SSMs have all been playing a pivotal role in national economy and have become a vital force in contributing to national revenues, foreign exchange earnings, alleviating poverty and promoting local economic development. However, the problems faced by these SSMs are conspicuous, mainly including disorderly mining operations, waste of resources, significant environmental damage and poor safety standards. Though varying slightly, they are fairly common in both China and other developing countries. The author holds that, on the one hand, these problems are attributable to poverty apart from limited mineral reserves. Poverty drives low-income people to work in SSMs that are operating in an extensive mode with low inputs, thus failing to make a big fortune to feed their hungry workers who are once again forced back to poverty. In a vicious circle from poverty to predatory exploitation of natural resources, back to poverty, these SSMs are repeating“common tragedies”on end. On the other hand, government’s biased policy toward SSMs and regulatory deficiencies, to a great extent, exacerbate the severity of SSM problems. For these two reasons, the author insists that it is by no means a panacea for SSM problems by simply banning and closing them in a“fit-all”method against mining expertise, environmental and safety standards. Desirably, their environmental and safety problems should be handled by concurrently taking into consideration socio-economic issues from a strategic perspective of sustainable development.
Chapter Three discusses theoretically the supporting points and bases for regulating SSMs in the context of sustainable development followed by a further discussion on how to achieve sustainable development for SSMs. The“people-first”principle in the theory of sustainable development insists that top priority be given to the basic needs of the poor and the weak. Further, China’s Outlook of Scientific Development, which is bred from global sustainable development on a basis of China’s national conditions, also upholds“people-centered”sustained development with coordinating environmental sustainability with socio-economic sustainability. Supported by these two thoughts, the author contends that the ultimate goal of sustainable development should be to eradicate poverty and to meet to the maximum the basic needs of the poor and the weak while preserving and maintaining environmental and resources integrity with utmost efforts of human beings. Being an effective poverty-alleviating tool, SSMs, fraught with problems though, require sustained development on their own; and meanwhile, they are a component part in promoting sustainable development of the whole mining industry, society and national economy. Therefore, the purpose of government’s regulation is, aiming at maximized social benefits, to intervene, regulate and supervise SSM operations in accordance with national mining policy and relevant laws and regulations in terms of licensing, production and marketing, taxation, environmental management, health and safety, and labour recruitment with an attempt to overcome their demerits and bring their active roles into full play, thus helping SSMs to realize sustained use of mineral resources, and to maintain environmental sustainability and sustainable livelihoods.
Chapter Four summarizes and analyzes China’s SSM regulatory history, its features and the issues in existence. Generally speaking, China’s SSM regulation is characterized by:
Highly unsteady and incoherent policies with more restrictions and reproaches than encouragement and assistance;
Numerous, jumbled and segmented SSM regulations featured with a low degree of legal effect but a high degree of expedience;
Complicated and changeable institutional arrangements with unclearly defined responsibilities, poor coordination between departments at various levels, and simplistic methods of management and low effectiveness.
The author thinks that all these deficiencies largely relate to the fact that China has long attached great importance to large-and-medium-scale mines without due attention to the status and role of SSMs,which has constituted one of the important reasons for blind and reckless development of SSMs, and the failure and ineffectiveness to close those with poor environmental, safety and health records. Hence, it is urgently necessary to speed up the improvement of SSM legislation and the reform of SSM management system.
Chapter Five provides an overview of foreign countries’SSM regulation, based on which basic principles and legal systems as well as the trends of institutional arrangements are summarized. Then after the study of the Colombian case, the thesis generalizes a number of lessons learnt from foreign SSM regulation practice, among which two are of great importance for China: one relates to the fact that almost all the foreign countries affirm positively the pivotal role of SSMs in strengthening national economy and alleviating poverty, and proactively integrate SSM development into rural reconstruction strategy and farmers’income increase strategy. The other is that these countries clarify the status of SSMs in their legislation with appropriate legal systems and management systems oriented toward SSM development, thus coordinating regulation with SSM growth promotion.
Chapter Six seeks to get into the bottom of China’s SSM issues, based upon which a rational reflection on the existence of SSMs is thoroughly discussed. The author contends that the epidemic failure and ineffectiveness to crack down SSM chaos in China are largely imputed to the government’s long-term partial mining policy and inflexible management mode that value large-scale mines but ignore SSMs, pay more attention to closure and suppression than mediation and direction, and give precedence to economic development over social impacts. Given that China is a country still in its primary stage of socialism with highly protruding issues concerning agriculture, rural areas and farmers, and that the majority of mineral deposits are small-scaled, it is imperative that China have a small number of legalized SSMs for some years to come. In view of this standing, the author puts forward some options for improving China’s SSM regulatory frameworks:
Under the guidance of the outlooks of Sustainable Development and Scientific Development, to revise relevant policy and identify and affirm objectively the status and role of SSMs;
To improve SSM legislation by urgently drafting a separate chapter in the national mining law;
To establish an independent and authoritative SSM management agency to provide comprehensive and“one-stop”services to SSMs on the“people-centered”basis;
To encourage extensive public involvement, explore external resources and broaden international cooperation, and fostering an atmosphere to concertedly regulating and strengthening SSMs. The contributions of this thesis mainly include:
From the legal perspective, the thesis has presented a thorough review and an analysis of China’s SSM regulation, bridging the gap of the research in this field.
Based on sustainable development, the thesis has insisted that the regulation of China’s SSMs should coordinate environmental benefits with socio-economic benefits, and should also integrate it into the strategies of poverty alleviation and the construction of a New Socialist Countryside. From this point of view, the abovementioned consolidation campaigns ought to be regarded as more of a tool to promote orderly and formal mining operations of SSMs than an exclusive goal, which will be of immediate significance in avoiding regulating SSMs on a“fit-all closure”basis, and in conducting overall planning for the regulation by combining both direction and suppression methods.
The thesis has tried to appropriately define China’s SSMs with an analysis of legal connotations this definition conveys, providing an important basis for regulating SSMs by law.
Given the fact that it is necessary for China to have a small number of SSMs for years to come, the thesis has proposed that the Mineral Resources Law be urgently revised and a separate chapter concerning SSMs be added into it. More recommendations on the improvement of corresponding legislation principles and legal systems have also been presented. All these suggestions for SSM legislation will enrich China’s theory of regulating SSMs by law.
The thesis has proposed that an independent and authoritative administrative agency be established and local administrative offices be concurrently set up responsible directly to the central agency, both of which are expected to practice unified regulation over SSMs and offer“one-stop”services for them.
The thesis has suggested that it is necessary for the Government to foster extensive public involvement in regulating SSMs by strengthening the encouragement and support of SSM related associations and societies, exploring external resources, and thus improving regulatory effectiveness and reducing the costs of the government’s regulation.
我国从20世纪90年代末开始对各类小矿,特别是对小煤矿进行大规模治理整顿,先后经历了“关井压产”和“资源整合”两个重要整顿阶段,开展了一系列与此相关的活动。前一阶段以治小、散、乱为主,后一阶段则侧重矿产资源规划布局的调整。经过十余年的整顿,小矿几度关停,到2005年我国各类矿山数目由1995年的28万余个减少到12万余个,小煤矿的数量也由7.6万个减少到2.5万个。按照国土资源部等12部门的联合部署,到2010年小煤矿要减到1万个左右,到2015年基本退出煤炭行业。随着国家的三令五申,小矿的绝对数目在有计划地减少,但被关停的小矿屡关屡开、死灰复燃的事件却频频曝光,由此引发的矿难亦不绝于耳。这些小矿为什么久关不闭?小矿主为什么置矿工的生命而不顾顶风作业?这背后真正的原因是什么?从中央到地方各级政府对小矿的规制为什么会失灵?失灵的症结又在哪里?资源整合是否简单地等同于关闭小矿?这一连串的问题是我国当前资源整合过程中亟待解决的重大现实问题,它们不仅关系到我国整顿矿业秩序的成败,而且事关小矿及其矿区的可持续发展乃至全社会的稳定。本文就这些问题从法律规制角度展开研究,以期为我国对矿产资源开发活动进行理性的、规范化的整合提供法律依据,也为合法小矿的可持续发展寻求一条依法开采、依法治矿的有效途径。
国外对小矿法律规制的研究已有30多年的历史,成果较多。而国内同类研究则断断续续、比较分散。其中深究小矿的负面影响,探讨如何关闭、取缔小矿的成果不在少数,而客观地评价小矿,研究如何规范、促进其发展的成果却屈指可数。本文以可持续发展为视角,试图从法律角度分析我国现阶段在小矿规制方面存在的问题与症结,探讨我国小矿存在和发展的规律性与必要性,然后通过对国外小矿法律规制的考察与比较,廓清小矿法律规制的内在特征,在此基础上提出构建和完善我国小矿法律规制体系的建议。
论文除导论和结论外共分六章:
第一章从“小矿”的概念界定入手,介绍与评价国内外现存的关于“小矿”的各种概念,并对与“小矿”相关的几个概念——小小矿/手工小矿、非正规矿、(中)小企业进行辨析,之后,给出了本文对“小矿”下的定义:“小矿是以谋生或营利为目的,采用简单的或基本的采掘设备与技术,在有限的矿藏范围内从事某种矿产品采选活动的小规模、劳动密集型的矿山企业。其中包括开采规模达到国家规定的小型矿山标准的小型矿山企业和开采规模在小型矿山上限1/10以下的小矿山企业(含零星个体采矿)。小矿是采矿业最基本的构成部门。”该定义厘清了小矿的概念及其法律含义,为解决小矿问题提供了准确的切入点。
第二章探讨国内外小矿的地位和作用以及存在的主要问题。无论国际还是国内小矿在各国国民经济中都占有非常重要的位置,是为国家增收创汇、缓解贫困、推动地方经济发展的一支生力军。但它存在的问题亦十分突出。虽然国内外略有差异,但无序开采、浪费资源、破坏环境、安全事故频发等一系列的问题是小矿共同存在的问题。究其原因,本文认为,一方面,除资源禀赋条件外,小矿的存在源于贫穷,低投入、粗放型运作又使其回归到贫穷原点,以致小矿不得不在恶性循环中重演着“公地悲剧”。而另一方面,政府不公允的政策与制度缺陷在很大程度上进一步加剧了小矿问题的严重性。鉴于此,本文提出,小矿问题的解决不能简单地运用矿业知识、环保或安全标准进行“一刀切”式的“关闭”或“取缔”,而应当从可持续发展的战略高度出发,把环境问题、安全问题与社会经济问题结合起来考虑,统筹兼顾,从而使小矿问题得以根治。
第三章在可持续发展的大背景下探讨小矿法律规制的理论支点与依据以及小矿可持续发展的实现形式。可持续发展思想的人本理念强调,要把满足贫困和弱势群体的基本需要放在优先地位。我国基于国情、又从世界可持续发展思想中孕育而生的科学发展观也同样强调以人为本、全面协调的可持续发展。本文认为,可持续发展的首要目标应当是在尽可能保护环境和资源的条件下,优先消除贫困,最大限度地满足贫弱群体的基本需求。小矿虽然问题很多,但作为一种有效的减贫载体,它自身需要实现可持续发展,同时,它又是促进整个矿业以及社会经济可持续发展的重要组成部分。所以,政府规制小矿的目的就是要以社会福利最大化为目标,根据国家有关的矿业政策、法律、法规与法律制度,对小矿的准入、生产经营活动、税收、环境管理、安全健康及劳动用工等状况进行干预与监管,帮助小矿除弊兴利,实现对矿产资源的永续利用、矿区环境的可持续发展和矿区生活的永久保障。
第四章对我国小矿法律规制的历程、特征和存在的问题进行概述和分析。总体上,我国在小矿法律规制上政策弹性大,稳定性差,鼓励、扶持不足,限制、责备有余;立法分散庞杂,法律层次低,权宜性明显;管理体制复杂、多变,权限模糊,缺乏协调;监管手段单一、效率低下。本文认为,这些缺陷和不足与我国在矿业政策上长期以大矿利益为重,忽视小矿的地位和作用关系密切,这也是导致我国小矿发展过快、过滥,开发无序,环境破坏严重,安全事故多发,屡禁不止的一个重要原因,十分有必要尽快完善小矿立法,改革小矿管理体制。
第五章考察国外小矿法律规制的过程与特点,总结出国外小矿法律制度的基本原则与逐步形成的法律制度以及小矿管理制度的发展趋势,结合哥伦比亚规制小煤矿的个案研究,归纳出国外小矿规制实践对我国的启示。本文认为,国外小矿法律规制有很多宝贵经验值得我国借鉴,其中两点尤为重要:一是在政策上充分肯定小矿在促进国家经济发展与缓解贫困方面的重要作用,把小矿的发展战略融入到整个农村复兴和农民增收战略当中。二是在立法中明确小矿的法律地位,相应的法律制度与管理制度的设计以促进小矿发展为本,把规范与促进发展有机结合起来。
第六章首先对我国小矿问题进行深度剖析,继而对小矿的存废问题进行理性探讨。本文认为,在很大程度上国家长期“重大矿、轻小矿,重封堵、轻疏导,重经济、轻社会”的政策导向和管理手段是导致我国小矿问题久而不绝、治而低效的重要原因之一。我国仍处于社会主义初级阶段,“三农”问题十分突出,而我国矿产资源又以小型矿床居多,这种国情、民情、矿情决定了我国在现阶段留存少量合法小矿的必要性。基于以上认识,本文认为,完善我国小矿法律规制的路径应当是:在可持续发展观和科学发展观的指导下,政策先行,正确评价小矿的地位和作用;完善立法,优先制定小矿专门法律;设立独立、权威的小矿专门管理机构,转变管理理念,实现以人为本的多元服务型管理模式;充分发挥社会力量,挖掘外部资源,扩大国际合作,形成共管共促格局,全方位推进小矿的可持续发展。
本文的创新点主要包括:1)从法律规制角度对我国的小矿问题进行了较为全面的梳理与分析,填补了我国在这一领域研究的空白。2)立足于可持续发展观,提出我国小矿的法律规制应当注重环境效益和经济、社会效益的协调发展,应当把规制小矿与减贫战略与建设我国社会主义新农村战略结合起来。从这个战略高度出发,规制就不再是资源整合的目的,而成为促进小矿健康、有序发展的手段。这一观点的提出对于避免我国目前为整顿而整顿、不计后果地对所有小矿实行关闭的“一刀切”做法,实行统筹规划、疏堵结合有着重要的现实意义。3)对我国的小矿进行了现实且较为科学的概念界定与法律含义分析,为依法规制小矿提供了法律依据。4)基于我国在今后较长一段时间内小矿还有必要继续存在的客观现实,建议修订我国现有的《矿产资源法》,在其中设小矿专章,并对小矿的立法指导思想、立法原则与法律制度提出了完善建议。这些立法建议将有助于充实与丰富我国小矿法律规制理论的内容。5)本文提出设立独立、权威的国家小矿管理机构,并根据我国行政区划特点设立直属于中央的地方小矿管理机构,为小矿提供一站式服务与实施统一监管。6)本文提出政府应当加大对涉及小矿的行业协会或社团的鼓励与扶持力度,充分挖掘外部资源,促进全社会参与规范小矿的行动,从而降低政府监管成本,提高监管效率。
SSM is a short form for the small-scale mine, which is popularly found in developing countries due to its small scale, less start-up capital, low technical requirements and quick recovery. Small-scaled mines and artisanal mines are two major forms of mines engaging in small-scale mining. These SSMs have contributed tremendously for these countries in exploiting natural resources, generating revenues and foreign exchange earnings, and in alleviating poverty, which has made them an indispensable component part in the promotion of these countries’mining and socio-economic development. However, their contributions often come with serious problems such as waste of resources, environmental pollution and repeated mine accidents. This is thoroughly incompatible with the concept of sustainable development that emphasizes balanced environmental and socio-economic development, and thus has become an increasing concern of the international community. SSMs have a long history in China, but they (referred as Township and Village Mines in the past) boomed with unprecedented great vitality with China’s open-door and reform policy in late 1970s and under the influence of a“rigorous policy”that encouraged large, medium and small-scale mines to simultaneously realize the maximum of production. For years, these SSMs have played a vital role in easing minerals shortage of the country; improving rural economic structures, promoting township and village enterprises and local economy; creating alternative livelihoods and income for farmers and strengthening the development of minor cities across rural areas. But meanwhile, their operations are fraught with issues, mainly including illegal operations, backward mining technology, disorderly competitions, irrational locations, resources waste, environmental damage and poor safety records. These issues have not only affected the normal national mining order, but also hindered the possibility for sustained development on the SSM’s side.
For this very reason China has began to launch large-scale campaigns across the country from late 90s of the 20th century in an attempt to rectify those small-scale mines, especially small-scale coal mines (township and village coal mines—TVCMs) with the above problems. Closure and consolidation are two important programs of the campaigns coupled with a whole train of rectifying events. The former aims at overcoming small-scale, scattering and disorder of TVCMs for the purpose of combating the over-production of coal, and the latter at consolidating mineral resources in line with the country’s planned layouts for mineral resources. During these two programs, tens of thousands of SSMs were closed, and by the end of 2005, the number of SSMs throughout the country decreased from 280,000 in 1995 to 120,000, and TVCMs from 76,000 to 25,000. According to the deployment of the Ministry of Land Resources and other 11 ministries and commissions at central level, the number of TVCMs will be cut down to around 10,000 by the end of 2010, and they will be eventually withdrawn from the coal industry by the end of 2015. With the enjoinment of the country, TVCMs have been closed in a planned way, however, reopening occurrences of the closed TVCMs and subsequent mine accidents are continually exposed in the press. Why do these closed TVCMs insist on reopening?Why do the miners do this without taking account of the workers’lives? What underlies these reopening occurrences? Why has regulation at both central and local levels failed and what are the reasons concerned? Is consolidation simply equal to the closure of SSMs? These questions are utterly important and require prompt answers since they not only relate to the success of the country’s rectification and consolidation programs, but relate to the sustainable development of SSMs and their communities as well as social stability. This thesis attempts to address all the above questions from the perspective of legal regulation with a purpose to provide legal basis for China’s consolidation mineral resources with SSMs as a key sector with more reasonable and standardized regulation, and to provide an effective way for those legal SSMs to sustainably exploit and manage mineral resources by law.
The research on SSM regulation abroad is over 30 years long with plenty of academic achievements. But domestically, the similar research has been sporadic and segmented. More literature studies the negative sides of SSMs, or rather, how to ban and close these SSMs, but very few concerns with how to regulate SSMs so as to strengthen their growth. This thesis, in the context of sustainable development, seeks to analyze issues and constraints facing China’s present SSM regulation from a legal perspective, to discuss the rule and necessity of the existence and development of these SSMs. After a thorough overview and contrast of SSM regulation experiences in foreign countries, developing countries in particular, the thesis identifies and clarifies inherent characteristics for regulating SSMs. Based upon the above study, the thesis concludes with a number of options and recommendations for improved policy and regulatory frameworks for sustained SSM development in China.
The thesis includes six main chapters:
Chapter One begins with the definition of SSMs by reviewing and evaluating existing definitions of SSMs both in China and abroad, and by comparing a few of definitions with respect to SSMs such as artisanal mines, informal mines, (medium-and ) small-scale enterprises, and then follows up with the author’s definition of SSMs:“Small-scale mines are those small-scaled and labour-intensive mining enterprises that, for livelihood or commercial purposes, conduct mining operations in mineral-limited areas by applying simple or rudimentary mining equipment and technology. They include small-scaled mines with a production capacity that conforms to the national small-scale criteria, and artisanal mines with a capacity below 1/10 of the upper limit of the criteria for the former, all of which constitute a fundamentally component part of the mining industry.”This definition streamlines and clarifies the connotations of SSMs and their legal implications, providing a valuable entry point to exploring solutions for SSM issues.
Chapter Two explores the status and role of SSMs domestically and internationally. SSMs have all been playing a pivotal role in national economy and have become a vital force in contributing to national revenues, foreign exchange earnings, alleviating poverty and promoting local economic development. However, the problems faced by these SSMs are conspicuous, mainly including disorderly mining operations, waste of resources, significant environmental damage and poor safety standards. Though varying slightly, they are fairly common in both China and other developing countries. The author holds that, on the one hand, these problems are attributable to poverty apart from limited mineral reserves. Poverty drives low-income people to work in SSMs that are operating in an extensive mode with low inputs, thus failing to make a big fortune to feed their hungry workers who are once again forced back to poverty. In a vicious circle from poverty to predatory exploitation of natural resources, back to poverty, these SSMs are repeating“common tragedies”on end. On the other hand, government’s biased policy toward SSMs and regulatory deficiencies, to a great extent, exacerbate the severity of SSM problems. For these two reasons, the author insists that it is by no means a panacea for SSM problems by simply banning and closing them in a“fit-all”method against mining expertise, environmental and safety standards. Desirably, their environmental and safety problems should be handled by concurrently taking into consideration socio-economic issues from a strategic perspective of sustainable development.
Chapter Three discusses theoretically the supporting points and bases for regulating SSMs in the context of sustainable development followed by a further discussion on how to achieve sustainable development for SSMs. The“people-first”principle in the theory of sustainable development insists that top priority be given to the basic needs of the poor and the weak. Further, China’s Outlook of Scientific Development, which is bred from global sustainable development on a basis of China’s national conditions, also upholds“people-centered”sustained development with coordinating environmental sustainability with socio-economic sustainability. Supported by these two thoughts, the author contends that the ultimate goal of sustainable development should be to eradicate poverty and to meet to the maximum the basic needs of the poor and the weak while preserving and maintaining environmental and resources integrity with utmost efforts of human beings. Being an effective poverty-alleviating tool, SSMs, fraught with problems though, require sustained development on their own; and meanwhile, they are a component part in promoting sustainable development of the whole mining industry, society and national economy. Therefore, the purpose of government’s regulation is, aiming at maximized social benefits, to intervene, regulate and supervise SSM operations in accordance with national mining policy and relevant laws and regulations in terms of licensing, production and marketing, taxation, environmental management, health and safety, and labour recruitment with an attempt to overcome their demerits and bring their active roles into full play, thus helping SSMs to realize sustained use of mineral resources, and to maintain environmental sustainability and sustainable livelihoods.
Chapter Four summarizes and analyzes China’s SSM regulatory history, its features and the issues in existence. Generally speaking, China’s SSM regulation is characterized by:
Highly unsteady and incoherent policies with more restrictions and reproaches than encouragement and assistance;
Numerous, jumbled and segmented SSM regulations featured with a low degree of legal effect but a high degree of expedience;
Complicated and changeable institutional arrangements with unclearly defined responsibilities, poor coordination between departments at various levels, and simplistic methods of management and low effectiveness.
The author thinks that all these deficiencies largely relate to the fact that China has long attached great importance to large-and-medium-scale mines without due attention to the status and role of SSMs,which has constituted one of the important reasons for blind and reckless development of SSMs, and the failure and ineffectiveness to close those with poor environmental, safety and health records. Hence, it is urgently necessary to speed up the improvement of SSM legislation and the reform of SSM management system.
Chapter Five provides an overview of foreign countries’SSM regulation, based on which basic principles and legal systems as well as the trends of institutional arrangements are summarized. Then after the study of the Colombian case, the thesis generalizes a number of lessons learnt from foreign SSM regulation practice, among which two are of great importance for China: one relates to the fact that almost all the foreign countries affirm positively the pivotal role of SSMs in strengthening national economy and alleviating poverty, and proactively integrate SSM development into rural reconstruction strategy and farmers’income increase strategy. The other is that these countries clarify the status of SSMs in their legislation with appropriate legal systems and management systems oriented toward SSM development, thus coordinating regulation with SSM growth promotion.
Chapter Six seeks to get into the bottom of China’s SSM issues, based upon which a rational reflection on the existence of SSMs is thoroughly discussed. The author contends that the epidemic failure and ineffectiveness to crack down SSM chaos in China are largely imputed to the government’s long-term partial mining policy and inflexible management mode that value large-scale mines but ignore SSMs, pay more attention to closure and suppression than mediation and direction, and give precedence to economic development over social impacts. Given that China is a country still in its primary stage of socialism with highly protruding issues concerning agriculture, rural areas and farmers, and that the majority of mineral deposits are small-scaled, it is imperative that China have a small number of legalized SSMs for some years to come. In view of this standing, the author puts forward some options for improving China’s SSM regulatory frameworks:
Under the guidance of the outlooks of Sustainable Development and Scientific Development, to revise relevant policy and identify and affirm objectively the status and role of SSMs;
To improve SSM legislation by urgently drafting a separate chapter in the national mining law;
To establish an independent and authoritative SSM management agency to provide comprehensive and“one-stop”services to SSMs on the“people-centered”basis;
To encourage extensive public involvement, explore external resources and broaden international cooperation, and fostering an atmosphere to concertedly regulating and strengthening SSMs. The contributions of this thesis mainly include:
From the legal perspective, the thesis has presented a thorough review and an analysis of China’s SSM regulation, bridging the gap of the research in this field.
Based on sustainable development, the thesis has insisted that the regulation of China’s SSMs should coordinate environmental benefits with socio-economic benefits, and should also integrate it into the strategies of poverty alleviation and the construction of a New Socialist Countryside. From this point of view, the abovementioned consolidation campaigns ought to be regarded as more of a tool to promote orderly and formal mining operations of SSMs than an exclusive goal, which will be of immediate significance in avoiding regulating SSMs on a“fit-all closure”basis, and in conducting overall planning for the regulation by combining both direction and suppression methods.
The thesis has tried to appropriately define China’s SSMs with an analysis of legal connotations this definition conveys, providing an important basis for regulating SSMs by law.
Given the fact that it is necessary for China to have a small number of SSMs for years to come, the thesis has proposed that the Mineral Resources Law be urgently revised and a separate chapter concerning SSMs be added into it. More recommendations on the improvement of corresponding legislation principles and legal systems have also been presented. All these suggestions for SSM legislation will enrich China’s theory of regulating SSMs by law.
The thesis has proposed that an independent and authoritative administrative agency be established and local administrative offices be concurrently set up responsible directly to the central agency, both of which are expected to practice unified regulation over SSMs and offer“one-stop”services for them.
The thesis has suggested that it is necessary for the Government to foster extensive public involvement in regulating SSMs by strengthening the encouragement and support of SSM related associations and societies, exploring external resources, and thus improving regulatory effectiveness and reducing the costs of the government’s regulation.
引文
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1 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 1.
2 W. C. Lombe. Small scale mining and the environment: bloom beyond the doom and gloom (Editorial)? Journal of Cleaner Production 11(3), 2003: 95.
3 World Bank,. Communities and artisanal & small-scale mining (CASM)—A global partnership for action. World Bank, Washingtong D.C. 2006.
4国土资源部通报(国土资通2006第6号)。
1国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
1 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 5.
2 G. Hilson, S. Pardie. Mercury: An agent of poverty in Ghana’s small-scale gold-mining sector? Resources Policy 31, 2006: 107.
1 C. Peiter, R.C. Villas-Boas, W. Shinya. The stone forum: implementing a consensus building methodology to address impacts associated with small mining and quarry operations. Natural Resources Forum 24, 2000: 1.
2 J. J. Hinton, M. M.Veiga, A.T.C. Veiga. Clean artisanal gold mining: a utopian approach? Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2003: 100.
3 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 4.
5 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 4.
6 L. Shen, A. J. Gunson. The role of artisanal and small mining in China’s economy. Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 2006: 427.
2《矿业法规汇编》(附刊),北京法轮星记印刷局印(年代不详),第6~7页。
3《矿业法规》,实业部刊行,中华民国二十年十月(1931年),第1~28页。
1《中华人民共和国中小企业促进法》,2002年6月29日第九届全国人民代表大会常务委员会第二十八次会议通过。
2国土资源部,《矿产资源储量划分标准》(国土资发[2000]133号),2000年4月24日。
3国家经贸委、国家计委、财政部、国家统计局《关于印发〈中小企业标准暂行规定〉的通知》,2003年2月19日。
4潘伟尔:“中国需要适当数量的小煤矿”,《中国能源》,2003年第25卷第8期,第10页。
5潘伟尔:“中国需要适当数量的小煤矿”,《中国能源》,2003年第25卷第8期,第11页。
6我国1994年颁布《乡镇煤矿管理条例》,其中第二条把乡镇煤矿界定为在我国乡村、城镇开办的除国有煤矿企业和外商投资煤矿企业以外的集体煤矿企业、私营煤矿企业、联营煤矿企业、股份制煤矿企业及其
他经济类型的煤矿企业。
1国务院国家煤矿安全生产监察局《关于印发〈小煤矿安全生产基本条件〉的通知》(安委办字[2002]6),2002年4月25日。
2国务院《关于清理整顿个体采煤的通知》(国发37号),1991年7月11日。
3国家安全生产监督管理总局、国家煤炭安全监察局、国家发改委、公安部、监察部、财政部、国土资源部、国务院国有资产监督管理委员会、国家工商行政管理总局、国家电力监管委员会、全国总工会:《关于加强煤矿安全生产工作规范煤炭资源整合的若干意见》(安监总煤矿[2006]48号),2006年3月15日。
4国家发改委:《煤炭产业政策》,2007年11月29日。
5中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第3页。
1国土资源部两法修改办:《〈矿产资源〉修改草稿》(非出版物),北京,2007年9月,第9章第1条。
2毛志红:“整顿与规范:推进小矿有序发展——访国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任张彦英”,《中国国土资源报》,2008年4月11日第5版。
3林汉川:《中国中小企业创新与可持续发展》,上海,上海财经大学出版社,2006年,第155页。
1 [美]博登海默著、邓正来译:《法律学、分类哲学与分类方法》,北京,中国政法大学出版社,1999年,第486页。
1 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. Geneva, United Nations, 1997: 41.
2 K. Lahiri-Dutt. Informality in mineral resources management in Asia: Raising questions relating to community economies and sustainable development. Natural Resources Forum 28, 2004:124.
3 World Bank. Proceedings of the international roundtable on arisanal mining. World Bank. Washington D. C., 1995.
4 J. Davidson. The transformation and successful development of small-scale mining enterprises in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum, Nov. 1993: 316.
5 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 11.
6 S. Kambani. 2003. Key issues in illegal mining and marketing in the small-scale mining industry. In G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 46.
7 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development anda review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, 2003: 381.又见: J. Davidson. The transformation and successful development of small-scale mining enterprises in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum, Nov. 1993: 316.
1 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines-Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mining. Geneva, 1999: 3.
2李万亨:“对‘特小矿’勘查开发技术法规的几点建议”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年12月11日第7版。
3 P. Andrews-Speed, A. Zamora, C. D. Rogers, L. Shen, S. Cao, M. Yang. A framework for policy formulation for small-scale mines: the case of China. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 47.
4 11部委联合发:《关于加强煤炭安全生产工作规范煤炭资源整合的若干意见》,2006年4月。
5国家发改委:《煤炭产业政策》,2007年11月29日。
6 International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).2002. Artisanal and small-scale mining. In: Breaking new ground—The MMSD final report: 315. [Online]. Available at http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsd_pdfs/finalreport_13.pdf [ Oct. 15, 2007].
1 K. Lahiri-Dutt. Informality in mineral resources management in Asia: Raising questions relating to community economies and sustainable development. Natural Resources Forum 28, 2004: 126.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第9页。
1刘玒:《中小企业创办、生存和关闭的实证分析——美国中小企业发展研究》,北京,经济科学出版社,2004,第14页。
1 W. C. Lombe. Small scale mining and the environment: bloom beyond the doom and gloom (Editorial)? Journal of Cleaner Production 11(3), 2003: 95.
2 World Bank. Communities and artisanal & small-scale mining (CASM)—A global partnership for action. World Bank, Washingtong D.C. 2006.
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Dec. 2002. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 6.
1 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 4.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Dec. 2002. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 7.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 6.
2 A. K. Ghose. Small-scale mining: A global overview. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1994: 37.
5 G. Hilson.Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 18.
1 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8~9.
2 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 20.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 13.
7 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 13-17.
5 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 17. Also see G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8.
6 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8.
1 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 27.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Dec. 2002. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 9.
3 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 27.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 34-35.
5 N. S. Jennings. 2003. Addressing labour and social issues in small-scale mining. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 154.
3 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 48.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 53.
2 Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 39.
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第6页。
4 L. Shen, A. J. Gunson. The role of artisanal and small mining in China’s economy. Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 2006: 426.又见中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第6页。
5吴岗:“小矿何去何从?——随九部门联合督查组督查印象(之五)”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年2月13日第1版。
1国土资源部通报(国土资通2006第6号)。
2国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
3王绍光:“煤矿安全生产监管:中国治理模式的转变”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第7楫),北京,中信出版社,2003,第86页。
4中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第7页。
5徐华清:《中国能源环境发展报告》,北京,中国环境科学出版社,2006年,第21页。
6矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第7页。
2国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第8页。
4资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
5中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第8页。
1沙玛建峰:“建立回采率监管体系——中煤地质总局副局长孙升林谈提高煤炭资源保障能力”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年4月26日第2版。
2颜志勇:“铁帚除尘——常宁市矿业秩序治理整顿纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年1月18日第2版。
1“我国煤炭资源回采率仅30%”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年4月23日第2版。
3《矿产资源法》, 1986年3月通过,1996年8月修订,第3条。
4叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第83页。
5梁明哲:“石墨,无序开发之痛”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年4月11日第3版。
1李裕伟:“矿山携手社区——矿业和谐之路”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年3月14日第3版。
2“谨防煤炭政策重走弯路”,《瞭望》,2005年12月,第8页。
4中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第16页。
1徐华清:《中国能源环境发展报告》,北京,中国环境科学出版社,2006年,第25页。
2张以诚:“煤矿事故减少管理不可轻忽”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年1月24日第3版。
2 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, ILO, 1999: 3.
1夏华龙、姚华军、石东平:《可持续发展与资源利用》,北京,中国地质大学出版社,1998,第5~8页。
1陈泉生:《可持续发展与法律变革》,北京,法律出版社,2000,第54页。
2世界环境与发展委员会:《我们共同的未来》,王之佳、柯金良等译,夏,北京,科学出版社1997年,第52页。
3陈泉生:《可持续发展与法律变革》,北京,法律出版社,2000,第56页。
4周杰、张梓太:《WTO体系下贸易与环境的法律协调——发展中国家视角》,北京,科学出版社,2005,第27页。
6周柯:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第40页。
4周杰、张梓太:《WTO体系下贸易与环境的法律协调——发展中国家视角》,北京,科学出版社,2005,第27页。
5牛文元:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国可持续发展总论》(第1卷),北京,科学出版社,2007年,总序第i页。
1周杰、张梓太:《WTO体系下贸易与环境的法律协调——发展中国家视角》,北京,科学出版社,2005,第27页。
3曹平、高桂林、侯佳儒:《中国经济法基础理论新探索》,北京,中国法制出版社,2005,第332页。
4 J. Epps, A. Brett. 2000. Engaging Shareholders (Chapter 5). In: J. Otto, J. Cordes (eds.). Sustainable development and the future of the mineral investment. Paris, UNEP, 2000: 5-4.
1世界环境与发展委员会:《我们共同的未来》,王之佳、柯金良等译,夏堃堡?ご海秩嗣癯霭嫔纾?1997年,第5页。
2曹平、高桂林、侯佳儒:《中国经济法基础理论新探索》,北京,中国法制出版社,2005,第333页。
3世界环境与发展委员会:《我们共同的未来》,王之佳、柯金良等译,夏堃堡?ご海秩嗣癯霭嫔纾?1997年,第10~11页。
4李周:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国反贫困与可持续发展》(第19卷),北京,科学出版社,2007年,前言。
5李周:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国反贫困与可持续发展》(第19卷),北京,科学出版社,2007年,前言。
1李周:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国反贫困与可持续发展》(第19卷),北京,科学出版社,2007年,前言。
2肖显静:《环境与社会——人文视野中的环境问题》,北京,高等教育出版社,2006年,第35页。
1蔡守秋等:《可持续发展与环境资源法制建设》,北京,中国法制出版社,2003年,第23页。
2肖显静:《环境与社会——人文视野中的环境问题》,北京,高等教育出版社,2006年,第348页。
3汪径:《环境法律的解释:问题与方法》,北京,人民出版社,2006年,第242页。
4肖显静:《环境与社会——人文视野中的环境问题》,北京,高等教育出版社,2006年,第347页。
1肖显静:《环境与社会——人文视野中的环境问题》,北京,高等教育出版社,2006年,第169页。
2李周:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国反贫困与可持续发展》(第19卷),北京,科学技术出版社,2007年,前言。
5 T. Hentschel, F. Hruschka, M. Priester. 2002. Global report on artisanal and small-scale mining. Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD): 16. [Online]. Available at http://www.iied.org/mmsd/mmsd_pdfs/asm_global_report_draft_jan02.pdf [May 16, 2007]. N. S. Jennings. 2005. Towards a sustainable role for artisanal and small-scale mining in mineral production.
1 N. S. Jennings. 2003. Addressing Labour and social issues in small-scale mining. In: G.M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small scale mining in developing countries. A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 158.
2 [Online] Aailable at http;/www. answers.com/topic/regulation-3 [June 18, 2007].
3曲振涛、杨恺鈞:《规制经济学》,上海,复旦大学出版社,2006年,第7页、第231页。
1德国技术合作公司:《德国中小企业促进政策分析与评估》,北京,中国经济出版社,2002年,第2页。
2《行政许可法》,2003年8月27日,第11条。
3 [澳]艾德里安·J·布拉德布鲁克(Anrian J. Bradbrook)、[美]理查德·L·奥汀格(Richard L. Ottinger)主编:《能源法与可持续发展》(Energy Law and Sustainable Development),曹明德、邵方、王圣礼译,北京,法律出版社,2005年,第65页。
4 G. Hilson. Strengthening artisanal mining research and policy through baseline census activities. Natural Resources Forum 29, 2005: 146.
1 N. S. Jennings. 2003. Addressing Labour and social issues in small-scale mining. In: G.M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small scale mining in developing countries. A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 158.
2周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第39页。
3 J. P. Williams. 2005. Legal reform in mining: past, present and future. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy—Trends and Prospects. Hague Netherlands, Kluwer Law International, 2005: 62.
4蔡守秋等:《可持续发展与环境资源法制建设》,北京,中国法制出版社,2003年,第2页。
1徐国栋:“认真透析〈绿色民法典〉中的‘绿’”,《法商研究》,2003年第6期,第7页。
2 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1997: 51.
3 J. M. Epps. Environmental management in mining: An international perspective of an increasing global industry. The Journal of the South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, March-April, 1996: 68.
4 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Mineral resources and sustainable development. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1993: 26.
5 D. I. Stern. The contribution of the mining sector to sustainability in developing countries. Ecological Economics 13, 1995: 55. L. E. Sanchez. Industry response to the challenge of sustainability: the case of the Canadian Nonferrous Mining Sector. Environmental Management 22 (4), 1998: 522.
6以“效益”替代或补偿“消耗”的观点与其说强调矿业的可持续发展,不如说是强调矿业活动对可持续发展的贡献。联合国于2000年就附加值在销售总额中的比例,分别对澳大利亚、玻利维亚、智利、中国、墨西哥、新西兰、英国和美国等国的矿业、农业与制造业三个部门进行了比较,结果发现,三个行业的平均附加值比例分别是:矿业60%,农业54%,制造业35%。与其他两个行业相比较,矿业所带来的附加值在销售总额中的比例明显且持续地位居前列。这也说明矿业,包括小型矿业,对全人类的可持续发展起着举足轻重的作用。参见N. D. Boscio; D. Humphreys. 2005. Mining and regional economic development. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy—Trends and Prospects. Hague Netherlands, Kluwer Law International, 2005: 595~598.
1 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1997: 51.
1 R. G. Eggert. 1994. Mining and the environment: an introduction and overview. In: R. G. Eggert (ed.). Mining and the environment: International perspectives on public policy. Resources for Future, Washington. D. C., 1994: 2.
3 O. Maponga, M. Meck. 2003. Illegal artisanal gold panning in Zimbabwe—A study of challenges to sustainability along the Mazowe River. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 370.
4周珂主编:《21世纪法学系列教材——环境与资源保护法》,北京,中国人民大学出版社,2007年,第21页,转引自联合国《关于可持续发展的声明》,1989年。
5 P. G. Morgan. 2005. An overview of the legal regime for mineral development in the United Kingdom. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy—Trends and Prospects. Hague Netherlands, Kluwer Law International, 2005: 1091~1092.
6 D. Morrey. Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure. Minerals & Energy, Vol.14, No. 4, 1999: 12.
1 D. Morrey. Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure. Minerals & Energy, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1999: 13～14. Also see A. Warhurst, L. Noronha. Integrated environmental management and planning for closure: The challenges. Minerals & Energy, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1994: 7~8.
2 D. Morrey. Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure. Minerals & Energy, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1999: 14.
3 G. M. Hilson. The future of small-scale mining: environmental and socioeconomic perspectives. Futures 34, 2002: 869. Also see K. I. Evangelinos, M. Oku. Corporate environmental management and regulation of mining operations in the Cyclades, Greece. Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 2006: 267. D. M. Hussey, P. D. Eagan. Using structural equation modeling to test environmental performance in small and medium-sized manufacturers: can ESEM help SEMs? Journal of Cleaner Production 15, 2007: 304.
1 L. Danielson. Artisanal and small-scale mining from an NGO perspective (Editorial). Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2003: 97.
2 N. S. Jennings. 2005. Towards a sustainable role for artisanal and small-scale mining in mineral production. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 514. Also see A.Seeling. 2003. Report on field research into the socio-economic and social impact of Artisanal and small-scale mining in Peru. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). Thesocial-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 657. B. Labonne. Commentary: Harnessing mining for poverty reduction, especially in Africa. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 71.
1傅英:《中国矿业法制史》,北京,中国大地出版社,2001年,第3~4页。
2《矿业法规》,实业部刊行,中华民国二十年十月(1931年),第1~28页。
1目前的乡镇煤矿是指乡(镇)、村开办的集体煤矿企业、私营煤矿企业以及除国有煤矿企业和外商投资煤矿企业外的其他煤矿企业。其中,绝大多数是乡镇、村办的集体煤矿,其次是个体煤矿。如今的乡镇煤矿已不再是过去的小煤窑了,有的已经发展成为技术装备较好、具有较为稳定的生产能力的正规开采小矿,还有一些已成为技术装备良好的小型煤矿。参见叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第16页。
2叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第27页。
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第3～4页。
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第4页。
2 Z. Zhong. 2003. Small-scale Mining in China: Social-economic Impacts, policy and management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 472.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第4页。
2国家计划委员会:《97白皮书——中国能源》,北京,中国物价出版社,1997年,第24页。
3叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第398页。
4叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第38~39页。
5国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第5页。
2林伯强主编:《2006年中国能源发展报告》,北京,中国计量出版社,2006年,第133页。
2“坐在‘炸药桶’上的乡镇”,《中国青年报》,2001年8月24日。
3《国务院办公厅关于关闭国有煤矿矿办小井和乡镇煤矿停产整顿的紧急通知》(国办发明电〔2001〕25号),2001年6月13日。
4《国务院办公厅关于关闭国有煤矿矿办小井和乡镇煤矿停产整顿的紧急通知》(国办发[2001]68号),2001年9月16日。
1张嘉勇、王福生、朱令起、郭立稳:“乡镇小煤矿去留问题的探讨与对策”,《煤矿安全》,2006年第6期,第76页。
2《国务院关于促进煤炭工业健康发展的若干意见》(国发[2005]18号),2005年6月7日。
3《国务院关于全面整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序的通知》(国发[2005]28号),2005年8月18日。
4“国务院发出通知要求——全面整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年9月20日第2版。
5《2006年整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序工作方案》(国土资发[2006]47号),2006年3月20日。
6吴岗:“让小矿山退出煤炭领域——国土资源部依法管理煤炭资源工作纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年11月3日法制周刊版。
1“治乱治散成效显现治本工作全面展开——全国整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序工作纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年9月5日专页版。
1国土资源部、国家发展和改革委员会、公安部、监察部、财政部、商务部、国家工商行政管理总局、国家环境保护总局、国家安全生产监督管理总局:《关于开展整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序“回头看”行动的通知》(国土资发[2008]40号),2008年2月27日。
2丁全利、史登峰:“‘严’字当头一抓到底——就整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序‘回头看’行动访有关方面负责人”,《中国国土资源报》,2008年3月19日第1、3版。
1截止到2007年一季度,非法矿井发生的重、特大事故占重、特大事故宗起数的41%和死亡人数的39.7%。参见“近期煤炭事故明显反弹——国家煤炭安全监察局要求严防违法违规生产”,《光明日报》,2007年4月8日经济社会版。
3 Z. Zhong. 2003. Small-scale mining in China: socio-economic impacts, policy and management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 484~486.为了凸显对小矿法律规制的特点,本节分类采该文的分法,但每类中的内容有所调整和增补,特此说明。
1《矿产资源法》,第37~41条、第6条。
2《矿产资源法》,第3条、第5条、第16条、第35条。
3《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,1994年3月,第38条。
4《煤炭法》,1996年8月,第6条。
1《煤炭工业环境保护暂行管理办法》,煤炭工业部,1994年,第4条、第22条。
2《乡镇煤矿管理办法》,煤炭工业部,1985年10月25日,第2条。
3《关于乡镇煤矿实行行业管理的通知》(国发[105]号),国务院,1986年12月12日。
1《乡镇煤矿管理条例》,1994年12月20日,第2条。与该条例同时颁布的还有资源开发与利用领域的《煤炭生产许可证管理办法》。
1《矿产资源补偿费征收管理规定》,1993年6月29日,附录。
2《矿产资源开采登记管理办法》,1998年2月12日,第9条。
1国务院《关于乡镇煤矿实行行业管理的通知》,1986年12月13日。
2《中小企业促进法》,2002年6月29日。
3林伯强主编:《2006年中国能源发展报告》,北京,中国计量出版社,2006年,第111页。
2 Z. Zhong. 2003. Small-scale mining in China: socio-economic impacts, policy and management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 496.
2孙国华、朱景文:《法理学》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年8月,第262页。
1《中华民国矿业法》,民国十九年五月二十六日公布,第20条。台湾“矿业法”,第11条。
2李显冬:“现行立法对矿业权民事规则设计的欠缺”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年6月5日第7版。
3而在国土资源部颁布的《矿业权出让转让管理暂行规定》中却明确规定,采矿权为财产权,适用于不动产法律法规的调整原则。同时规定,采矿权人依法对其采矿权享有占有、使用、收益和处分权。参见国土资源部:《矿业权出让转让管理暂行规定》,2000年11月1日,第3条。
4李显冬:《中国矿业立法研究》,北京,中国人民公安大学出版社,2006年9月,第45页。
1李显冬:《中国矿业立法研究》,北京,中国人民公安大学出版社,2006年9月,第44页。
2冀志罡:“矿难与生命之价”,《南方周末》,2005年12月15日。
1《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,第37条、第38条、第41条。
1王绍光:“煤矿安全生产监管:中国治理模式的转变”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第7楫),北京,中信出版社,2003年,第96页。
1《矿产资源法》,第39~49条,(刑法)第117条、第118条、第156条、第157条、第158条。《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,第42条第1款~第6款;第43条第1款~第2款。
2《矿产资源法》,第36条;《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,第41条。
3《煤矿安全监察条例》,2000年11月7日。
1于振海、高风、吕晓宇:“谨防煤炭政策重走弯路”,《瞭望新闻周刊》,2005年12月26日,第9页。
2邢云鹏、薄云山:“超层越界开采如何治本”,《中国国土资源报》,2008年3月27日法制周刊版。
3 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 6.
1 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 15~20.
2 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 5.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 56.
1 O. Maponga, C.F. Ngorima. Overcoming environmental problems in the gold panning sector through legislation and education: the Zimbabwean experience. Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2003: 150.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 21~22.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 21.
1 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 60.
2 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 41~42.
3 H. Lole. 2005. The trend in artisanal and small-scale mining development in Papua New Guinea [Online]. http://www.psdn.org.ph/aple/paper_lole.pdf [Dec. 8, 2007].
1 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 36.
2 K. Sinding. The dynamics of artisanal and small-scale mining reform. Natural Resources Forum 29, 2005: 249.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 12.
2 Presidential Decree No. 1899, January 23, 1984.
1 J. P. Williams. 2005. The Latin American mining law model. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 747.
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 93.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 93.
2周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第47页。
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 14.
4 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1997: 49~50.
5 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 13.
1 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining in Africa: Tackling pressing environmental problems with improved strategy. Journal of Environment & Development Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2002: 164~165.
2 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1997: 50.
3加拿大艾伯塔省收取矿地复垦保证金采取大小矿区别对待的做法,要求大矿交纳2.5万加元、小煤矿只交纳5000加元。参见宋国明:《加拿大国土资源与产业管理.》,北京,地质出版社,2005年,第70页。
4周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第52页。
5周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第52页。
1 G. M. Hilson. 2003. Accounting for community-side issues in the artisanal and small-scale mining development agenda. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 117.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 12~15. Also see Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 34~37.
3 (Philippines) RA7942, 1995, Sec. 49 & Sec. 50, Chapter 8.
4 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 34.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. A preliminary assessment of small-scale mining legislation and regulatory frameworks. Report for ESCOR by Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), 1998: 34.
3 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 39~42.
4 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 24.
5 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 39~42.
1 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 37~39.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 24.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 12.
3 L. Ibraimo. 2005. Comparative mineral law in African Portuguese-speaking countries. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 896~897.
4 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 41.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第22页。
1 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 12~13.
2 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development and a review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of
5 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 55.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 55.
2 M. Priester, F. Hruschka. New approaches to improve the environmental management of small-scale mining—Two pilot projects in Latin America. Natural Resources and Development Vol. 47, 1998: 118~121.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 60.
1 M. Priester, F. Hruschka. New approaches to improve the environmental management of small-scale mining—Two pilot projects in Latin America. Natural Resources and Development Vol. 47, 1998: 121~124.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 16.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 25~26.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 61.
3 S. H. Castro. 2003. The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in Chile. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 722~724.
4 J. S. Andrews, G. M. Hilson. 2003. Land use disputes between small-and-large scale miners: Improving conflict management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 31.
5 J. J. Hinton. Dec. 2005. Communities and small-scale mining: An integrated review for development planning.
3 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development and a review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, the Netherlands. 2003: 411.
1 G. Hilson. An overview of land use conflicts in mining communities. Land Use Policy 19, 2002: 72.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 67~71.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 71.
1 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 72~74.
3 C. Kinabo. 2003. A socio-economic study of small-scale mining in Tanzania. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 302~303.
4 R. K. Amankwah, C. Anim-Sackey. Strategies for sustainable development of the small-scale gold and diamond mining industry of Ghana. Resources Policy 29, 2003: 132.
2 [英]亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)原著:《道德情操论》(The Theory of Moral Sentiments),张冲注释,上海,上海外语教育出版社,2005年,第375~376页。
1 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development and a review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 387~415.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 16.
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 64~65.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 12~15.
1 S. H. Castro. 2003. The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in Chile. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 725.
2 C. Kinabo. 2003. A socio-economic study of small-scale mining in Tanzania. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 300~301.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 67.
3 D. E. Bula. Legalising small coal mines in Colombia. CEPMLP Paper CP2/2000, University of Dundee, UK., 2000: 1~27. Also see A. Zemara. International initiatives on small-scale mining: Lessons from the Colombian Coal Experience. Minerals & Energy 15 (3), 2000: 31~35.
1 A. Yupari. 2005. Decentralisation and mining: Colombia and Peru. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 792.
1根据哥伦比亚宪法的规定,从矿业活动所提取的权利金全部归地方政府全权管理。其中47.5%归生产部门使用,12.5%归生产单位所在地的市政府分配,港口城市的市政府拥有8%的比例,其余的32%设立为国家权利金基金(FNR),在其他地区政府部门之间进行分配。可见,拥有矿业生产企业的市政府和从事生产和出口的部门是最大的受益者,中央政府不参与权利金的分配。由地方分配的部分权利金用于矿业发展,优先用于改善环境卫生,完善健康、教育等公共设施方面。国家基金部分用于促进矿业发展、环境保护和地区融资项目等领域。参见A. Yupari. 2005. Decentralisation and mining: Colombia and Peru. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 787.
2 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 1.
3 N. S. Jennings. 2005. Towards a sustainable role for artisanal and small-scale mining in mineral production. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 515.
4 O. Maponga, M. Meck. 2003. Illegal Artisanal Gold panning in Zimbabwe—A study of challenges to sustainability along the Mazowe River. In: G.M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 374.
5 A. Pedro. Mainstreaming mineral wealth in growth and poverty reduction strategies. Minerals & Energy, 2006: 11~12.
1吴岗:“让小矿山退出煤炭领域——国土资源部依法管理煤炭资源工作纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年11月3日法制周刊版。
2“2008年煤炭开采秩序要明显好转”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年10月12日第1版。
3吴岗:“启动新一轮整顿和规范——2005年矿管工作回顾”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年1月18日第1版。
1“近期煤矿事故明显反弹——国家煤矿安全局要求严防违法违规生产”,《光明日报》,2007年4月8日第4版。
2余闻、晓罗:“非法采矿,夺走21条生命——聚焦晋城苗匠煤矿‘3·18’矿难”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年5月14第3版。又见李海求、周灿、禹江宁:“血字碑后的教训——云南富源‘2·15’矿难调查”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年4月4日第3版;欣雨:“狠刹超能力生产风”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日第3版。
3刘军、陈忠华:“煤老板眼中的官煤勾结”;刘浪:“小煤矿何以关而不死——湖南一矿主点破关矿背后的利益纠葛”。陈亮:“‘重典’治乱——山西省清理‘官煤勾结’纪事”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年3月6日第3版。
4张以诚:“煤矿事故减少管理不可轻忽”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年1月24日第3版。又见“孙家湾矿难:经济发展与以人为本的心头剧痛”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月23日第3版。
5陈忠华:“赔20万,能否让煤矿感觉‘死不起人’?”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月2日第3版,摘自《北京青年报》。
6董伟:“小煤窑问题呼唤大智慧”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年6月29日第6版,摘自《中国青年报》。
1盛洪:《现代制度经济学》(下卷),北京,北京大学出版社,2003年,第177~196页。
2 P. Andrews-Speed, G. Ma, B. Shao, C. Liao. Economic responses to the closure of small-scale coal mines in Chongqing, China. Resources Policy 30, 2005: 49.
1曹渝、陶嫦娥、刘高:“我们在井下听到的——对湖南部分煤矿一线矿工的调查手记(下)”,《人民日报》,2007年4月13日第6版。
2曹渝、陶嫦娥、刘高:“我们在井下听到的——对湖南部分煤矿一线矿工的调查手记(下)”,《人民日报》,2007年4月13日第6版。
3李剑阁:“农民就业、农村金融和医疗卫生事业问题的几点意见”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第7楫),北京,中信出版社2003年,第42页。
4董伟:“小煤窑问题呼唤大智慧”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年6月29日第6版,摘自《中国青年报》。
5盛洪:《现代制度经济学》(下卷),北京,北京大学出版社,2003年,第177页。
1“治本,从哪里入手——国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任李裕伟谈矿产资源开发秩序整顿”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日法制周刊版。
2“治本,从哪里入手——国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任李裕伟谈矿产资源开发秩序整顿”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日法制周刊版。持相同观点的还有:刘权衡:“整合资源不能忽略小矿合法权益”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年8月18日法制周刊版;傅鸣珂:“资源整合:避免行政强制对合法权益的剥夺”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版;刘权衡:“整合资源不能忽略小矿合法权益”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年8月18日法制周刊版;李佩基:“小矿整合应与资源规划整体方案相衔接”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年12月11日第7版。
3董伟:“小煤窑问题呼唤大智慧”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年6月29日第6版,摘自《中国青年报》。
4“新闻分析:五大难题考验全国小煤矿关闭工作”,《生意社》,互联网,2007年6月7日,http://china.toocle.com/cbna/detail/404997.html [2007年6月8日访问]。
5沈镭、刘晓洁:“不能简单地认为资源整合即关闭小矿”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版。
6“治本,从哪里入手——国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任李裕伟谈矿产资源开发秩序整顿”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日法制周刊版。
7郑雪蕾:“关矿不能一关了之”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年10月31日第3版。
8盛洪:《现代制度经济学》(下卷),北京,北京大学出版社,2003年,第245页。
1依凭:“‘停产整顿’不能滥用”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年1月6日法制周刊版。
1张文驹:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国矿产资源与可持续发展》(第9卷),北京,科学技术出版社,2007年,第15~17页。
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1 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 1.
2 W. C. Lombe. Small scale mining and the environment: bloom beyond the doom and gloom (Editorial)? Journal of Cleaner Production 11(3), 2003: 95.
3 World Bank,. Communities and artisanal & small-scale mining (CASM)—A global partnership for action. World Bank, Washingtong D.C. 2006.
4国土资源部通报(国土资通2006第6号)。
1国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
1 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 5.
2 G. Hilson, S. Pardie. Mercury: An agent of poverty in Ghana’s small-scale gold-mining sector? Resources Policy 31, 2006: 107.
1 C. Peiter, R.C. Villas-Boas, W. Shinya. The stone forum: implementing a consensus building methodology to address impacts associated with small mining and quarry operations. Natural Resources Forum 24, 2000: 1.
2 J. J. Hinton, M. M.Veiga, A.T.C. Veiga. Clean artisanal gold mining: a utopian approach? Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2003: 100.
3 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 4.
5 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 4.
6 L. Shen, A. J. Gunson. The role of artisanal and small mining in China’s economy. Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 2006: 427.
2《矿业法规汇编》(附刊),北京法轮星记印刷局印(年代不详),第6~7页。
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1 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines-Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mining. Geneva, 1999: 3.
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1 K. Lahiri-Dutt. Informality in mineral resources management in Asia: Raising questions relating to community economies and sustainable development. Natural Resources Forum 28, 2004: 126.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第9页。
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1 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 4.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Dec. 2002. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 7.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 6.
2 A. K. Ghose. Small-scale mining: A global overview. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1994: 37.
5 G. Hilson.Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 18.
1 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8~9.
2 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 20.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 13.
7 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 13-17.
5 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 17. Also see G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8.
6 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 8.
1 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 27.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Dec. 2002. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: 9.
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4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 34-35.
5 N. S. Jennings. 2003. Addressing labour and social issues in small-scale mining. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 154.
3 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 48.
4 International Labour Organization (ILO). 1999. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva: 53.
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4 L. Shen, A. J. Gunson. The role of artisanal and small mining in China’s economy. Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 2006: 426.又见中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第6页。
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2国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第8页。
4资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
5中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第8页。
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6以“效益”替代或补偿“消耗”的观点与其说强调矿业的可持续发展,不如说是强调矿业活动对可持续发展的贡献。联合国于2000年就附加值在销售总额中的比例,分别对澳大利亚、玻利维亚、智利、中国、墨西哥、新西兰、英国和美国等国的矿业、农业与制造业三个部门进行了比较,结果发现,三个行业的平均附加值比例分别是:矿业60%,农业54%,制造业35%。与其他两个行业相比较,矿业所带来的附加值在销售总额中的比例明显且持续地位居前列。这也说明矿业,包括小型矿业,对全人类的可持续发展起着举足轻重的作用。参见N. D. Boscio; D. Humphreys. 2005. Mining and regional economic development. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy—Trends and Prospects. Hague Netherlands, Kluwer Law International, 2005: 595~598.
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3 O. Maponga, M. Meck. 2003. Illegal artisanal gold panning in Zimbabwe—A study of challenges to sustainability along the Mazowe River. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 370.
4周珂主编:《21世纪法学系列教材——环境与资源保护法》,北京,中国人民大学出版社,2007年,第21页,转引自联合国《关于可持续发展的声明》,1989年。
5 P. G. Morgan. 2005. An overview of the legal regime for mineral development in the United Kingdom. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and Comparative Mineral Law and Policy—Trends and Prospects. Hague Netherlands, Kluwer Law International, 2005: 1091~1092.
6 D. Morrey. Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure. Minerals & Energy, Vol.14, No. 4, 1999: 12.
1 D. Morrey. Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure. Minerals & Energy, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1999: 13～14. Also see A. Warhurst, L. Noronha. Integrated environmental management and planning for closure: The challenges. Minerals & Energy, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1994: 7~8.
2 D. Morrey. Integrated planning for environmental management during mining operations and mine closure. Minerals & Energy, Vol. 14, No. 4, 1999: 14.
3 G. M. Hilson. The future of small-scale mining: environmental and socioeconomic perspectives. Futures 34, 2002: 869. Also see K. I. Evangelinos, M. Oku. Corporate environmental management and regulation of mining operations in the Cyclades, Greece. Journal of Cleaner Production 14, 2006: 267. D. M. Hussey, P. D. Eagan. Using structural equation modeling to test environmental performance in small and medium-sized manufacturers: can ESEM help SEMs? Journal of Cleaner Production 15, 2007: 304.
1 L. Danielson. Artisanal and small-scale mining from an NGO perspective (Editorial). Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2003: 97.
2 N. S. Jennings. 2005. Towards a sustainable role for artisanal and small-scale mining in mineral production. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 514. Also see A.Seeling. 2003. Report on field research into the socio-economic and social impact of Artisanal and small-scale mining in Peru. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). Thesocial-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 657. B. Labonne. Commentary: Harnessing mining for poverty reduction, especially in Africa. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 71.
1傅英:《中国矿业法制史》,北京,中国大地出版社,2001年,第3~4页。
2《矿业法规》,实业部刊行,中华民国二十年十月(1931年),第1~28页。
1目前的乡镇煤矿是指乡(镇)、村开办的集体煤矿企业、私营煤矿企业以及除国有煤矿企业和外商投资煤矿企业外的其他煤矿企业。其中,绝大多数是乡镇、村办的集体煤矿,其次是个体煤矿。如今的乡镇煤矿已不再是过去的小煤窑了,有的已经发展成为技术装备较好、具有较为稳定的生产能力的正规开采小矿,还有一些已成为技术装备良好的小型煤矿。参见叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第16页。
2叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第27页。
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第3～4页。
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第4页。
2 Z. Zhong. 2003. Small-scale Mining in China: Social-economic Impacts, policy and management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 472.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第4页。
2国家计划委员会:《97白皮书——中国能源》,北京,中国物价出版社,1997年,第24页。
3叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第398页。
4叶青、张宝明:《中国乡镇煤矿》,北京,煤炭工业出版社,1998年,第38~39页。
5国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第5页。
2林伯强主编:《2006年中国能源发展报告》,北京,中国计量出版社,2006年,第133页。
2“坐在‘炸药桶’上的乡镇”,《中国青年报》,2001年8月24日。
3《国务院办公厅关于关闭国有煤矿矿办小井和乡镇煤矿停产整顿的紧急通知》(国办发明电〔2001〕25号),2001年6月13日。
4《国务院办公厅关于关闭国有煤矿矿办小井和乡镇煤矿停产整顿的紧急通知》(国办发[2001]68号),2001年9月16日。
1张嘉勇、王福生、朱令起、郭立稳:“乡镇小煤矿去留问题的探讨与对策”,《煤矿安全》,2006年第6期,第76页。
2《国务院关于促进煤炭工业健康发展的若干意见》(国发[2005]18号),2005年6月7日。
3《国务院关于全面整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序的通知》(国发[2005]28号),2005年8月18日。
4“国务院发出通知要求——全面整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年9月20日第2版。
5《2006年整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序工作方案》(国土资发[2006]47号),2006年3月20日。
6吴岗:“让小矿山退出煤炭领域——国土资源部依法管理煤炭资源工作纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年11月3日法制周刊版。
1“治乱治散成效显现治本工作全面展开——全国整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序工作纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年9月5日专页版。
1国土资源部、国家发展和改革委员会、公安部、监察部、财政部、商务部、国家工商行政管理总局、国家环境保护总局、国家安全生产监督管理总局:《关于开展整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序“回头看”行动的通知》(国土资发[2008]40号),2008年2月27日。
2丁全利、史登峰:“‘严’字当头一抓到底——就整顿和规范矿产资源开发秩序‘回头看’行动访有关方面负责人”,《中国国土资源报》,2008年3月19日第1、3版。
1截止到2007年一季度,非法矿井发生的重、特大事故占重、特大事故宗起数的41%和死亡人数的39.7%。参见“近期煤炭事故明显反弹——国家煤炭安全监察局要求严防违法违规生产”,《光明日报》,2007年4月8日经济社会版。
3 Z. Zhong. 2003. Small-scale mining in China: socio-economic impacts, policy and management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 484~486.为了凸显对小矿法律规制的特点,本节分类采该文的分法,但每类中的内容有所调整和增补,特此说明。
1《矿产资源法》,第37~41条、第6条。
2《矿产资源法》,第3条、第5条、第16条、第35条。
3《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,1994年3月,第38条。
4《煤炭法》,1996年8月,第6条。
1《煤炭工业环境保护暂行管理办法》,煤炭工业部,1994年,第4条、第22条。
2《乡镇煤矿管理办法》,煤炭工业部,1985年10月25日,第2条。
3《关于乡镇煤矿实行行业管理的通知》(国发[105]号),国务院,1986年12月12日。
1《乡镇煤矿管理条例》,1994年12月20日,第2条。与该条例同时颁布的还有资源开发与利用领域的《煤炭生产许可证管理办法》。
1《矿产资源补偿费征收管理规定》,1993年6月29日,附录。
2《矿产资源开采登记管理办法》,1998年2月12日,第9条。
1国务院《关于乡镇煤矿实行行业管理的通知》,1986年12月13日。
2《中小企业促进法》,2002年6月29日。
3林伯强主编:《2006年中国能源发展报告》,北京,中国计量出版社,2006年,第111页。
2 Z. Zhong. 2003. Small-scale mining in China: socio-economic impacts, policy and management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 496.
2孙国华、朱景文:《法理学》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年8月,第262页。
1《中华民国矿业法》,民国十九年五月二十六日公布,第20条。台湾“矿业法”,第11条。
2李显冬:“现行立法对矿业权民事规则设计的欠缺”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年6月5日第7版。
3而在国土资源部颁布的《矿业权出让转让管理暂行规定》中却明确规定,采矿权为财产权,适用于不动产法律法规的调整原则。同时规定,采矿权人依法对其采矿权享有占有、使用、收益和处分权。参见国土资源部:《矿业权出让转让管理暂行规定》,2000年11月1日,第3条。
4李显冬:《中国矿业立法研究》,北京,中国人民公安大学出版社,2006年9月,第45页。
1李显冬:《中国矿业立法研究》,北京,中国人民公安大学出版社,2006年9月,第44页。
2冀志罡:“矿难与生命之价”,《南方周末》,2005年12月15日。
1《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,第37条、第38条、第41条。
1王绍光:“煤矿安全生产监管:中国治理模式的转变”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第7楫),北京,中信出版社,2003年,第96页。
1《矿产资源法》,第39~49条,(刑法)第117条、第118条、第156条、第157条、第158条。《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,第42条第1款~第6款;第43条第1款~第2款。
2《矿产资源法》,第36条;《〈矿产资源法〉实施细则》,第41条。
3《煤矿安全监察条例》,2000年11月7日。
1于振海、高风、吕晓宇:“谨防煤炭政策重走弯路”,《瞭望新闻周刊》,2005年12月26日,第9页。
2邢云鹏、薄云山:“超层越界开采如何治本”,《中国国土资源报》,2008年3月27日法制周刊版。
3 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 6.
1 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 15~20.
2 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining and its socio-economic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 26, 2002: 5.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 56.
1 O. Maponga, C.F. Ngorima. Overcoming environmental problems in the gold panning sector through legislation and education: the Zimbabwean experience. Journal of Cleaner Production 11, 2003: 150.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 21~22.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 21.
1 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 60.
2 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 41~42.
3 H. Lole. 2005. The trend in artisanal and small-scale mining development in Papua New Guinea [Online]. http://www.psdn.org.ph/aple/paper_lole.pdf [Dec. 8, 2007].
1 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 36.
2 K. Sinding. The dynamics of artisanal and small-scale mining reform. Natural Resources Forum 29, 2005: 249.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 12.
2 Presidential Decree No. 1899, January 23, 1984.
1 J. P. Williams. 2005. The Latin American mining law model. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 747.
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 93.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 93.
2周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第47页。
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 14.
4 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1997: 49~50.
5 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 13.
1 G. Hilson. Small-scale mining in Africa: Tackling pressing environmental problems with improved strategy. Journal of Environment & Development Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2002: 164~165.
2 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Management of commodity resources in the context of sustainable development: Governance issues for the mineral sector. UNCTAD, Geneva, 1997: 50.
3加拿大艾伯塔省收取矿地复垦保证金采取大小矿区别对待的做法,要求大矿交纳2.5万加元、小煤矿只交纳5000加元。参见宋国明:《加拿大国土资源与产业管理.》,北京,地质出版社,2005年,第70页。
4周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第52页。
5周珂:《环境法》(第2版),北京,中国人民大学出版社,2005年9月,第52页。
1 G. M. Hilson. 2003. Accounting for community-side issues in the artisanal and small-scale mining development agenda. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 117.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 12~15. Also see Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 34~37.
3 (Philippines) RA7942, 1995, Sec. 49 & Sec. 50, Chapter 8.
4 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 34.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. A preliminary assessment of small-scale mining legislation and regulatory frameworks. Report for ESCOR by Intermediate Technology Development Group (ITDG), 1998: 34.
3 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 39~42.
4 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 24.
5 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 39~42.
1 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 37~39.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 24.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 12.
3 L. Ibraimo. 2005. Comparative mineral law in African Portuguese-speaking countries. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 896~897.
4 Guidance note--Formalizing informal artisanal mining activity—Global review and comparative analysis of mining codes and policy approaches towards ASM (Draft). Community and Small Scale Mining (CASM) Initiative, Sept. 2005: 41.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第22页。
1 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 12~13.
2 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development and a review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of
5 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 55.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 55.
2 M. Priester, F. Hruschka. New approaches to improve the environmental management of small-scale mining—Two pilot projects in Latin America. Natural Resources and Development Vol. 47, 1998: 118~121.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 60.
1 M. Priester, F. Hruschka. New approaches to improve the environmental management of small-scale mining—Two pilot projects in Latin America. Natural Resources and Development Vol. 47, 1998: 121~124.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 16.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa. UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 25~26.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 61.
3 S. H. Castro. 2003. The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in Chile. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 722~724.
4 J. S. Andrews, G. M. Hilson. 2003. Land use disputes between small-and-large scale miners: Improving conflict management. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 31.
5 J. J. Hinton. Dec. 2005. Communities and small-scale mining: An integrated review for development planning.
3 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development and a review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, the Netherlands. 2003: 411.
1 G. Hilson. An overview of land use conflicts in mining communities. Land Use Policy 19, 2002: 72.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 67~71.
2 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 71.
1 International Labour Organization. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussions at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. ILO, Geneva, 1999: 72~74.
3 C. Kinabo. 2003. A socio-economic study of small-scale mining in Tanzania. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 302~303.
4 R. K. Amankwah, C. Anim-Sackey. Strategies for sustainable development of the small-scale gold and diamond mining industry of Ghana. Resources Policy 29, 2003: 132.
2 [英]亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)原著:《道德情操论》(The Theory of Moral Sentiments),张冲注释,上海,上海外语教育出版社,2005年,第375~376页。
1 B. N. A. Aryee. 2003. Small-scale mining in Ghana as a sustainable development activity: Its development and a review of the contemporary issues and challenges. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 387~415.
2 E. M. Bugnosen. 2003. Small-scale mining legislation: A general review and an attempt to apply lessons learned. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 16.
3 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 64~65.
2 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 12~15.
1 S. H. Castro. 2003. The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in Chile. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 725.
2 C. Kinabo. 2003. A socio-economic study of small-scale mining in Tanzania. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 300~301.
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 67.
3 D. E. Bula. Legalising small coal mines in Colombia. CEPMLP Paper CP2/2000, University of Dundee, UK., 2000: 1~27. Also see A. Zemara. International initiatives on small-scale mining: Lessons from the Colombian Coal Experience. Minerals & Energy 15 (3), 2000: 31~35.
1 A. Yupari. 2005. Decentralisation and mining: Colombia and Peru. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 792.
1根据哥伦比亚宪法的规定,从矿业活动所提取的权利金全部归地方政府全权管理。其中47.5%归生产部门使用,12.5%归生产单位所在地的市政府分配,港口城市的市政府拥有8%的比例,其余的32%设立为国家权利金基金(FNR),在其他地区政府部门之间进行分配。可见,拥有矿业生产企业的市政府和从事生产和出口的部门是最大的受益者,中央政府不参与权利金的分配。由地方分配的部分权利金用于矿业发展,优先用于改善环境卫生,完善健康、教育等公共设施方面。国家基金部分用于促进矿业发展、环境保护和地区融资项目等领域。参见A. Yupari. 2005. Decentralisation and mining: Colombia and Peru. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 787.
2 International Labour Organization (ILO). Social and labour issues in small-scale mines—Report for discussion at the tripartite meeting on social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Geneva, 1999: 1.
3 N. S. Jennings. 2005. Towards a sustainable role for artisanal and small-scale mining in mineral production. In: E. Bastida, T. Walde, J. Warden-Fernandez (eds.). International and comparative mineral law and policy—Trends and prospects. Kluwer Law International, 2005: 515.
4 O. Maponga, M. Meck. 2003. Illegal Artisanal Gold panning in Zimbabwe—A study of challenges to sustainability along the Mazowe River. In: G.M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A. A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 374.
5 A. Pedro. Mainstreaming mineral wealth in growth and poverty reduction strategies. Minerals & Energy, 2006: 11~12.
1吴岗:“让小矿山退出煤炭领域——国土资源部依法管理煤炭资源工作纪实”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年11月3日法制周刊版。
2“2008年煤炭开采秩序要明显好转”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年10月12日第1版。
3吴岗:“启动新一轮整顿和规范——2005年矿管工作回顾”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年1月18日第1版。
1“近期煤矿事故明显反弹——国家煤矿安全局要求严防违法违规生产”,《光明日报》,2007年4月8日第4版。
2余闻、晓罗:“非法采矿,夺走21条生命——聚焦晋城苗匠煤矿‘3·18’矿难”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年5月14第3版。又见李海求、周灿、禹江宁:“血字碑后的教训——云南富源‘2·15’矿难调查”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年4月4日第3版;欣雨:“狠刹超能力生产风”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日第3版。
3刘军、陈忠华:“煤老板眼中的官煤勾结”;刘浪:“小煤矿何以关而不死——湖南一矿主点破关矿背后的利益纠葛”。陈亮:“‘重典’治乱——山西省清理‘官煤勾结’纪事”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年3月6日第3版。
4张以诚:“煤矿事故减少管理不可轻忽”,《中国国土资源报》,2007年1月24日第3版。又见“孙家湾矿难:经济发展与以人为本的心头剧痛”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月23日第3版。
5陈忠华:“赔20万,能否让煤矿感觉‘死不起人’?”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月2日第3版,摘自《北京青年报》。
6董伟:“小煤窑问题呼唤大智慧”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年6月29日第6版,摘自《中国青年报》。
1盛洪:《现代制度经济学》(下卷),北京,北京大学出版社,2003年,第177~196页。
2 P. Andrews-Speed, G. Ma, B. Shao, C. Liao. Economic responses to the closure of small-scale coal mines in Chongqing, China. Resources Policy 30, 2005: 49.
1曹渝、陶嫦娥、刘高:“我们在井下听到的——对湖南部分煤矿一线矿工的调查手记(下)”,《人民日报》,2007年4月13日第6版。
2曹渝、陶嫦娥、刘高:“我们在井下听到的——对湖南部分煤矿一线矿工的调查手记(下)”,《人民日报》,2007年4月13日第6版。
3李剑阁:“农民就业、农村金融和医疗卫生事业问题的几点意见”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第7楫),北京,中信出版社2003年,第42页。
4董伟:“小煤窑问题呼唤大智慧”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年6月29日第6版,摘自《中国青年报》。
5盛洪:《现代制度经济学》(下卷),北京,北京大学出版社,2003年,第177页。
1“治本,从哪里入手——国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任李裕伟谈矿产资源开发秩序整顿”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日法制周刊版。
2“治本,从哪里入手——国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任李裕伟谈矿产资源开发秩序整顿”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日法制周刊版。持相同观点的还有:刘权衡:“整合资源不能忽略小矿合法权益”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年8月18日法制周刊版;傅鸣珂:“资源整合:避免行政强制对合法权益的剥夺”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版;刘权衡:“整合资源不能忽略小矿合法权益”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年8月18日法制周刊版;李佩基:“小矿整合应与资源规划整体方案相衔接”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年12月11日第7版。
3董伟:“小煤窑问题呼唤大智慧”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年6月29日第6版,摘自《中国青年报》。
4“新闻分析:五大难题考验全国小煤矿关闭工作”,《生意社》,互联网,2007年6月7日,http://china.toocle.com/cbna/detail/404997.html [2007年6月8日访问]。
5沈镭、刘晓洁:“不能简单地认为资源整合即关闭小矿”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版。
6“治本,从哪里入手——国土资源部咨询研究中心副主任李裕伟谈矿产资源开发秩序整顿”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年2月24日法制周刊版。
7郑雪蕾:“关矿不能一关了之”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年10月31日第3版。
8盛洪:《现代制度经济学》(下卷),北京,北京大学出版社,2003年,第245页。
1依凭:“‘停产整顿’不能滥用”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年1月6日法制周刊版。
1张文驹:《中国可持续发展总纲——中国矿产资源与可持续发展》(第9卷),北京,科学技术出版社,2007年,第15~17页。
2沈镭、万会、黄永林、邵恒心、李远志:“鼓励小矿联合利用零星资源”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年
2月28日法制周刊版。
3“淮南矿区每年‘捡’回七个亿——大矿科学采煤提高回采率小矿整合归并专吃边角煤”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年11月29日第2版。
4林汉川:《中国中小企业创新与持续发展》,上海,上海财经出版社,2006年,第375页。
2王永生:“要认识我国矿业基本特点”,《中国国土资源报》,2005年7月11日第7版。
1万会、沈镭、黄永林、邵恒心、李远志:“关于我国小矿健康发展问题的研究”,《中国矿业》,2005年第14卷第1期,第8页。
2国土资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
1《中共中央国务院关于推进社会主义新农村建设的若干意见》,2005年12月31日。
2 G. M. Hilson. 2003. Introduction Part 1. In: G. M. Hilson (ed.). The social-economic Impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2003: 3.
3 P. Andrews-Speed, G. Ma, B. Shao. C. Liao. Economic responses to the closure of small-scale coal mines in Chongqing, China. Resources Policy 30, 2005: 42.
4沈镭、刘晓洁:“不能简单地认为资源整合即关闭小矿”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版。
1资源部矿产开发管理司、国土资源部信息中心编制的《2005年全国非油气矿产资源开发利用统计年报》,2006年9月。
2沈镭、刘晓洁:“不能简单地认为资源整合即关闭小矿”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版。又见王峰、王小华:“论我国小矿企业的健康发展问题”,《中国矿业》,2004年第13卷第8期,第7页。
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第8页。
4沈镭、刘晓洁:“不能简单地认为资源整合即关闭小矿”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年7月3日第6版。
5李剑阁:“农民就业、农村金融和医疗卫生事业问题的几点意见”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第7楫),北京,中信出版社,2003年,第42页。
1 Economic Commission for Africa. Compendium on best practices in small-scale mining in Africa, UNECA publication, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Dec. 2002: 12.
2中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第1页。
3中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第1页。
1徐金广:“矿法是这样产生的”,《中国国土资源报》,2006年3月20日第3版。
1《矿产资源法》,1986年制定,1996年修订,第4条。
2 J.S. Andrew. Potential application of mediation to land use conflicts in small-scale mining. Journal of CleanerProduction11, 2003: 119.
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第28页。
2中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第28页。
1中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第29页。
2张彦英(国土资源部咨询研究中心主任):“中国小矿可持续发展对策建议”(演讲稿—非出版物),世界银行社区与小矿战略管理顾问委员会北京会议(CASM SMAG Meeting),北京,2007年9月14日。
3 P. Andrews-Speed, G. Ma, B. Shao, C. Liao. Economic responses to the closure of small-scale coal mines in Chongqing, China. Resources Policy 30, 2005: 45~54.
1徐华清:《中国能源环境发展报告》,北京,中国环境科学出版社,2006年,第36页。
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2中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第37页。
2中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第29~30页。
1沈镭:《小型矿山法律修改建议稿[4]》(非出版物),北京,2005年6月13日,第16条。
2中国矿业联合会、国家发改委产业政策司课题组:《中国小型矿山政策研究》(非出版物),北京,2003年11月,第44页。
4 (Philippines) RA7076, 1991, Sec. 20.
1沈镭:《小型矿山法律修改建议稿[4]》(非出版物),北京,2005年6月13日,第26条。
1《探矿权采矿权招标拍卖挂牌管理办法(试行)》(国土资发[2003]197号),第2条。
1 [美]罗伯特·哈恩:“经济学对环境政策的影响”,吴敬琏:《比较》(第20辑),北京,中信出版社,2005年,第37～38页。
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